Reading Disabilities

TerminolgyCongenital word blindnessDyslexiaDevelopmental dyslexiaSpecific reading disabilityReading disabilityDisability-disorder, impairment, retardationLanguage-learning disability (spoken and written disability)Development versus acquired

TerminologyLearning disabled used to categorize children with reading disabilitiesLanguage-learning disability just as broad as the previous labelPlaces attention on language basis of many learning problemsReading disabilities used with heterogenous groups of children with difficulty reading

Brain Studies

Language differences in Developmental DyslexiaSimilar patterns of brain activity suggest common impairment across languagesIf deficient phonological processing underlies dyslexia in all languages, the prevalence of dyslexia would tend to be greater in languages with deep orthography (ie. More complicated mappings between orthography and phonology.

Reading and other languagesSee chart in handout.

Language differences inDevelopmental DyslexiaPrevalence is two times greater for English than Italian speakers.Italian has a shallow orthography, and English has a deep orthography

Orthographic Patterns Phonemes Italian 33 25 English 1120 46

boot, two, through /u/ate, bait, eight, lay /e/

Dyslexia and GenderShaywitz et al., 1990

Dyslexia and GenderData has been proven to be biasedActual reading scores show no significance between genders

Exclusionary FactorsDyslexia is a disorder manifested by difficulty learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and socio-cultural opportunity. It is dependent upon cognitive disabilities which are frequently of constitutional originWorld Federation of Neurology

Exclusionary FactorsSensory/Emotional/Neurological FactorsInstructional FactorsIntelligence problematic with measurements

Inclusionary FactorsResearch Comm. Of the International Dyslexia Association Working DefinitionDyslexia is:Language-basedDifficulties: single word decoding, insufficient phonological processingDifficulties unexpected in relation to age, cognition and academicsNot the result of dev. Disability or sensory deprivationIncludes a problem with writing and spelling

Children with dyslexia Have problems

Using the phonological route to decode words, which results in difficulty recognizing novel words and building of sight vocabulary.

Problems with writing and spelling.

Dyslexia

Is Language-based disability

Insufficient phonological processing underlies the difficulty dyslexics have in learning to read, write and spell.

The books definitionDyslexia is a developmental language disorder whose defining characteristic is difficulty in phonological processing. The disorder, which is often genetically transmitted is generally present at birth and persists throughout the lifespan. Phonological processing difficulties include storing, retrieving, and using phonological codes in memory as well as deficits in phonological awareness and speech production. A prominent characteristic of the disorder in school-age children is difficulties learning to decode and spell printed words. These difficulties, in turn, often lead to deficits in reading comprehension and writing.

Developmental Characteristics - PreschoolBegins early in life and continues foreverIn preschool, manifests itself with limited spoken language development (different parameters)Primary difficulty is phonological processingDifficulties with other aspects of phonological processing: storage and retrieval, speech perception, complex phonological production

Characteristics School age and adultProblems decoding printed wordsSpelling difficultiesSecondary to above problems are reading comprehension

Language-Learning DisabilitiesDyslexia is not the only language-based reading disabilityAs many as 50% of poor readers have language deficits beyond phonological processingProblems: vocabulary, morphology, syntax, text-level processing

CharacteristicsLLD deficits in vocabulary and grammarPhonological processing similar to dyslexiaListening comprehension, discourse, narrative productionLearning to read, word recognition, reading comprehensionChildren with LLD have broad-based problems in comprehension-this is different to dyslexia.

Classification of Reading DisabilitiesTwo major classificationsDyslexia word recognitionLanguage-learning disability word recognition and language comprehension

Figure 4.1 Subtypes Based on Word Recognition and Listening ComprehensionWord RecognitionPoorGoodGood

PoorDyslexiaNon-SpecifiedMixedSpecificComprehensionDeficit

SubclassificationsDyslexic group poor word recognition but good listening comprehensionMixed poor word recognition and poor listening comprehensionSpecific Comp Deficit good word recognition but poor listening comprehension

SubclassificationsAll three have reading comp. problems but for different reasonsDyslexia inaccurate and/or slow decoding skillsSpecific Com deficit language and cognitive deficitsMixed both word recognition and listening comprehension

Interaction between reading and comprehensionAcross grades..Initially word recognition and listening comprehension are largely independent, each comprised of a distinct set of cognitive processesOver time, deficits in one area may influence in the other, specifically prolonged deficits in word recognition could adversely influence childrens listening comprehension abilities

Subtypes based on nature of word recognition deficitsReading styles evidence is not compelling that children can be divided into global (sight word) versus analytical (phonics)learners

The Simple View of ReadingWord Recognition - decodeListening Comprehension - understand

Figure 4.1 Subtypes Based on Word Recognition and Listening ComprehensionWord RecognitionPoorGoodGood

PoorDyslexiaNon-SpecifiedMixedSpecificComprehensionDeficit

Figure 4.1 Subtypes Based on Word Recognition and Listening ComprehensionWord RecognitionPoorGoodGood

