RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF SYRIAN … Non-Governmental Organization NRP National Response...

COMMISSIONED BY:United Nations Development Programme, Jordan Country Office andUnited Nations Environment Programme, Regional Office for West Asia

RAPID ASSESSMENT OF

THE IMPACT OF SYRIAN REFUGEEINFLUX ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN

COMMISSIONED BY:United Nations Development Programme, Jordan Country Office andUnited Nations Environment Programme, Regional Office for West Asia

ADAPTED FROM THE ORIGINAL REPORT PREPARED BY: Odeh Al-Jayyousi, Independent Consultant

RAPID ASSESSMENT OF

THE IMPACT OF SYRIAN REFUGEEINFLUX ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN

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يتحمل املؤلف كامل املسؤولية القانونية عن محتوى مصنفه وال يعب

هذا املصنف عن رأي دائرة املكتبة الوطنية أو أي جهة حكومية أخرى

The Hashemite Kingdom of JordanThe Deposit Number at the National Library

2015/5/2051

INTRODUCTION

METHODOLOGY - DPSIR

FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL

COMPONENTS

PROPOSED RESPONSES AND LINKAGES WITH NRP

REFERENCES

ANNEXES

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

5RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN

BOD Biochemical Oxygen DemandCAMRE Council of Arab Ministers Responsible for the Environment

CSR Corporate Social Responisbility

DOS Department of Statistics

EE Energy Efficiency

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia

EU European Union

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GCC Gulf Cooperation Council

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHG Greenhouse Gases

ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

JRP Jordan Response Plan

KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MENA Middle East and North Africa

MOE Ministry of Environment

MW Megawatt

MoWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation

NCARE National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension

NEEAP National Energy Efficiency Action Plan

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NRP National Response Plan

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

PA Protected Area

R&D Research and Development

RSS Royal Scientific Society

SD Sustainable Development

SME Small and Medium Enterprises

UAE United Arab Emirates

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

ABBREVIATIONS

6 RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE SYRIAN REFUGEE INFLUX ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN JORDAN

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This study presents a first-stage rapid assessment of the potential (and where figures are available, actual) impact on the environment in Jordan of the influx of Syrian refugees fleeing the ongoing crisis in Syria since 2011. The study addresses five priorities:

(i) water quantity and quality

(ii) soil degradation and rangelands

(iii) biodiversity and ecosystem services

(iv) air pollution

(v) hazardous waste and medical waste.

This study is intended to inform a future comprehensive environmental assessment and definition of offset programmes to minimize the cost of ecosystem degradation brought about by impact of additional population numbers on Jordan’s already challenged natural resource base.

The rapid assessment has been developed through the review and synthesis of existing literature, including national state of the environment reports and national environmental strategies and action plans. It has followed the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework methodology, which was developed to describe the relationships and interactions between society and the environment. The DPSIR approach is based on causality in which human activities cause a change in the environment, which in turn stimulates a management response, typically a policy.

The key findings of the study may be summarized as follows:

• The adverse impacts of the crisis are felt across nearly all sectors of the Jordanian economy. With over 650,000 thousand refugees officially registered with UNHCR (representing more than 10% of the population), and additional numbers believed to be present but not registered, Jordan requires a an in-depth environmental assessment to define adequate programmes and projects for ecosystem restoration, environmental monitoring and evaluation, and impact assessment.

• The natural capital in Jordan is under substantial pressure due to influx of Syrian refugees. This impact is reflected in lower water and air quality indicators and pressure on forests. Water over-abstraction and increased wastewater generation has resulted in accelerated mining of renewable groundwater resources and pressures on treatment plants.

• The study has found that there are some data gaps in terms of air quality, and medical and hazardous waste. Also, impacts on human health due to degrading water and air qualities need to be assessed, but there is in adequate data to conduct such an assessment at the present time.


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

• Land degradation takes a heavy toll on ecosystem stability and on farmers’ income (especially among the poor). Unsustainable land use and management, recurrent droughts, and climate change are the main causes of land degradation in the country. Productivity of rangeland, which is a key source of livelihood for most of Jordan’s rural poor, has dropped by 50% over the last decade and half, due to overgrazing and more recently the inflow of refugees.

• The influx of refugees and related increasing competition on natural resources adds more pressure on protected areas in the northern and eastern parts of the country. It has created more pressure on ecosystem goods and services such as 1) grazing within and in surrounding of the protected areas, 2) wood cutting for heating and charcoal production purposes, 3) excessive collection of medicinal plants, and 4) excessive farming activities that eventually lead to extra pressure on agricultural land.

• Safe disposal of solid, medical, and hazardous waste remains a concern since most municipalities discharge solid waste in open dump sites with no lining, leachate management, or biogas collection. Management of hazardous and medical waste are also inadequate or treated in outdated incinerators located in populated areas, and the other half is mixed with municipal waste in open dump sites. This situation is exacerbated by an increase in about 30% in medical waste, solid waste, and hazardous waste that was generated after the influx of Syrian refugees according to MoEnv (2014).

