REACTIONS AND REVOLUTION

The Rising Tide of Nationalism – Romanticism, Conservatism and Revolution

Review• How did Enlightenment ideas transform societies?• How did the American Revolution change impressions of

politics in Europe?• Why was France ripe for revolution?• Why did England not experience a revolution like the one

in France?• What did Napoleon contribute to national sentiment in

Europe?• How did the idea of nationalism change through the

revolutions?

Romanticism (1780-1830)• Response to the rationalism of the Enlightenment.• Criticized the philosophes of being too narrow in their search for

truth. • Human beings were not primary rational beings. The feelings of

a person were also significant.• Faith as well as reason were keys to knowledge.• Romantics saw value in the art, music, literature, and

architecture of the middle ages. The medieval Church, folk lore, and fairy tales were all aspects of inspiration.

• A shared past (or story of the past) developed a shared sense of being and contributed to a shifting sense of nationalism.

• Romantics (Kant, Rousseau) believed that ‘practical reason’ went beyond passive understanding and embodied the imperative of the consciousness.

Romantic Literature• Poetry was the highest of human acts to transcend the level of

pure sentient beings.• William Blake (1757-1827)

• Troubled by the vision of the world of idealism and what he actually experienced.

• Reason impeded imagination and restricted vision.

• Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)• Best remembered for his poems about the supernatural.

• William Wordsworth (1770-1850)• Childhood was a bright period of imagination and wonder. The spiritual

wonder of children goes back to their pre-earth existence. As one grows up they are corrupted and their imagination is deadened.

• Lord Byron (1788-1824)• Rejection of tradition and advocacy for liberty brought him into conflict

with other romantic writers.

Religion in the Romantic Period• Methodism: Began in England by John Wesley (1703-

1791)• Saw religion as an expression of deep human emotion.• Religion was a ‘method’ for living rather than a set of concepts.• Wesley came to America where he encountered German ‘pietists,’

confronted by their commitment and depth of feeling he had a religious experience and developed the message of simple trust.

• Methodism took root in England and America.

• Viscount Francois Rene de Chateaubraind (1768-1848)• The Genius of Christianity: A reaction to the Thermidorian

Reaction. A revival of Catholicism – the essence of religion was passion. Doctrine and sacrament flow from that passion.

• Friedrich Scheiermacher (1768-1834)• Religion is a feeling of absolute dependence on an infinite reality.

A New Nationalism• Under feudalism the concept of nation was the perspective of

the land upon which a king held sway or outright ownership (Louis XIV “I am the state”).

• Initially people were unified through state efforts to teach unified language and history in schools. • Official printed language – greater linguistic uniformity• Official understandings of the past

• An understanding of nation usually encompassed:

1. A large enough population

2. History of cultural association

3. Educated elite to spread a common language

4. Capacity to defend oneself and/ or conquer neighbours• Nation came to be understood as individual connection to a

greater group rather than an established structure.

Liberal Demands…• In the wake of the French Revolution the ideas of liberalism

were popular, but distrusted.• Liberals saw constitutions as necessary protections for individuals from

governments.• Inspired by the Enlightenment, English political ‘liberties’, and the

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, liberals favoured equality before the law.

• Liberals felt government was only legitimate if there was freely given consent of the governed.

• Liberals did not advocate for democracy, but wanted the representation of the properties classes.

• Liberals advocated for greater economic freedom.• Liberals in German had less of a voice and desired unification of the

Germanic states into a national entity.• Conservatives saw constitutions as limiting monarchies to potential

unseen situations.

Congress of Vienna• With the defeat of Napoleon a balance of power was sought in

Europe.• Treaty of Chaumont (1814) – Restored the Bourbon King to France,

Louis XVIII• France returned to its 1792 borders• Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia committed to a 20 year alliance –

to keep the peace

• The Congress of Vienna was charged with adjusting boundaries to ensure peace – it was a reactionary movement.• Block any future French expansion• Kingdom of the Netherlands (north), Genoa and Piedmont (south), and

Prussia and Austria (west).• All countries were ruled by monarchies – revolution ideas were

dismissed.