PoorDyslexiaNon-SpecifiedMixedSpecificComprehensionDeficit

DyslexiaHaveDifficulties learning to decode words Difficulties developing sight-word vocabularyListening comprehension abilities within normal rangeSome may have exceptional listening comprehension that help them compensateOften missed in untimed tests if they have better listening comprehension skills. May also include those children that have phonological processing abilities, since they play an important role on word recognition

Figure 4.1 Subtypes Based on Word Recognition and Listening ComprehensionWord RecognitionPoorGoodGood

PoorDyslexiaNon-SpecifiedMixedSpecificComprehensionDeficit

Mixed SubtypeThey May fail to meet the IQ-achievement discrepancy criterion for dyslexiaHave similar word recognition problems like dyslexiaUnlike dyslexia, they have significant difficulties with language comprehensionHave problems with global cognitive deficits (verbal and non-verbal processing)Or maybe just language processing with normal non-verbal abilitiesDeficits in vocabulary, morphosyntax, text-level processing

Figure 4.1 Subtypes Based on Word Recognition and Listening ComprehensionWord RecognitionPoorGoodGood

PoorDyslexiaNon-SpecifiedMixedSpecificComprehensionDeficit

Specific Comprehension SubtypeThese children haveExceptional phonological decoding skills, orGood sight-word reading abilities but not at the same level as phonolgical decoding skillsImpairments of spoken languages listening comprehension such as semantic and syntactic processing

Figure 4.1 Subtypes Based on Word Recognition and Listening ComprehensionWord RecognitionPoorGoodGood

PoorDyslexiaNon-SpecifiedMixedSpecificComprehensionDeficit

A more elaborate classification

Figure 4.2 Subtypes of Reading Disabilities

PhonologicalProblems with phonological decodingIdentified on the basis of their problems pronouncing nonword (zun)They must sound out using sound-letter correspondence, not visually recognizedDifficulties reading nonwords as compared to real words, responses are typical real words visually similar to the target wordsGreater facility recognizing content words as opposed to function words.True developmental disorderProblems with phonological awareness, working memory and syntactic processing

Surface problemsProblems reading through the visual route as opposed to the phonological route.They misread exception words. They will read talc for talk, or spell laugh as lafShow a developmental lagTheir non-word and exception word reading is like younger childrenSeem to take longer to learn to read

Phonological and Visual RoutesPhonological routeVisual route

Rate (Speed) and AccuracyAccuracy-disabledRate-disabled

Accuracy-Disabled ReadersScores 1.6 years below grade on at least 4/5 word recognition measuresProduce more errorsRead slowerPoorer comprehensionLack basic knowledge of sound-letter correspondenceOral language deficits in morphological and synctactic abilitiesSlower in naming serial-letter arrays and analyzing individual speech sounds

Rate-Disabled versus Accuracy-Disabled ReadersMarked deficit in reading rate despite grade-appropriate decoding abilityScored close to or at grade level on 4+ measure of word recognition and Scores 1.6 years below grade on at least 4/5 speed reading measuresGood at phonetic identifying regular and exception words (phonetic decoding and sight-word reading) Accurate in word recognitionProblems with word recognition speed (problems processing large units of text) slow reading rateOral abilities no problems except lower on tasks measuring rapid automatic naming.Sometimes appear to develop well in primary grades, but problems with advanced reading material

Hard vs. Soft SubtypesSurface dyslexics Show a developmental lagDo not display deviant reading abilitiesTheir nonword and exception word reading is like younger normal childrenPhonological dyslexicsDifferent pattern of performance when compared to younger normal childrenPerformed less well than the reading level matched chilren on tests of phonological awareness, working memory, and syntactic processing.

Rate-Disabled versus Accuracy-Disabled ReadersTwo other types of reading disabilitiesAccuracy-disabled childrenChildren with significant problems in decoding accuracyScores 1.6 years below grade on at least 4/5 word recognition measuresProduce more errorsRead slowerPoorer comprehensionLack basic knowledge of sound-letter correspondenceOral language deficits in morphological and synctactic abilitiesSlower in naming serial-letter arrays and analyzing individual speech sounds

Rate-Disabled versus Accuracy-Disabled ReadersRate-disabled childrenMarked deficit in reading rate despite grade-appropriate decoding abilityScored close to or at grade level on 4+ measure of word recognition and Scores 1.6 years below grade on at least 4/5 speed reading measuresGood at phonetic identifying regular and exception words (phonetic decoding and sight-word reading) Accurate in word recognitionProblems with word recognition speed (problems processing large units of text) slow reading rateOral abilities no problems except lower on tasks measuring rapid automatic naming.Sometimes appear to develop well in primary grades, but problems with advanced reading material

Language differences inDevelopmental Dyslexia Prevalence is two times greater for Englishthan Italian speakers. Italian has a shallow orthography,and English has a deep orthography.OrthographicPatterns Phonemes3311202546ItalianEnglishboot, two, through /u/ate, bait, eight, lay /e/