• In conclusion a number of proposed responses are put forward for further investigation and development of response strategies under the Jordan Response Plan.


1INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to present a first-stage rapid assessment of potential impact on the environment of Jordan caused by the influx of Syrian refugees. The study addresses five priorities:

(i) water quantity and quality

(ii) soil degradation and rangelands

(iii) biodiversity and ecosystem services

(iv) air pollution and energy

(v) hazardous waste and medical waste.

It is intended to inform a future comprehensive study on environmental assessment to define offset programmes and the cost of ecosystem degradation brought about by the additional population numbers that rely on Jordan’s already challenged natural resource base.

The conflict in Syria, and the related wave of refugees fleeing into Jordan (among other neighboring countries), has resulted in deep and substantial consequences on the Jordanian economy, society, and environment. A

number of reports and studies have been undertaken that address the socio-economic and humanitarian needs of the affected areas, however, the environment (natural capital) and the ecosystem services it provides have not been adequately addressed to date.

The conflict has resulted in the displacement of approximately 1.4 million Syrians to Jordan, (officially registered and non-registered) with populations being housed in both refugee camps established by the relevant UN agencies and in host communities in the northern governorates of Jordan (Figure 1 illustrates the concentrations of refugees in different areas). This has seen an increased competition for access to public utilities, schooling, health services, infrastructure, and employment, as well as pressure on natural resources, and the already limited carrying capacity of Jordan’s natural environment.

In 2013, the Government of Jordan conducted a comprehensive Needs Assessment Review that culminated in the publication of a detailed National Resilience Plan (2014-2016). The study outlined the key priority plans and programmes to address the needs of Syrian refugees. Under this process which has identified the five priorities listed above.


Figure 1: Map of Jordan illustrating the presence of Syrian refugeeshumidity across the country

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study has conducted a review and synthesis of existing literature including but not necessarily limited to: national state of the environment reports, the national environment summary produced as part of the development of the UN Development Assistance Framework, national environmental strategies and action plans, national environmental acts, major sectored plans and programmes, and reports related to the development of the NRP as well as the NRP itself.

It has also analyzed relevant information in relation to the priorities determined in the NRP (through the Sector Task Team on Environment, co-chaired by the Ministry of Environment and UNDP) to focus on the key areas of environmental concern and potential impacts of the increased population numbers and related activities.


METHODOLOGY 2

Figure 2: Causal relationships and linkages in the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework (Gabrielsen and Bosch, 2003)

The methodology selected for this study is the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework. This methodology assesses impacts of activities on the environment through identifying and describing Drivers, Pressures, State and Impacts as well as Response (as illustrated in Figure 2). Used in the current context, it provides a review of major environmental issues, their trends, and outlooks, in relation to the additional pressures of the refugee influx, i.e. using an overarching driver of increased population numbers and their activities.

DRIVERSHuman activities

(economic-technical & socio-cultural)

PRESSURESEmissions, solid waste, resources extraction and

land use

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Environmental conditions of air,

soil and water

IMPACTSEffects on human,

economy and ecosystems

RESPONSESSocietal measures

(e.g. mitigation, prevention and

adaptation)


Figure 3: DPSIR – an analytical framework which is focused on telling an integrated story based on assessment of Drivers-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses on environment and human well-being.

2. METHODOLOGY

The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework was developed to describe the causal relationships and interactions between society and the environment (Gabrielsen and Bosch, 2003) as outlined in Figures 2 and 3. The framework arranges appropriate environmental indicators into categories that can help communicate and illustrate what is understood about the relationships between indicators within the conceptual model. Issues of particular interest to environmental management are the description of relationships between policy actions and indicators being addressed throughout the model. Drivers (D) are forces that exert pressures (P) on the system and affect the states (S) or measurable conditions. This leads to impacts (I) on the

social-environmental system that may have societal responses (R) which feedback to address drivers, pressures, states and impacts. The DPSIR approach is based on causality in which human activities cause a change in the environment, which in turn stimulates a management response, typically a policy.

The frameworks allows to: (a) evaluate the state and trends of the environment, and identify key priority issues affecting the environment and human well-being; (b) assess effectiveness of societal responses to these issues; and (c) generate additional measures, which are required for addressing the priority issues.

DRIVERSe.g. Economy Demography

Society Technology (exogenous)

RESPONSESPolicy, strategic

decisions and management

Ecosystem service

beneficiaries (ESB)

Supportingsystem

Ecosystem service

providers (ESP)

STATE

IMPACTon service provision

PRESSURESe.g. Climate change

Land use change Air pollution

(endogenous)Baseline/Futures

Social-Ecological System

Baseline/Futures

Mitigation Trade offs

Valuation ofservices andalternatives

Service Providing

Units(SPUs)

Adaptation


FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL

COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT

3

3.1 BASELINE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT BEFORE ARRIVAL OF REFUGEES (PRE-2011 STATE)

Jordan is a small, upper middle-income country with a GDP per capita of US$ 5,749 (PPP). It has a relatively young, largely urban population; roughly 37% of its 6.25 million people are children (age 0-14), another 30% are young adults (age 15-29), and over 80% of all Jordanians live in the cities. Since 1948, Jordan has experienced several migration waves which have underscored the country’s sensitivity to economic and political events in the region. Jordan has limited resources, and has a fragile environment, both of which affect its economic opportunities.