Peace Arrives in Europe• After Napoleon’s 100 days, and his subsequent defeat by

the Quadruple Alliance, peace comes to Europe. It will be just less than 100 years before full scale violence comes to Europe again.

• Though the policies of the Congress of Vienna denied democracy, which would lead to complicated domestic issues in Europe. The balance of power was significant to dissuade territorial conflict within Europe itself.

Austria and the Germanies• Prince Metternich (1773-1859) and Austria

• Devoted supporter of the Habsburg emperor• Architect of the Congress of Vienna• Created a German Confederation (replace the defunct Holy Roman Empire) of 39

autonomous states under Austrian leadership.• Promised to discourage and repel any movement toward constitutionalism.• Liberalism and nationalism were a real threat to Austrian control.

• Defeat of Reform in Prussia• Frederick William II (r. 1797-1840) went back on a promise for a constitution.• 1823 Frederick created advisory councils that were comprised of the monarchy, army,

and landholders. All set against unification and liberal reforms.

• Student Nationalism• 1815: Bavaria, Baden, and Wurttemburg issued constitutions. None of the constitutions

recognized popular sovereignty and political rights were the gift of the king.• Students organized popular protests.• Metternich encourage the Carlsbad Decrees which permitted university inspectors and

press censors. • Constitutions could be opposed by monarchs.

France• Louis XVIII (r. 1814-1824)

• Agreed to a constitutional monarchy• The Charter: combined a hereditary monarchy with a bicameral legislature – the

monarch appointed the upper house, the Chamber of Deputies was elected (propertied people could vote).

• Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was upheald.• Catholicism was the official religion but toleration was promised.

• Ultra royalism:• Louis reforms were unwelcome to royalists who had suffered the revolution and

the Napoleonic period.• Supporters launched the White Terror against any supporters of the revolution.• Chamber of Deputies was so royalist that in 1816 Louis dissolved the Chamber

and called new elections.• After the assassination of The duke of Berri, Louis changed the electoral laws to

give the wealthiest people two votes, press was censored, and education was turned over to the Church.

• Liberals were driven out of the political sphere.

The Spanish Revolutions of the 1820s

• Ferdinand VII (r. 1814-1833) ignored a plea to bring in a constitution, dissolved Spain’s parliament (the Cortes), and ruled alone.

• In 1820 some some army officers who were scheduled to be sent to suppress revolts in Latin America, rebelled and pressured Ferdinand into accepting a constitution.

• At this time the King of the Two Sicilies, in Naples was forced into similar action.

• Metternich feared these revolutions would effect the Habsburg lands, appealed to his conservative allies. • Congress of Troppau 1820 – Tsar Alexander of Russia persuaded Austria and

Prussia that ‘stable governments’ must restore order to potential revolutions. • 1821 Austrian troop intervene in Italy and restore the monarchy.• 1822 – Congress of Verona; Austria, Prussia, and Russia authorize the French to

intervene in Spain.

• Spain’s Latin America holdings were in revolt at this time and the reconstituted monarchy did little to suppress them.

Wars of Independence in Latin America

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBw35Ze3bg8

Consequences of Latin American Independence

• Latin America emerged from the wars of independence economically exhausted and politically unstable.

• Brazil prospered immediately.• Winning independence for some areas meant continued

civil wars among factions.• In a failing economy Britain offered Latin America

protection, additional markets, and capital investment.

Greek Revolution 1821• Philhellenic societies existed all over Europe.• Greece was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.• The Ottoman empire was getting weaker – Austria and

Russia were looking for opportunities to press their advantage.

• Greeks were struggling to free themselves.• 1827 the Treaty of London recognized Greek

independence. Britain, France, and Russia supported sending a fleet to support the Greek revolt.