Prevalence of reading disability in research-identified (RI) and school-identified (SI) boys and girls. Schools identify about four times as many boys as girls, reflecting primarily externalizing behavioral characteristics that are more likely to bring boys to a teacher's attention. This skewed prevalence rate reflects referral bias. When actual reading scores are used to identify children, there is no significant difference in the prevalence of dyslexia between boys and girls (based on data in Shaywitz et al., 1990). Prevalence of reading disability in research-identified (RI) and school-identified (SI) boys and girls. Schools identify about four times as many boys as girls, reflecting primarily externalizing behavioral characteristics that are more likely to bring boys to a teacher's attention. This skewed prevalence rate reflects referral bias. When actual reading scores are used to identify children, there is no significant difference in the prevalence of dyslexia between boys and girls (based on data in Shaywitz et al., 1990).Insdtructional factors - Those children who have been deprived but are taught learn but those with true problems dont learn and also exhibit problems with cognitive abilities closely related to reading (phonolical processing)

IQ must be a difference between measured IQ and reading ability = IQ-achievement discrepancy

there are differerent ranges of discrepancy depending on the test you useoveridentification of children with high IQu and underidentificaition with children with low IQTests do not directly measure potential for reading achievementnon-verbal IQu tests have not relationshp to readinglow achievers and dyslexics have similar problems in reading-difficulties using the phonetic route to decode words, similar phonological processing problemsIQ not a good predictor for intervention prognosisLets look at the Figure 4.1 which also appears in your book

The model divides readers based on word recognition and listening comprehension. Viewing both axis, the table presents subtypes related to good or poor performance in each of these skills. Listening comprehension depends on childrens language competence and world knowledge which are influenced to a certain degree by reading experience.The Book talks about the Simple View of Reading by Gough and his colleagues. It states that reading comprehension is a product of word recognition and listening comprehension. In other words, how well children decode and how well they understand the words when read to them.

Hoover and Gough later on proved that these two variables and their combinations acounted for the majority of reading comprehension. Other studies have demonstrated similar results.

Therefore, the authors of our book have adopted this simple view of reading in order to classify reading problems.

Lets look at the Figure 4.1 which also appears in your book

The model divides readers based on word recognition and listening comprehension. Viewing both axis, the table presents subtypes related to good or poor performance in each of these skills. Looking at the Table, the highlighted block dyslexia refers to children who have problems with word recogntion alone.Next we have those that are classified as Mixed reading disability. That is, these children have poor word comprehension and also poor listening comprehension skills.Then we have those children who have mainly poor comprehension problems. Can be associated to developmental disabilities autism, mental retardation.The last group, which you can see highlighted, is having problems with reading, Still, this model cannot explain why they are having problems. As you can see, these children have good word recognition and also good listening comprehension. Nevertheless they present with reading problems.Now, lets look at a more elaborate classification offered by the authors. It has as its basis the simple view as described before.As you can see from figure 4.2 in your book, the first two colums are very familiar to us. The first two colums address the subtype of reading problem and the second specified listening comprehension skills. Now the third column also addresses a skills which we have mentioned before, that is word recognition. But it goes on to further subdivide the the word recognition skills into three categories: phonological, surface and rate disabled. Lets look at each of these (read the characteristics first)

So, as stated before these phonological and deep dyslexia do have similarities. So, what other characteristics is deep dyslexica characterized with. Unlike phonological dyslexia, deep dyslexia may include semantic errors, that is: that when they see the word moon they might read sun. This last group of individuals may be distinguished with having problems with the visual route as opposed to the phonological route. This relates to the two routes to word recognition. The visual route is when words are recognized directoy on the basis of their spelling or orthographic pattersn. The phonological route is that when wordsa re recognized indirectly bhy using sound-letter correspondence rules.Again, the The visual route is when words are recognized directoy on the basis of their spelling or orthographic pattersn. The phonological route is that when wordsa re recognized indirectly bhy using sound-letter correspondence rules.

The books talks about the debates around those that think we should look at the reading styles of children to match these styles with those analytical learners more geared at the phonic methods and phonological route. And then those children who are more global learners and therefore more visual and arguably would benefit from sight-word approach. Nevetherless, it appears that there is not enough evidence.

But..all children do benefit from the use of both teaching methods.Another parameter we are interested in is seeing how fast and how accurate a child can read. There are two types of reading disabilities that are noted. First there is the disabilty related to accuracy with children having significant problems in decoding accurately while the second refers to children have problems decoding fast enough even though they can decode adequately. Lets look at the characteristics mentioned in the book.It is important to note that the problems noted with these children look a lot like children that have comprehension problems. Therefore, their profile is already represented in the first and/or second column that describes those children with comprehension problems. Therefore, the Rate-disabled children, which are the ones that will be described in the next slide, appear as a distinct group, and therefore, merited a disctinct place in Table 4.2As I mentioned before, the abilty to decode with speed is one that appears to differentiate itself. Lets look at the characteristics.