Jordan’s environmental challenges include high rates of population, rapid and poorly planned urbanization, and heavy dependence on imported energy resources. These challenges in turn create socio-economic and environmental pressures on Jordan’s development planning and its natural capital.1 Climate change is indicated to affect Jordan through higher temperatures, shorter wet seasons, and more erratic rainfall. Meeting

increased demand, protecting and developing new water resources, hydropower loss and ecosystem damage could represent a cost of between 1 to 7% of GDP under current scenarios.2

The State of Environment Report for Jordan of 2009 (Jordan Ministry of Environment, 2009) in addition to findings of the latest baseline assessment studies for newly developed sustainable development-related studies and strategies (such as IUCN & MoEnv’s 2014 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2015-2020; IUCN & MoEnv’s 2014 National Strategy to Combat Desertification and Action Plan 2015-2020) have been used in identifying the baseline. There are certain risks, threats, and challenges that face the environment in Jordan as illustrated in the State of Environment Report 2009.

The natural capital in Jordan was under substantial pressures prior to influx of Syrian refugees. Overarching pressure on limited water resources, land, and ecosystems are affecting the resilience and sustainability of environmental systems and processes. Specifically, available water resources are 133 m3/capita/year, including wastewater reuse. Over-abstraction has resulted in mining of renewable groundwater resources and extraction getting currently 50% above safe yields

1. Wardam. B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 2011. 2. Information note received from UN Habitat September 2011


Figure 4: DPSIR methodology where population growth of Syrian refugees is the Driver.

3. FINDINGS OF DPSIR ASSESSMENT ON KEY ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS IN THE JORDAN REFUGEE CONTEXT

(2005), it has also resulted in increased salinity, declining water table levels, and increasing pumping costs.

Given Jordan’s high level of urbanization, the limited availability of urban information disaggregated to city level presents a major challenge to the development of evidence based city plans that integrate environmental considerations, but are seen as a critical component of devleopment planning for sustainability.3

The World Bank Sustainable Development Sector Report (2009) reveals that in spite of the current limits of air quality monitoring, evidence indicates that in selected hotspots of industrial activity and vehicular traffic, air quality is poor. Transport, power generation, and industry, account for the bulk of air emissions, particularly TSP, SO2 and NOx. This is attributed to a 7 to 10% annual growth in the vehicular fleet (where older, more polluting combustion technologies still dominate), along with continued pressure on air quality from important industries such as mining and cement production.

The following sections provide further information on the state of the current situation in the selected priority sectors.

The following factors are considered when addressing the selected priority sectors to assess the impacts and elaborate proposed responses as follows (this is illustrated in Figure 4):

A. Drivers (population growth and influx of refugees):

B. Pressures (pressure on water, energy and land/food):

C. State (degraded conditions of air, land, and water):

D. Impact (effect on human health, and ecosystems):

E. Response (prevention, adaptation, mitigation, and policy response):

3. ibid

Pressure on limitedwater resources

State: Reduced water quantity and quality

Impact: Health problems of water pollution

Response: Projects to increase water supply

Response: Removal of lead from fuel

Response: Sustainable management of agricultural and

rangelands

Impact: Health problems from air pollution

Impact: Desertification and destruction of

habitats

Driver: PopulationGrowth

Pressure of increasedenergy demand

State: Reduced quantity of air

Pressure of increasedfood demand

State: Increased useof marginal land


Table 1: Total population and percentage of Syrian refugees in Jordan by Governorate in 2012.

Population of Syrian Refugees

Governorate Total Registered Refugees

Host Communities/

RegisteredCamp/Registered

Total Population of Governorate

(2012)

Percent of Refugees/

Governorate

Ajloun 9752 9752 146900 6.64%

Amman 133373 133373 2473400 5.39%

Aqaba 2040 2040 139200 1.47%

Balqa 14145 14145 428000 3.30%

Irbid 123099 121657 1442 1137100 10.83%

Jerash 10420 10420 191700 5.44%

Karak 8505 8505 249100 3.41%

Maan 5454 5454 121400 4.49%

Madaba 7343 7343 159700 4.60%

Mafraq 181683 59146 122537 300300 60.50%

Tafileh 2114 2114 89400 2.36%

Zarqa 47849 43983 3886 951800 5.03%

Dispersed in Jordan 3796 3796 - -

TOTAL 549575 421730 127845 6388000 8.60%

Source: MWI (2014)


Population growth, high influx of refugees (see Annex A1), and urbanization are key important socioeconomic drivers causing current increased environmental degradation in Jordan. The scale, intensity, and rate of refugee influx are all critical factors in determining the impact of refugees as a driver of environmental degradation. Mafraq experienced the highest percentage of refugees, which amounts to 60.5%; followed by Irbid,

Ajloun, Amman, and Zarqa with 10.8%, 6.6%, 5.3%, and 5.0% respectively (Table 1). However, population figures are changing on a periodically due to the daily migration to Jordan. Based on the latest data from DOS (2014), the total number of unregistered Syrian people in Jordan is 750,000 people, while the registered number with UNHCR is 650,000. The grand total number of Syrian in Jordan is 1.4 million persons (DOS 2014).