• Russia forced the Turks into a conflict over Romania and seized control of the region. 1829 Treaty of Adrianople allowed Britain , France, and Russia to declare Greece an independent kingdom under Otto I (r. 1832-1862)

Conservatives are Challenged• Conservatives were successful initially in resisting the

forces of liberalism. In the middle of the 1820s all that changed…

• France – Revolution• Russia – Suppression• England - Accomodation

Conservatives are Challenged• France – Revolution

• Charles X (1824-1830) was the king and favoured the divine right of kings. Tied to give aristocrats back their land that they lost during the Revolution. In doing so he alienated the middle class. He also strengthened feudal relationships with the Church and the nobility.

• 1827 liberals won enough seats in the Chamber of Deputies to moderate the king – but the king rebelled by becoming an ultra royalist.

• July 1830 – Charles used the good news of French victory in Algeria to stage a coup d’etas.

1. Limited freedom if the press

2. Dissolved the Chamber

3. Restricted the franchise

4. Called new elections

Conservatives are Challenged• France – Revolution

• Liberal newspapers denounced the king’s actions.• Working class of Paris took to the streets and fought the kings soldiers.• 1800 people dies in the fighting.• August 2, 1830 Charles X admitted defeat and went into exile.• Louis Philippe (r. 1830-14-848) was chosen as king ending the Bourbon

dynasty.• Liberals fear a popular revolution, such as the one in 1792and chose a

constitutional monarchy.• Louis Philippe’s monarchy was more liberal – constitution, though

uprisings continued.• Rights were of the people.• Catholicism was not the official religion.• Censorship was abolished.• Franchise was broadened slightly.• King had to cooperate with the Chamber of Deputies.

1832 – Les Miserables

How Did Revolution Spread in 1830?

The revolts in Paris inspired uprisings elsewhere in Europe. Most were suppressed by military force. But here and there, rebels did win changes from conservative governments. Even when they failed, revolutionaries frightened rulers badly enough to encourage reform later in the century.

Belgium The one notable success for Europe’s revolutionaries in 1830 took place in Belgium. The Congress of Vienna had united Belgium and Holland under the Dutch king. The Belgians resented this arrangement and pushed for independence. In 1831, Belgium became an independent state with a liberal constitution.

Poland Nationalists in Poland staged an uprising in 1830. However, the rebels failed to gain widespread support, and were brutally crushed by Russian forces.

Conservatives are Challenged• Russia – suppress the forces of liberalism

• Soldiers learn of reformist sympathies chasing Napoleon.• Tsar Alexander I was a strong supported of conservatism, he could

not stand for reform in Russia.• A small group planned a coup d'états during 1825.• Alexander died 1825 – leaving no heir. His younger brother

Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855) became the next Tsar.• Nicholas was an autocrat – instituted an education system that was

based on Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism.• The Decemberist Revolt (1825) and the Polish Revolt (1830) were

crushed by the autocrat, who opposed all forms of liberal and nationalistic movements.

Conservatives are Challenged• England – Accommodation• George IV died in 1830 and William IV (r. 1830-1837)

ascended the throne amidst the July Revolution in France.

• The Great Reform Bill 1832: • Guarding economic interests; therefore constitutional liberty instead of

revolution. A Whig government took over.• Catholic Emancipation Act – response to Irish nationalists, allowed for

Catholic representatives to sit in the House of Commons. The goal was to preserve order in Ireland.

• Reorganize the boroughs into more representative districts.• Extended the franchise.

Geography In 1830 and again in 1848, revolutions in France sparked uprisings throughout Europe. Although most rebellions were quickly crushed, their ideals survived.

1848: A Year of Revolutions• Series of revolutions throughout Europe.• Causes

• Liberals from middle class demand rights• Economic slowdown - unemployment• Poor harvests• Nationalism among European minorities

• All the Revolutions failed, but a clear message was sent to leaders of the established order.

France 1848• Revolution started to arise in Paris.

• Economic decline• Corrupt government

• Political opponents organized banquets to rally public support against the monarchy.

• King Louis Philippe banned these meeting – disgruntled workers took to the streets in protest.

