NUCLEAR REACTOR

ENGINEERING

REACTOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

FOURTH EDITION VOLUME TWO

NUCLEAR REACTOR

ENGINEERING

REACTOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

FOURTH EDITION VOLUME TWO

SAMUEL GLASSTONE &

ALEXANOER SESONSKE

Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

Originally published by Chapman & Hall,lnc. in 1994 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 4th edition 1994

AII rights reserved . No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, ar by an information starage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Glasstone, Samuel , 1897-Nuclear reactor engineering / Samuel Glasstone and Alexander

Sesonske. - 4th ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. Reactor design basics - v. 2. Reactor systems

engineering. ISBN 978-1-4613-5866-4 ISBN 978-1-4615-2083-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2083-2 1. Nuclear reactors. 1. Sesonske, Alexander , 1921- .

II. Title. TK9202.G55 1994 621.48'31-dc20 94-16575

CIP

Contents

PREFACE

CHAPTER 8 THE SYSTEMS CONCEPT, DESIGN DECISIONS, AND INFORMATION TOOLS

INTRODUCTION

SYSTEMS

Introduction, 488; PWR Nuclear Steam Supply System, 489.

THE COMPUTER As A DECISION TOOL

System Modeling, 490; System Interactions, 490; Design Interactions and Intersystem Dependencies, 491; Sensitivity Analysis and Design Parameter Interactions, 491; Feedback, 491; Optimization, 492; Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence, 493; Computer Code Sources, 494.

xiv

487

487

488

490

v

vi Contents

INFORMATION As A DECISION TOOL

Introduction, 495; Abstracts, 496; Nonarchival Literature Sources, 496; Data Centers, 497; Data Access Networks, 498; Information Age Challenges, 498.

CHAPTER 9 ENERGY TRANSPORT

495

501

INTRODUCTION 501 The Role of Energy Transport in Reactor Design, 501; Thermodynamic Viewpoint, 502; Design Methods, 503.

HEAT SOURCES IN REACTOR SYSTEMS 503 Fission Energy, 503; Spatial Distribution of Energy Sources in Reactor Core, 505; Average and Maximum Power in Single Fuel Channel, 507; Power and Flux Flattening, 508; Other Heat Sources, 509.

HEAT-TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES 509 Introduction, 509; Conduction of Heat, 509; Convection of Heat, 511; Conduction with Convection Boundary Conditions, 512; Radiation Heat Transfer, 515; Systems with Internal Heat Sources, 517; Conduction in Irregular Geometries, 529; Transient Heat Conduction, 530; Transient Heat Transfer, 534.

HEAT TRANSFER TO ORDINARY FLUIDS 535 Introduction, 535; Laminar and Turbulent Flow, 535; Heat- Transfer Coefficients of Ordinary Fluids, 539; Heat-Transfer Coefficients of Gases, 541.

HEAT TRANSFER TO LIQUID METALS

Introduction, 541; Heat Transfer in Reactor Rod Bundles, 543.

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

Pool Boiling, 543; Flow Boiling, 546; Boiling Crisis, 548; Prediction of Burnout Conditions, 549; Boiling Heat- Transfer Coefficients, 550.

CORE FLUID FLOW

Introduction, 552; Flow Pressure Drop, 552; Pressure Drop in Turbulent Flow, 554; Velocity Head Losses,

541

543

552

556; Two-Phase Flow, 558; Two-Phase Pressure Drop, 558; Limiting Flow with Compressible Fluids, 561; Natural Circulation Cooling, 562.

SUBCHANNEL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM CODES

CORE DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

General Considerations, 565; Peaking and Hot-Channel Factors, 566; Idealized Axial Temperature Distributions, 567; Heat-Flux-Related Limitations in Pressurized-Water Reactors, 573; Factors and Subfactors, 576; Enthalpy Rise Hot-Channel Factor, 578; Statistical Core Design Techniques, 580; Boiling-Water Reactors, 581; Gas-Cooled Reactors, 583; Fast Liquid-Metal-Cooled Reactors, 584.