Figure 5: Water demand, supply and deficit in Jordan (Source: MWI 2014).


3.2 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY

Jordan is a highly arid country with arid conditions extending over almost the entire country. Area analysis of aridity maps show that 95% of the country’s land is arid and very-arid4 while the remaining proportion of country’s area is semi-arid.

Based on Third National Communication Report to UNFCCC (TNC) (2014), Jordan is considered one of the poorest nations worldwide in its water resources. In fact,

Jordan has a climate ranging from Mediterranean to Arid with approximately 80% of the country receiving less than 100 mm of precipitation per year. 12.5% between 100 and 200 mm/yr, 3.8% between 200 and 300 mm/yr, 1.8% between 300 and 500 mm/yr, and only 1.3% receives more than 500 mm/yr. The eastern desert areas receive as little as 50 mm/yr. Furthermore, potential evaporation rates range from around 2000 mm per year in the high lands to over 5000 mm/yr in the desert region. Overall, renewable freshwater resources range from 780 to 850 MCM/yr. On the other hand, the current demand for water was approximated at 1383 MCM in 2010 (Figure 5). Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer constituting around 64% of the overall uses compared to only 36% for municipal, industrial, and tourism purposes.

4. The aridity index classification scheme uses the term very arid, which is the same to Hyper-arid term.



Surface water, as documented in the 2009 State of Environment Report, appears to be overall of acceptable quality, presented, at the time of data collection yet important problems of salinity and bacteriological contamination of a localized nature, with potential of impact on human health and agriculture, are of strategic significance. In particular, levels of E-coli and TDS concentrations at the Zarqa junction of the King Abdullah Canal (KAC), located upstream of important irrigation schemes in the Jordan valley have been well above the respective quality norms in recent years. Improved quality of effluent from the new As-Samra treatment plant might help mitigate this problem. Considering the overall decline of fresh surface water resources observed in recent years, and particularly due to the drying up of Yarmouk river base flow, it is possible that Jordan will experience a more general worsening of the average quality of surface water (See Annex A2).

In terms of groundwater, the evidence suggests a simultaneous trend of declining water tables and increasing salinity in most aquifers, resulting in higher extraction costs (in terms of pumping as well as accelerated well replacement), and the need to use more irrigation water for leaching. Higher production costs and declining yields affect farmers’ income, 40% of the cost of environmental degradation linked to poor water quality (not including industrial wastewater impacts). The cost, however, is likely to escalate in the future, as water tables keep declining, and as increased demand for potable water in urban areas raises the opportunity costs of the additional water required to decrease salinity. Nitrate pollution of aquifers appears to be of concern mainly in the Amman-Zarqa basin.

Access to sanitation is relatively high (with some exceptions in rural areas), and the quantity of municipal wastewater collected and treated has been steadily increasing. However, the quality of the wastewater effluent is a reason for concern: about half of the total effluent does not seem to meet national quality norms for pollutants such as BOD (55% of non-compliance) and E-coli (46%). The situation has recently improved with the establishment of the new As-Samra treatment plant, which has the potential to increase compliance rates to 80%; further progress may be expected if the targets of the National Agenda are met, although the cost is likely to be high.

In terms of industrial wastewater, only an estimated 28% of the total effluent is treated (almost 50% excluding wastewater from potash mining, which is likely to have

limited environmental impacts). About 40% of industrial wastewater is estimated (net of mining effluents) to be discharged to the public sewer network, but the quality of the effluent is of concern due to high rates of discharges without licensing, the rather lenient standards for heavy metals and organic toxins, in addition to the considerable rates of non-compliance with applicable regulations (over 30 % for ammonia and suspended solids).

As for the 60% of wastewater not disposed of in sewers, monitoring of the effluent quality is very limited and does not adequately cover certain toxic substances. Disposal of wastewater through tankers is a widespread practice, virtually unmonitored in terms of effluent quality, and likely to pose health hazards where wastewater is disposed of in un-lined landfills (such as Al-Ekeider), resulting in possible infiltration into groundwater. Current policies seem to focus on centralized treatment plants as the strategy of choice to address the problem. However, there may be important opportunities for reducing the overall public and private cost of treatment by encouraging plant-level interventions (both production process and end-of-pipe treatment).