• Louis Philippe abdicated when he could not control the mob.• Liberals set up a provisional government to organize an election

and write a new republican constitution.• July 23 – election based on universal male suffrage• Moderates and conservatives were elected – cut back on programs for the

working classes.• Unemployed Parisians took to the barricades in protest. 400 people dies and

3000 were hunted down.

Why Did Revolutions Occur in France in 1830 and 1848?

Charles X, a strong believer in absolutism, suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote, and restricted the press.

When the government tried to silence critics and prevent public meetings, angry crowds took to the streets.

1830 1848

Moderate liberals put in place a constitutional monarchy, and chose Louis Philippe as king.

Liberals and radicals rebelled and took control of Paris.

Revolutionary leaders proclaimed a Second Republic.

Louis Philippe abdicated.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte(1808-1873)

• Nephew of Napoleon won the presidential election in 1848.

• He was dedicated to his own fame rather than republicanism.

• He opposed the National Assembly and in 1851 challenged the constitution, by sending in troops to disburse the Assembly. 200 people were killed and 26000 were arrested.

• In a plebiscite in 1851 Napoleon’s actions were confirmed by the people of France.

• 1852 he was confirmed Emperor Napoleon III.

Habsburg Empire 1848• The Vienna Uprising• Louis Kossuth (1802-1894) a Magyar nationalist called for

Hungarian independence.• His speech inspired student riots in Vienna

• Metternich fled when the army was not able to restore order.

• Emperor Ferdinand (r. 1835-1848) promised a liberal constitution.• Habsburge fled Vienna• Emancipated the serfs – for they feared a serf revolt

Habsburg Empire 1848• The Magyar Revolt• Vienna revolt convinced liberals and nobles in Hungary

wanted an autonomous state.• Hungarian tried to annex Transylvania, Croatia, and other

neighbours.• The Vienna government sent Count Jellachich to assist

people in repelling the Hungarians. • By September 1848 the Hungarian annexation was

eliminated.• December 2 Ferdinand abdicated the Austrian throne and

Francis Joseph (r. 1848-1916) took over. • January 5, 1849 Austria had captured Budapest• March 1849 there was military rule over Hungary

Habsburg Empire 1848• The Czeck Nationalism• Czeck nationalists demanded Bohemia and Moravia be

recognized as an autonomous Slavic state within the Empire.

• Francis Palacky, leader of the first Pan-Slavic Congress, called for national equality in the Empire for all Slavic peoples.

• On June 12 an insurrection occurred in Prague and it was put down decisively.

• Italy was divided into fragments at the Congress of Vienna

• Reason - Italians supported Napoleon and hated Austrians

• Results: Restored Austrian domination on peninsula

Italy Moves to Unification

There were three obstacles to unity:

• Austrian control of Lombardy and Venetia

• Papal States cut the North off from the South –control by France

• Existence of several independent states:

1. Kingdom of Sardinia

2. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

3. Duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena

(all under Habsburg control)

Italian Unification

Nationalism before 1848

• -Limited to aristocracy and middle class

• -Carbonari - the largest Nationalistic secret society. Romantic Republicans.

• Giuseppe Mazzinni was its leading spokesperson

Italian Unification

Guisseppe Mazzini

• "Heart of Unification” -- The Nation State

• 1831 founded “Young Italy

Society”, Revolutionary group to break control of Austria

• Spread nationalism and

• Republicanism

• Goals: Education and insurrection

Italian Unification

Habsburg Empire 1848• North Italy• March 1848 revolution began in Milan.• King Charles Albert of Piedmont aided the rebels against the

Austrian general.• Austria sent reinforcements and defeated Piedmont.• After the defeat of Piedmont, Italians looked to pope Pius IX to

unify the country and throw off Austrian rule.• In February 1849 radicals proclaimed Rome a republic and

other nationalists flocked to Rome to support the change.• March 1849 - radicals influenced Piedmont to renew the war

against Austria. Prompt defeat led to his abdication.• France sent 10000 soldiers to lay siege to Rome. On July 3

Rome fell to the French.