CHAPTER 10 REACTOR FUEL MANAGEMENT

Contents vii

564

565

AND ENERGY COST CONSIDERATIONS 589

INTRODUCTION

PRE-REACTOR FUEL OPERATIONS

Production, 590; Isotopic Enrichment, 590; Isotopic Feed Material and Separative Work Requirements, 591; Fabrication of Fuel Assemblies, 594.

IN-CORE MANAGEMENT

Introduction, 594; Fuel Burnup, 595; Staggered Refueling, 596; Fuel Management Terminology, 598.

PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR CORE MANAGEMENT

The Initial PWR Core and Subsequent Reload Patterns, 598; Burnable Absorber Rods, 602; PWR Fuel Assembly Design Trends, 603; The Fuel Reload Design Process, 604; Levels of Core Modeling, 604; Neutronic Analysis Methods, 605; Reload Core Pattern Design Considerations, 605; Automation and Optimization, 607; The Haling Principle, 607.

BOILING WATER REACTOR CORE MANAGEMENT

Introduction, 608; Control Cell Core, 610; BWR Fuel Assembly Design Trends, 610; BWR Spectral Shift Operation, 611; BWR Core Modeling Methods, 611.

589

590

594

598

608

viii Contents

NUCLEAR FUEL UTILIZATION

Introduction, 612; The Conversion Ratio, 613; The Breeding Ratio, 615; Thorium Utilization, 618; Plutonium Utilization, 619; Proliferation Risk, 620.

NUCLEAR ENERGY COSTS

Introduction, 620; Time Value of Money, 621; Capital Costs, 623; Operation and Maintenance Costs, 625; Fuel Costs, 625; Electric Power Generation Costs, 626; Role of Rate Regulation, 627.

NUCLEAR MATERIAL SAFEGUARDS

NUCLEAR CRITICALITY SAFETY

Introduction, 629; Design Approaches and Analysis, 629.

CHAPTER 11 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF

NUCLEAR POWER AND WASTE

MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Environmental Concerns, 632; Emissions from Fossil-Fueled Power Plants, 633; The Greenhouse Effect, 634; Overview of Nuclear Power Effects, 634.

RADIATION EXPOSURE P A THW A YS

Introduction, 635; Regulatory Bases for Exposure Pathways, 636; Radiation Exposure Pathways, 636; Radiation Levels "As Low As Is Reasonably Achievable," 638.

THE SPENT-FuEL MANAGEMENT CHALLENGE

ON-SITE SPENT-FuEL STORAGE

Introduction, 640; Spent-Fuel Logistics, 640; Pool Storage Capacity Enhancement, 641.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SPENT FUEL

STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OPTIONS

Introduction, 644; Retrievable Storage, 645; Permanent Disposal, 646.

MIGRATION OF WASTE RADIONUCLIDES

Lessons from the Oklo Reactor Waste, 648.

612

620

628

629

632

632

635

639

640

642

644

646

Contents ix

THE REPROCESSING OPTION 648 Introduction, 648; Head-End Treatment, 649; Solvent-Extraction Separation Processes, 650; Other Separation Processes, 654; Fuel Reprocessing Waste Management, 656; Characteristics of Solidified High-Level Waste, 657.

REACTOR RADW ASTE MANAGEMENT

Sources of Radioactivity, 659; Reactor Radwaste Systems, 660; Pressurized-Water Reactors, 661; Boiling-Water Reactors, 663.

WASTE HEAT MANAGEMENT

Condenser Cooling Requirements, 663; Regulation of Thermal Discharges, 666; Treatment of Thermal Discharge, 666.

CHAPTER 12 NUCLEAR REACTOR SAFETY AND

REGULATION

INTRODUCTION

Technological Risk and Public Perception, 673; Public Acceptance of Nuclear Power Plants, 674; Defense in Depth, 675.

ACCIDENT PREVENTION

Introduction, 675; Quality Assurance: Codes and Standards, 676; Redundancy and Diversity, 677; Inherent Reactor Stability, 678; Reactor Protection System, 678; Reactor Trip Signals, 680; Shutdown Cooling, 680.

ENGINEERED SAFETY FEATURES

Introduction, 681; The Emergency Core-Cooling System, 682; Containment Systems, 685.