Pressure of increased water demand:

Jordan's natural population is expected to continue to rise as well as the refugee influx, and hence, the gap between water supply and demand will significantly increase. Water is a constraint to socio-economic development due to water scarcity, fluctuations, and uncertainty. Jordan is classified as the third country worldwide at “extreme risk” based on the Water Scarcity Index. This is manifested in the low per capita share of water which amounts to 140-145 m3 compared to 1000 m3 as an international standard. By the year 2025, if current trends continue, the per capita water supply will fall from the current 140-145 m3 per year to only 90 m3 per year, putting Jordan under serious water shortage. On a per capita basis, Jordan has one of the lowest levels of water resources in the world. In fact, most experts consider countries with a per capita water production below 1000 m3 per year to be water-poor countries.

Groundwater is available in renewable and non-renewable forms in 12 distinct groundwater basins, and abstraction exceeds safe yield in most of the basins. The average annual abstraction from all basins exceeds the renewable average of recharge and currently stands at 159% of that average.


Figure 6: Decrease in water table due to groundwater abstraction in a well in Zatari Camp area during the period 2000-2012.


The over pumping ratio ranges between 146% in minor aquifers to 235% in major ones (MWI, 2014). Among the 12, there are 11 renewable groundwater reservoirs in Jordan. Their sustainable yields vary from one reservoir to another, and their combined sustainable yield is 275MCM/year. The over-abstraction has resulted in significant decline in both quantity and quality of the groundwater resources. For instance, Amman-Zarqan, the main basin with a safe yield of 87.5 MCM, exceeded its recharge limit before the Syrian conflict in 2011, where, the abstraction rate reached up to 184%. Out of 340 MCM water used for municipal uses, 70 MCM is used by northern governorates (Yarmouk Water Company) to serve 1.65 million inhabitants (255 thousand subscribers) with 80% coverage of Operational and Maintenance cost (El-Naser, 2013). Pressure on water resources in Jordan and in governorates where Syrian refugees live is evident in the degree of decline in water table and increase in groundwater abstraction. Moreover, evident contamination is observed in shallow groundwater systems due to the application of pesticides and fertilizers.

Annex A2 shows results of microbial analysis of drinking water samples by source and governorate in 2011 and 2012, including the number of drinking water samples analyzed for microbial content and number of non-conforming samples from 1998-2012 for the whole country’s combined samples. The data obtained is not enough to show a clear trend of increase or decrease in percentage of non-conforming samples.

A Water Strategy (2008-2022) has been formulated by MWI, and several policies have been issued including the Groundwater Policy, Wastewater Policy, Water Irrigation Policy, and Water Demand Management Policy. The established polices emphasize the need for improved water resource management with particular emphasis being placed on the sustainability of present and future uses. The policies indicate that special care shall be given to protection against pollution, quality degradation and depletion of resources (MWI, 2014).

Two wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) serve the northern governorates; i.e, Al-Mafraq WWTP and Al-Akeider WWTP with capacity of 1800m3/day and 4000 m3/day respectively. Both WWTPs operate at full capacity.

Impacts on water quantity and quality:

Environmental effects of population growth in Jordan including the influx of Syrian refugees in camps and in host communities induce pressures on groundwater abstraction, and water uses. Figure 6 illustrates the decrease in water table due to groundwater abstraction in one of the observation wells in Zatari Camp area during the period 2000-2012. Table 2 illustrates the estimated cost due to groundwater abstraction.


Figure 7: E.Coli & TCC concentrations for Jaber Well near Jaber International Boundary Check Point with Syria (from 2009-2014) (RSS/MoEnv, 2014).

Figure 8: E. Coli & TCC concentrations in Ein Turab Spring near Kufr Soom Village, Irbid (from 2009-2014) (RSS/MoEnv, 2014).

Table 2: The estimated cost due to groundwater abstraction is substantial as indicated below (El-Naser, 2013).

Unit cost

Per refugee per year

For 480,000 refugees per year

For 1,200,000 refugees per year

Total Long term Indirect Costs (4+5+6) 208.6 JD 100,110,863 JD 250,277,157 JD

4. Environmental cost due to overpumping of GW: Deterioration of GW quality (High salinity, and high cost for desalination. Lowering on the GW tables (High energy cost for pumping)

0.7 JD/m3 30.7 JD 14,716,800 JD 36,792,000 JD

5. Crisis management cost (1.2% of DSC) 0.012 % 2.7 JD 1,298,063 JD 3,245,157 JD

6. Loss opportunity cost 4 JD/m3 175.2 JD 84,096,000 JD 210,240,000 JD


The MoEnv implemented the “Nationl Project for Monitoring Water Quality in Jordan” in close cooperation in 1986. Water quality monitoring data was obtained from RSS through one of the programmes run by the project. The data used belonged to the nearest water sampling locations to Zatari camp. These locations ares: 1) Jaber Well near Jaber International Boundary Check Point with Syria in Irbid (the counterpart to Naseeb

International Boundary Check Point in Dara’a, Syria, which is extracting water from Yarmouk Groundwater Basin), and 2) Ein Turab Spring near Kufr Soom Village, Irbid (extracting water from Yarmouk Groundwater Basin). The data from these two locations shows clearly that levels of pollution with E. Coli and Total Cell Count are elevating with time since 2011 in both locations as shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively.