German Unification• The Holy Roman Empire at the Peace of Westphalia, 1648,

recognizing over 300 independent states.

German Unification• By the start of the French Revolution in 1789, many of the German

states had consolidated and Prussia (Brandenburg) had grown greatly in size and strength.

German Unification• Napoleon's conquests consolidated several German

states and created the Confederation of the Rhine.

German Unification• The German Confederation was formed by the Congress of Vienna

in 1815 consisting of 38 states including German-speaking Austria. The Confederation was dominated by Klemens von Metternich and

Austria and designed to limit the growth of German nationalism which Metternich regarded as destructive to the Austrian Empire.

German Unification• Napoleon's conquests destroyed the Holy Roman Empire (1806) and unified many western German states in his Confederation of the Rhine.

An upsurge of German national consciousness to unite and oppose foreign rule.

• Prussia gained popular support as the powerful German state which had compromised the least with Napoleon and the French. Prussia gained much territory especially in the Rhineland as a result of the Napoleonic Wars.

German Unification

• The German Diet, the legislature of the German Confederation, passed Metternich's Carlsbad Decrees to suppress nationalism, 1819. Nationalist demonstrations were banned and the student groups, the Burschenschaften, were suppressed. Metternich and the Austrian Empire clearly opposed any effort at the unification of Germany.

The "Zollverein" (a tariff union of German states led by Prussia and excluding Austria) was formed, 1818-1844. The Zollverein brought increasing trade and communication among the many German states. It also made Prussia the leader in the national cooperation movement.

German Unification• The ouster of Metternich during the Revolt of 1848

weakened Austrian control over the German Confederation. The revolt intensified German nationalism and weakened the Austrian Empire by raising the consciousness of its subject nationalities.

Habsburg Empire 1848• Germany• In Prussia, liberals forced King Frederick William IV to

agree to a constitution written by an elected assembly. Within a year, Frederick dissolved the assembly and issued his own constitution keeping power in his own hands.

• Frankfurt Parliament – 1848 representatives from the Germanic sates gathered to propose a liberal constitution for a unified Germany. Workers challenged liberals in the way free trade would work, and unification was disputed.

• Prussian King Frederick William IV was offered the crown of a united Germany but he refused stating that constitution cannot install power. The whole constitution fell apart after that. This was called the "humiliation of Olmütz."

The Age of Nation States

Crimean War (1854-1856)• Decay of the Ottoman Empire, a development fraught with

explosive implications for the European balance of power.• Control of the straits between the Black Sea and the

Mediterranean Sea.

Crimean War• The Russians moved toward the establishment of a

unilateral protectorate over the Ottoman Empire.• Britain and France viewed the possibility of Russian

control of the straits as a threat to their own interests in the Middle East, and many in those countries despised Russia as the despotic enemy of liberalism.

Crimean War• The immediate pretext for Russian intervention was a

dispute between Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians over control of the holy places in Palestine, which was part of the Ottoman Empire.

• In December 1852 the Ottoman sultan, responding to French pressure, decided in favor of the Roman Catholics.

• Nicholas, the protector of Orthodoxy, quickly dispatched a mission to Constantinople (now İstanbul, Turkey), aiming at a new settlement in favor of the Orthodox and a treaty guaranteeing the rights of the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire.

Crimean War• The European powers attempted to arrange a compromise, but this proved futile. On October 4, confident of British and French support, the Ottoman government declared war.

• On November 30 a Russian attack destroyed the Ottoman fleet at the Black Sea port of Sinope, resulting in a public outcry in Britain and France. In March 1854, after Russia ignored their demand to evacuate Moldavia and Walachia, Britain and France declared war.

Crimean War• The allies then decided on a campaign against

Sevastopol' in the Crimea, headquarters of Russia's Black Sea Fleet.

• Finally, on September 9, 1855, Sevastopol' fell, but only after Austria threatened to enter the war did Russia agree to make peace.