ABNORMAL EVENT ANALYSIS

Categories of Abnormal Events, 691; Events of Moderate Frequency, 693; Events of Low Probability, 696.

LICENSING DESIGN BASIS EVALUATION

Control Element Ejection, 698; Spent-Fuel Handling Accident, 699; Loss-of-Coolant Accident, 699; Emergency Core-Cooling Criteria, 703.

659

663

673

673

675

681

691

698

x Contents

SEVERE ACCIDENTS

PWR Sequences, 706; BWR Sequences, 707.

THE SOURCE TERM

Introduction, 707; Barriers to the Escape of Radioactivity, 708; Radionuclide Importance Factors, 708; Fission Product Transport Overview, 708; Fission Product Chemistry, 709; Fine Particle Dynamics, 712; Aerosols, 713; Explosions, 714.

SAFETY MODELING METHODS

Introduction, 715; Licensing "Evaluation" Models, 716; System Modeling Methods, 717; Representative Best Estimate System Modeling Codes, 720; Modeling of Fluid and Structure Interactions, 721; Severe Accident Modeling, 721.

SITING REQUIREMENTS

Introduction, 723; Radiological Criteria of Site Acceptability, 723; Radiation Dose Calculations, 725; Emergency Response Planning, 730; Seismic Design Criteria, 730; Other Natural Events, 731.

ACCIDENT EXPERIENCE AND ANALYSIS

Introduction, 732; The Three Mile Island Accident, 732; Impact of the Three Mile Island Accident, 733; Chernobyl, 734; Impact of the Chernobyl Accident, 737.

SEVERE ACCIDENT MANAGEMENT

Introduction, 738; Information and Analysis, 738; Supporting Instrumentation, 739; Accident Management Strategy Development, 739; Equipment Modification and Personnel Training, 739.

RELIABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT

Introduction, 739; Deterministic and Probabilistic Analysis, 740; Elementary Binary State Concepts, 741; Fault Tree Analysis, 743; Quantitative Fault Tree Analysis, 744; Event Trees, 745; Computer Modeling, 747; Risk Assessment Studies, 748.

LICENSING AND REGULATION OF NUCLEAR PLANTS

Introduction, 750; Design Certification, 751; Early Site Permit, 751; Combined Construction and Operating License, 752; State-Level Regulation, 752.

705

707

715

723

732

738

739

750

Contents xi

NUCLEAR REACTOR SAFEGUARDS 753 Introduction, 753; Protection against Sabotage, 753.

CHAPTER 13 POWER REACTOR SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

PRESENT PRESSURIZED-WATER REACTORS

Introduction, 760; Reactor Vessel and Core, 760; Control and Safety Systems, 765; Coolant Circulation and Steam Generating Systems, 766.

EVOLUTIONARY PRESSURIZED-WATER REACTORS

Introduction, 769; Design Features, 770.

PRESENT BOILING-WATER REACTORS

Introduction, 774; Core and Vessel, 776; Coolant Recirculation System, 778; Control System, 779; Feedwater Temperature and Fuel Cycle Length, 781.

EVOLUTIONARY BOILING-WATER REACTORS

Introduction, 781; System Features, 783; Standardization and Certification, 783.

HEAVY -W A TER-MODERATED REACTORS

Introduction, 783; Design Specifications and Core Features, 785; Heat Removal, 785; Control System, 788; Safety Features, 789; The Evolutionary CANDU 3,789.

CHAPTER 14 PLANT OPERATIONS

INTRODUCTION

PLANT OPERATIONAL STRATEGY

Generation Dispatching, 792; Operating Cycle Length and Outage Management, 792.

PLANT CONTROL

Normal Operational Maneuvers, 793; The Control Room, 797.

759

759

760

769

774

781

783

791

791

792

793

xii Contents

EXPERT SYSTEMS AND NEURAL NETWORKS IN

PLANT OPERATIONS

Introduction, 801; Expert Systems for Operator Support, 801; Expert Systems Development, 802; Neural Network Development, 802.

PLANT MAINTENANCE

Introduction, 802; Plant Aging, 803; Life-Cycle Management, 804.