In summary, the background situation concerning water quality and quantity in Jordan is already extremely challenging due to the natural aridity, recent drought episodes, and impact of climate change. Increased abstractions due to increased population numbers, combined with increased wastewater to be treated and adequately disposed create an added pressure. This pressure has the potential to impact on economic development activities, human health, and overall sustainable development.

3.3 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF SOIL DEGRADATION AND RANGELANDS

The natural ecosystems in Jordan are subject to many pressures (e.g. land-use change, resource demands, and population changes); their extent and pattern of distribution is changing, and landscapes are becoming more fragmented. Climate change constitutes an additional pressure that could change or endanger ecosystems and the many goods and services they provide. Soil properties and processes — including organic matter decomposition, leaching, and soil water regimes — will be influenced by temperature increase. Soil erosion and degradation are likely to aggravate the detrimental effects of a rise in air temperature on crop yields. Climate change may increase erosion in some regions, through heavy rainfall and increased wind speed.

Based on the results of the different climatic models and the trend analysis (Third National Communication (TNC) Report to UNFCCC, 2014), climate change scenarios in 2050 and 2100 were suggested for the different basins in Jordan. The most probable scenario would be an increased air temperature of 1.5°C and a 15% decrease in precipitation by the year 2050. This climate change trend is likely to exacerbate the degradation of land in the arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas in the country.

Among the many other factors affecting land degradation in Jordan, it is believed that land tenure system is one of the major caused elements especially in the Badia region. A recent socioeconomic study conducted by ICARDA in the Badia region5 concluded that the traditional land tenure system has collapsed and, in reality, rangeland is available to those who can exploit it.

Land degradation takes a heavy toll on ecosystem stability and on farmers’ income, especially among the poor. According to the newly National Strategy to Combat Desertification with UNCCD 10-Year Strategy (IUCN and MoEnv 2014), unsustainable land use and management, recurrent droughts and climate change are the main causes of land degradation in the country. Non-sustainable land use practices include improper ploughing, inappropriate rotations, inadequate or inexistent management of plant residues, overgrazing of natural vegetation, forest cutting, inappropriate land use, random urbanization, land fragmentation, and over-pumping of groundwater. High population growth and ineffective arrangements of land tenure are among the root causes, which exert excessive pressure on the natural resources to meet increased food and income demand. Productivity of rangeland, which is a key source of livelihood for most of Jordan’s rural poor, has dropped about 50% over the last decade and half, due to overgrazing and more recently the inflow of refugees (and their livestock).

With regards to agricultural land use changes, in recent years, the trends have been: (i) a reduction of total agricultural use partly due to decreased capacity of poor land users; (ii) an increase in the permanent crop area at the expense of some annual crops which have become unprofitable; (iii) crop cultivation and grazing in areas of higher risk (steeper slopes and/or lower rainfall and in particular in the marginal and steppe areas) according to the newly 2015-2020 Aligned National Strategy to Combat Desertification with UNCCD 10-Year Strategy, (IUCN and MoEnv 2014). See Annex A3 for additional agricultural statistics.

Rain-fed farming, which is distributed over the northern, middle, and southern Highlands, forms the base for agricultural production in Jordan. However, average crop yields are low and productivity is seriously limited by overall scarcity of water, extreme variability of rainfall, and limited soil water conservation activities. Consequently, resource-limited land users have been increasingly exposed to decreasing income and declining livelihood security.

Livestock is an important component in the farming system in Jordan as it is a major source of cash income as well as consumption. There is a vicious circle whereby rangeland carrying capacity is decreasing, and farmers are unable to supplement feeding with expensive fodder, hence they are obliged to downgrade traditional management and extend the grazing season to unsuitable

5. Akroush S. and Shideed K. 2008. Community-Based Optimization of the Management of Scarce Water Resources in Agriculture in West Asia and North Africa. Report no. 6. Baseline Information and Livelihood Characterization of Badia Benchmark Water Harvesting in Jordan. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria..



months. This exacerbates pressure on rangelands and further lowers productivity of both pastures and animals. Overgrazing is also leading to a decrease in the resilience of the rangeland against droughts.

Pressure of increased food demand:

The Jordanian agricultural sector faces a number of problems and challenges. The effect of of these problems and challenges increases in successive drought years, and as a result of low and fluctuating rainfall, environmental challenges, and other risks. In addition, the effect becomes more apparent due to the declining role of the agricultural sector in the national economy, and the challenges it faces in light of freeing the trade of agricultural commodities. This necessitates re-evaluating agricultural development efforts and approaches to avoid the occurrence of negative developments, and conveys an urgent need to set a new and effective strategy to develop the agricultural sector.6

The Agricultural Document prepared by NCARE (2009)7 provided a work plan for the period 2009-2014 aimed at emphasizing the national role of all relevant institutions in implementing the agricultural development plans for the coming stage. The limited water resource and potential are considered the main constraints for increasing production. Only 1.06% of the total land area is irrigated. This includes about 36 thousand hectare in the Jordan Valley, and the rest in the highlands and in the arid zone (DOS, 2010). The main source for irrigation in highlands is the ground water. In northern Jordan Valley (JV), the area under cultivation is served by surface water supplies transported via the King Abdullah Canal (KAC) from Yarmouk River while the irrigation water to the middle and southern parts of Jordan Valley are mainly served by water coming from King Talal Dam KTD on Zarqa River after mixing with that coming from KAC.

