Rationality and Choice

Psychology of Crime

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory

1. Offenders seek to benefit themselves by criminal behaviours:

2. Doing so involves making decisions and choices, however rudimentary these might be.

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory 3. The decision-making process is

constrained by the time available (many criminal opportunities have a limited life-span), by the avail ability of relevant information (frequently this will be incomplete) and by the offender’s own cognitive abilities (related, presumably, to verbal IQ). It follows that rationality will be limited, rather than complete.

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory 4. Both the decision-making process and

the factors taken into account by offenders vary greatly at different stages of decision-making and between different crimes (and presumably also between different offenders within crimes; there are marked differences in success-rates, with planning ahead being a key feature of the more successful offenders).

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory Cornish and Clarke (1987) argue the need

to be:– (a) crime-specific when analysing criminal

choices– (b) to treat decisions as relating to varying

stages of the involvement of an offender in a particular crime.

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory

Thus, they distinguish between:– initial involvement,

– the event,

– continuation,

– desistance.

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory The following is a list of choice structuring

properties for crimes involving cash (i.e., money rather than goods, from bank robbery to computer fraud, Cornish and Clarke 1987).– 1. Availability (number of targets, accessibility)– 2. Awareness of method (i.e., technical know

how).– 3. Likely cash yield per crime.

4. Expertise needed.5. Planning necessary.

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory

6. Resources required.7. Solo versus assistance required.8. Time required to commit.9. Cool nerves required. -

10.Risk of apprehension.11.Severity of punishment (if caught).12.Instrumental violence required.

13.Confrontation with victim. 14.Identifiable victim.

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory

15. Social cachet [in the criminal world] (safebreaking versus mugging).

16. Fencing accessories (getting rid of any goods stolen).

17. Moral evaluation.

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory Their work is supplemented and illustrated by a

report by Walsh (1980), based on interviews with 45 men in British prisons who had been convicted of burglary.

Their ideal target was a business firm rather than a private house (more to be stolen) and, while half used information, the other half burgled on impulse (presumably, the latter were more likely to be caught and hence were more available for interview).

Cornish and Clarke (1987):Rational Choice theory There was much fear concerning being interrupted

during a burglary, with the consequent possibility of violence and, hence, of a more severe sentence if arrested.

They found it easier to justify to themselves a business than a household target (particularly if the latter were “ordinary”), adding to their preference for the former.

They saw themselves as desisting with increasing age (the risks of capture increased, sentences stiffened and the risk/return balance generally less favourable).

deterrence hypothesis Crime is due to a lack of general deterrence (that is,

the threat of punishment) or specific deterrence (that is, the actual punishment of future behaviour).

So a calculation is made by the criminal of subjective benefits against the costs of deterrence before a crime is committed.

This simple equation is probably more applicable to instrumental crimes' (with material benefits, like robbery), than ‘expressive crimes' (like sexual offences which seek non-material needs) (Blackburn, 1993).

Perception of risk

Rettig and colleagues (e.g., Rettig 1966, Rettig and Turroff 1967) gave students a hypothetical criminal opportunity in which several potential determinants of a decision to steal were systematically and simultaneously varied.

The greatest effect was exerted by the amount of punishment involved — this exceeded both the probability of detection and the incentive present.

Problems with rational choice theory Does not explain impulsive crimes Offenders at different stages of their criminal

career will judge crime opportunities differently. – Carroll and Weaver (1986) found that when they

analysed offenders’ verbalised thoughts during crime simulations, experienced shoplifters were adept at evaluating opportunities for offending but used the information selectively, while novice shoplifters focused on the major question of whether to offend at all. Their cognitive processes were thus utilised quite differently, and the concepts of rationality and choice were shown to be problematic.

Problems with rational choice theory Yochelson and Samenow (1976) also focus on

cognitive processes but emphasise the role of cognitive dysfunction in criminal behaviour.

The concept of rationality therefore disappears. They suggest that criminals have quite distinct and erroneous thinking patterns’ which differentiate them from non-criminals.

From their interviews with 240 male offenders they conclude that criminals may be less intelligent than non-criminals but they are essentially in control of their lives and their criminality is the result of choices made from an early age.

Problems with rational choice theory

Yochelson and Samenow emphasise cognitive processes, which lead to a distorted self-image and result not only in criminal choices but a denial of responsibility.

Problems with rational choice theory (Yochelson and Samenow) They identify 40 thinking errors’ made by

criminals, the errors falling into three categories:– Criminal thinking patterns which are characterised

simultaneously by fear and a need for power and control. Other features include a search for perfection, lying, and inconsistencies or fragmentation of thinking.

– Automatic thinking errors, which include a lack of empathy and trust, a failure to accept obligations, and a secretive communication style.

– Crime-related thinking errors, which include optimistic fantasising about specific criminal acts with no regard for deterrent factors.

Problems with rational choice theory

Yochelson and Samenow are suggesting therefore that criminals are not necessarily impulsive, that they will have planned and fantasised about their actions, and it is these thinking patterns which need to be confronted in treatment.

Wulach (1988) however, has criticised their approach, pointing out that Yochelson and Samenow are simply describing psychopaths and their theory cannot therefore be regarded as a general theory of crime.

Problems with rational choice theory

Research is based on simulations which are very different from real crimes and real decision making.

Less variables have to be considered. How the problem is framed may affect the

decision making. Often student samples Experimental method

The End