REGULATORY ASPECTS OF OPERATIONS

REACTOR DECOMMISSIONING

Introduction, 805; Technical Options, 805; Decommissioning Experience, 806.

CHAPTER 15 ADVANCED PLANTS AND

THE FUTURE

INTRODUCTION

What Is Needed, 808; Plant Size, 810; Advanced Systems Common Design Features, 810; Types of Passive Systems, 811.

THE AP600

Introduction, 812; Passive Features, 814; Other Innovations, 815.

SIMPLIFIED BOILING-WATER REACTOR

Introduction, 816; Natural Circulation, 816; Other Passive Features, 819; Other Innovative Features, 820.

MODULAR HTGR

Introduction, 820; Modular Concept, 821; Fuel Microspheres, 822; Prismatic Core, 822; Nuclear Steam Supply System, 824; Gas- Turbine Option, 824; Passive Features and System Safety, 824; Economic Potential, 826.

ADVANCED LIQUID-METAL-COOLED REACTOR

Introduction, 827; Plant Description, 827; Fuel System, 830; Concept Potential, 830.

OTHER PASSIVE SYSTEMS

Introduction, 832; The PIUS Reactor, 832; The Safe Integral Reactor (SIR), 833.

801

802

804

805

808

808

812

816

820

827

832

Contents xiii

COMMERCIALIZA nON ISSUES 834 Introduction, 834; The Size Issue, 834; Other Issues, 835.

THE FUTURE 836

APPENDIX 839

INDEX 1-1

Preface

Dr. Samuel Glasstone, the senior author of the previous editions of this book, was anxious to live until his ninetieth birthday, but passed away in 1986, a few months short of this milestone. I am grateful for the many years of stimulation received during our association, and in preparing this edition have attempted to maintain his approach.

Previous editions of this book were intended to serve as a text for students and a reference for practicing engineers. Emphasis was given to the broad perspective, particularly for topics important to reactor design and oper­ation, with basic coverage provided in such supporting areas as neutronics, thermal-hydraulics, and materials. This, the Fourth Edition, was prepared with these same general objectives in mind. However, during the past three decades, the nuclear industry and university educational programs have matured considerably, presenting some challenges in meeting the objec­tives of this book.

Nuclear power reactors have become much more complex, with an ac­companying growth in supporting technology. University programs now offer separate courses covering such basic topics as reactor physics, thermal­hydraulics, and materials. Finally, the general availability of inexpensive

xv

xvi Preface

powerful micro- and minicomputers has transformed design and analysis procedures so that sophisticated methods are now commonly used instead of earlier, more approximate approaches.

In light of this picture, giving priority to needed perspective, even at the expense of some depth which is now available elsewhere, was considered appropriate. Also, since it was important to keep the length of the book about the same, necessary new material could only be accommodated by deleting some old material. Significant new material has been added, par­ticularly in the areas of reactor safety, fuel management, plant operations, and advanced systems. However, material that generally continues to meet the objectives of the book has been retained, both to preserve its flavor and to keep the revision effort within reasonable bounds. Also, after the passing of Dr. Glasstone, I felt it inappropriate to change the basic ap­proach of the book.

Readers of the book will want to use computer-based methods to sup­plement the text material, as appropriate. Space did not permit a mean­ingful presentation of the methodology required. All problems listed at the end of the chapters may be solved with hand calculations. Although I have continued the use of SI units, as begun in the Third Edition, complete adoption by industry has been slower than anticipated. Therefore, some problems utilize English units.

A two-volume format has been adopted for this edition to provide read­ers with some flexibility. The chapters have been rearranged somewhat to provide volume coherence, with basic material concentrated in the first volume. An Instructor's Manual is also available for qualified instructors, to be ordered directly from the publisher.

The suggestions made by A. L. B. Ho, L. E. Hochreiter, B. K. Malaviya, V. H. Ransom, 1. R. Redding, G. R. Odette, and T. G. Theofanous are gratefully acknowledged.

Thanks are due to the Chapman & Hall team that published the book, particularly Marielle Reiter for production administration and Barbara Zeiders for editorial assistance.

Finally, I wish to thank my wife for her help and encouragement during the preparation of the book.

Alexander Sesonske San Diego, California

March 1994