The total area under irrigation in Jordan Valley and the southern Ghors is estimated to be about 33 thousand hectares. The major crops are vegetables and trees including citrus and bananas. Important irrigated agriculture is also taking place on the basalt plateau soils of northern Jordan, in Mafraq governorate. In these areas, the utilization of groundwater resources was expanded rapidly into the steppe zone, often for the production of fruit crops. The agricultural area in Jordan varies from one year to another depending on the rainfall amounts and available water resources.

The Jordanian labour force is about 1,235,000 in 2010 and decreased for the agricultural sector from 32,900 to 25,000 in the same year. This indicates that the contribution of the agricultural sector to employing manpower declined from 3.1% in 2006 to only 2% in 2010. The importance of the agricultural sector stems from the fact that it is not only the major source of food items especially dairy products, fruits and vegetables, but also one of the sources of hard currencies originated from exports. About 25% of the total poor in Jordan live in the rural areas depending mostly on agriculture (livestock keepers, smallholder farm households, and landless former agriculturalists), and in spite of poor motivation of the rural youth, agriculture is an important employer of the rural communities.

Besides, the majority of the land surface in Jordan is classified as rangelands. The Badia (or desert) was predominantly covered with high value biomass of natural vegetation (annual, perennials, and shrubs). However, over the past 60 years, the rangelands of the Badia witnessed progressive deterioration in the quality and quantity of the natural vegetation cover, which, in many areas, has been completely detoriarated. Moreover the watersheds in the Badia constitute only 2% of its area. In spite of the existence of legislation for land, water, and rangeland use, the pressure on the natural resources continues, mainly due to high population growth rate and urbanization. in fact, stretches of prime agriculture lands were converted to urban dwelling, roads, and industrial building due to the lack of proper land use planning and weak implementation of polices, strategies, and regulations.

Land fragmentation is also taking place as a result of two factors: (i) Inheritance laws which resulted in distribution of lands to several relatives who either cultivate the land jointly under a common title, or distribute it into smaller pieces; and (ii) the high value of agricultural lands makes the owners of small areas sell their lots to the growing industries or for urban housing.

In summary, the agricultural sector in Jordan has been challenged by a number of issues; climate change, land degradation, natural aridity, and land fragmentation, but the reliance of the rural poor on land for subsistence agriculture and food security remains. The Syrian refugees are adding to this societal component that is dependent upon land resources and agricultural production for their very existence. As such, there is a potential for agricultural activity on more and more marginal land, with related increase in land degradation, loss of productivity, and potential loss of ecosystem services.

6. 2009 Agricultural Document of the National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension7. 2009 Agricultural Document of the National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension



3.4 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICESS

A key environmental vulnerability in Jordan is associated with land degradation and the state of terrestrial semi-arid ecosystems and habitats. Land use in Jordan is a complex pattern and is a mixture of rural and urban activities that reflect both climate and socioeconomic characteristics. Most of studies and figures have shown that agricultural areas form a small proportion of the country. According to the Department of Statistics (2003), land use shows that 93% of the country is dominated by non-cultivated areas, classified as rangelands. Cultivated areas form 2.7% of the total area of Jordan.

Desertification threatens the arid and semi-arid areas, and the irrigated regions of the highlands and the Jordan valley that have also been affected by soil salinization and land degradation due to low precipitation and excessive grazing.8

Land use patterns in Jordan at present are: 90.4% pastures, 5.6% agricultural land, 1.9% public facilities, 0.8% natural forests, 0.7% registered forests, and 0.6 wetlands. Improper plowing of pastures in low precipitation areas to produce cereals has led to soil erosion due to loss of plants that cover the ground.

The natural biodiversity of Jordan is threatened by this habitat destruction and fragmentation, unsustainable agricultural practices such as extensive farming and agricultural waste, diversion of water from use of biodiversity resources towards anthropogenic (human-influenced) uses, uncontrolled urbanization, and industrial pollution.9 Shortages in water resources result in stresses over drought periods. These stresses may result in severe damage to the ecosystem due to the lack or deficiency of supporting environmental factors including moisture and organic matter. For example, several areas suffer partial to complete desertification. Hence, considerable loss in the ecosystem is inevitable. Moreover, the deterioration in surface water quality due to the discharges of organic and inorganic compounds results in degradation of the ecosystem within streams and over the adjacent areas.