Crimean War• The Treaty of Paris, signed on March 30, 1856, was a

major setback for Russia's Middle Eastern policy. • Required Russia to surrender territory near the Danube River• Recognize the neutrality of the Black Sea• Renounce claims for protection over Christians in the Ottoman

Empire• Russian might was laid to rest – they were no longer seen as a

European power.

Crimean War - Aftermath• Agreements made in the Congress of Vienna began to fall

apart.• Nations did not consult with other nations in regard to

foreign policy:• Russia was no longer a significant threat – but wanted to

undermine the Treaty of Paris• Britain was hesitant to get involved in continental affairs• France wanted greater ‘national’ boundaries• Austria wanted more influence in the Germanic Confederation• Prussia resisted Austrian control

Return to Italy• Kingdom of Sardinia – The previous King Charles Albert

fought the Austrians and lost twice. He abdicated in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II (r. 1849-1878) – constitutional monarchy.

• 1852 – appointed Count Camillo Cavour as prime minister.

Camillo Cavour• Piedmont was buffer between France and

Austria

• Only region to survive the pressures to restore a monarchy and maintain it

• King Victor Emanuel replaces King Charles Albert and appoints Cavour P.M. in 1852

• Known as "the brain" of unification

• Unification is necessary for economical and material progress of Italy

• Not a fan of republicanism

• Used "real politik“ – playing off France and Austria

• #1 goal was unification of Italy

Italian Unification• New Pope Pius IV started

reforms to stop revolutions but only resulted in increased tension - 1846

• -Intensity culminated in Revolutions of 1848

• 1. First revolution in Kingdom of 2 Sicilies

• 2. One in Papal States - November 1848

• 3. Sardinia revolted against Austrian occupation of Italy

Opening Victories

• Support France in the Crimean war

• War against Austria

• Cavour wanted to secure support of Napoleon III of France

• Cavour and Napoleon III agree secretly to a war against Austria

• Spring 1859 - Cavour led Austrians to declare an ultimatum demanding disarmament of Sardinia --->France and Italy declare war on Austria

• The Austrians were defeated at Battle of Magenta and Battle of Solferino

Coming on Side• 1859 – Parma, Modena, Tuscany and the Romagna

provinces voted to unite with Piedmont

Garibaldi and Southern Unification

• Garibaldi and Southern Unification

• Garibaldi was called "the sword" of unification because he used force to unify southern Italy.

• Garibaldi's Red Shirts

• May 1860: Attained Sicily with just over 1000 volunteers->RED SHIRTS

• September 1860: Then the Red Shirts conquered Naples, Palermo

Garibaldi and Southern Unification

• Garibaldi continued conquering the rest of

Southern Italy

• Sardinia remained neutral until…Garibaldi was about to enter Rome

• Sardinia did not want to anger France so Cavour met Garibaldi at Rome

Unification Complete• Completion of Italian Unification

• Cavour, under permission of Napoleon III, invades Papal States (2/3 vote to join Sardinia)

• Naples and Sicily voted to join Sardinia, completing southern unification

• March 17, 1861: an all Italian parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy

• First King: Victor Emmanuel

• First Prime Minister: Cavour

German Unification• William I (r.1861-1888) of Prussia • Otto von Bismark (1815-1898)

• Became the German Chancellor• Conservative• Favoured a strong constitutional monarchy• Believed that change came through power

• Disillusion with Austrian leadership

German Unification• The successes of the Italians in their defeat of Austria

in 1859-1860 encouraged the growth of German nationalism. It also increased support for the "Kleindeutsch" faction that supported Prussian leadership of the nationalist movement over that of Austria, the "Grossdeutsch" faction.

The Prussian army was reformed beginning in 1860 bringing new strength and confidence in that nation's military.

German Unification

• Otto von Bismarck was made Chancellor of Prussia in 1862.

• Bismarck's goal was to create a united German Empire with the King of Prussia as its Emperor (Kaiser).

Bismarck dismissed members of the Prussian lower house, the "Landtag" in 1863 in a conflict over finances and army reforms. Using the strength of the nation as the core issue, Bismarck strengthened the Prussian monarchy in the process.

German Unification: Danish War• Austria and Prussia defeated Denmark in 1864 in a war to

secure the provinces of Schleswig-Holstein. According to the settlement, Schleswig and Holstein were to be ruled jointly by Prussia and Austria. The war unified liberals and conservatives on the issue of German nationalism.

Arguments over the joint governing of Schlesswig and Holstein brought war between Prussian and Austria in 1866. Prussia defeated Austria in the "Seven Weeks War".

The Treaty of Prague pushed Austria out of the German unification movement – Germanic power was clearly rooted in the north.

German Unification: Austro-Prussian

German Unification• The new North German Confederation was formed uniting all

of the northern German states under Prussian domination.

• All military was under federal control.

• The Prussian King led a bicameral legislature – the Bundesrat and the Reichstag (universal male suffrage).

• The southern German states still remained sovereign and independent.

• The formation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867 further weakened Austria. Hungary had the power to make decisions on warfare and had gained the right to refuse to fight in any war for German nationalism or territory.

The Ems Telegraph

• “After the news of the renunciation of the Prince von Hohenzollern had been communicated to the Imperial French government by the Royal Spanish government, the French Ambassador in Ems made a further demand on His Majesty the King that he should authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King undertook for all time never again to give his assent should the Hohenzollerns once more take up their candidature. His Majesty the King thereupon refused to receive the Ambassador again and had the latter informed by the adjutant of the day that His Majesty had no further communication to make to the Ambassador."

German Unification: Franco-Prussian War• In July 1870, France declared war on Prussia (in light of the

insulting telegram). The French declaration of war invoked the German alliance and the southern German states united with Prussia against France.

• This Prussian-led alliance of German states fought and decisively defeated France.

German Unification• The German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles on January 18, 1871. King William (Wilhelm) I of Prussia became first "Kaiser" (emperor) of the united German Empire.

Third Republic• Napoleon III – Authoritarian era – • 1851-1860 and Liberal 1860-1870• With defeat at the hands of Prussia – Second Empire comes to an end

• In settlement with Prussia, France lost Alsace-Lorraine and paid $$$

• Napoleon III was exiled to England where he dies in 1873.

• Division between Paris and rest – Paris Commune (March 1871)

• Battle in Paris 20,000 killed• By 1873 – Full Republic proclaimed

Third Republic• National Assembly was dominated by Monarchists

• 1873 the indemnity to Prussia was paid and the occupation was ended

• France returned to a republic after not finding a suitable king. An elected Chamber of Deputies, a senate that was appointed, and an elected president (by the two houses).

• The Dreyfus Affair: December 1894 French court found Captain Alfred Dreyfus guilty of passing info to the German army.

• Dreyfus was convicted, but a cover-up was discovered. French Anti-Semitism was brought to light, which put the conservatives on the defensive.

• Championing the innocence of Dreyfus was the liberals and socialists.

• The president stepped in to acquit Dreyfus.

Austrian Decline

The Dual Monarchy• The Habsburg Empire one the last remaining Dynastic,

Absolutist and Agrarian states• 1848 Rev. - Reassertion of Absolutism• Francis Joseph (1848-1916) Attempts to impose a

centralized administration.• Reacted to events – “Realpolitik”

Dual Monarchy• Loss of Russian ally• Defeats at hands of France and Piedmont• Struggle to put together new political reality• 1860 - October Diploma – federation among states, local diets dominated by wealthy, single parliament

• 1861 February Patent – Bicameral parliament, Riechsrat (Appointed and indirect election)

• When Riechsrat not in session – emperor ruled• Magyars refused to participate

The Dual Monarchy

• Ausgleish -- Compromise of 1867 -- Dual Monarchy in essentially two different states

• Trialism -- Czechs• Ethnic nationalism dissent ripping apart the Empire.