The decline in Jordan’s wildlife, which affects mainly large populations, is also threatening several species of birds, reptiles, freshwater fish, marine invertebrate and vertebrate.10 Flora is also diverse with 2,300 species from 152 families identified in the country, 100 of these indigenous to Jordan. 76 species are endangered, with 18 of these on the worlds’ list of endangered species. Plant diversity is facing a dramatic decline due to habitat loss and degradation, leading to the isolation of many species, which in turn results in the loss of their genetic diversity and a high risk of extinction. Between 200 to 250 plant species are nationally rare and 100 to 150 species are threatened.11

Despite reforestation efforts, natural and man-made forests jointly cover less than 1% of the total land area. Forests face severe impacts as a result of poverty (i.e., cutting of trees to provide heating for poor local residents due to high oil prices), and massive investments in tourism, and other sectors in scenic forest areas. Other threats are encroaching crop cultivation, overgrazing, water scarcity and, salinity.12

The productivity of rangeland, a crucial source of livelihood for most of the rural poor, has dropped by about 50% in the last 15 years, primarily due to overgrazing and encroaching urbanization. An estimated 17,705 tons of forage valued at about USD 4.9 million is lost annually due to overgrazing. Should this trend continue unabated, desertification is imminent.13

Pressures on desertification and loss of habitat:

It is complex to assess the impact of refugees in regard to interaction with ecosystems and their associated biodiversity. Nonetheless, evidence could be established on a number of associations between the influx of refugees and the impacts on natural resources. For example, many refugees who come from nomadic or rural backgrounds got involved with livestock husbandry and agricultural activities, mainly through employment by Jordanian residents who utilized the refugee work force to support their agriculture related activities, as well as the operation of nature-based tourism enterprises.

8. Wardam.B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 20119. Wardam.B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 201110. ibid11. ibid12. IUCN: “Important Plant Areas of the South and East Mediterranean Region: Priority Sites for Conservation”, 2011, IUCN Center for Med. Cooperation13. Wardam.B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 201114. Wardam B/UNEP ROWA. “National Environment Summary”, 2011


Figure 9: Accumulative number of violation incidents over past 5 years for Yarmouk Reserve.


It could also be noted that the labor introduced by the refugees created more pressures on ecosystem goods and services such 1) grazing within and in the surrounding of protected areas, 2) wood cutting for heating and charcoal production purposes, 3) excessive collection of medicinal plants from wilderness areas, and 4) excessive farming activities that eventually lead to extra pressure on agricultural land. Table 6 and Figure 13 show the increase of violation incidents on natural resources in key protected areas. The environmental gains of reforestation are significant, including for biodiversity conservation and prevention of natural hazards. Serious attention is therefore required to realize the plantation prospects for 13% of Jordan’s land area.

Table 3: Accumulative number of violation incidents over past 5 years for Yarmouk Reserve, Dibeen Reserve, Azraq Reserve, Shawmari Reserve, and Mujib Reserve (RSCN, 2014).15

Violation incidents 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Illegal grazing 0 0 0 19 27

Wood cutting 8 13 21 10 26

Illegal hunting 9 16 12 17 18

The increasing competition for natural resources adds more pressure on protected areas in the northern and eastern parts of the country. From another point of view, the influx of refugees has increased competition within host communities on a large set of income sources and jobs. Furthermore, the economic impacts of refugees’ crisis force hosting communities to exercise more direct and indirect pressures on natural resources. One clear example is the increasing trend of illegal tree cutting to compensate for increased fuel prices, overgrazing of livestock in response to inability to secure high cost fodder, and illegal wildlife hunting.

In summary, there are increasing pressures on ecosystem goods and services in addition to increasing the demand on consumption associated with the direct socioeconomic needs of the refugees. The economic valuation of the direct and indirect impacts of the refugees on the ecosystems of host regions of Jordan requires an in-depth scientific research which would lead to a clear policy document needed to support decision making within regards to the sustainability of ecosystems, their goods and services, as well as their biodiversity, under crisis conditions such as the Syrian refugee case.

15. Source: Data base of the Royal Society for the Conservation of nature (RSCN), 2014.



3.5 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF AIR POLLUTION

The development of industrial and services sectors in Jordan, accompanied with the increase of Jordanian population, and the increase in ambient air pollution which in turn causes degradation of the air quality in many areas and also leads to adverse impacts on public health.

Emissions from motor vehicles account for 50–90% of air pollution in urban centers16,17. There were just over 1057,000 vehicles registered in 2010 in the country (Traffic Department, 2014) as shown in Annex A4. More than 31% of the vehicles in Jordan are diesel-powered. Vans and trucks represent 33% and 42.7% of the total diesel-powered vehicles, respectively. Most public transportation vehicles work inside cities, especially Amman and Zarqa. Particles emanating from motor vehicles contain sulfate, carbonaceous particles, and other chemicals.18

Other sources of air pollution in Jordan include: power generation which uses heavy oil and natural gas; cement production which uses oil shale; cooking; home furnaces fueled by diesel, natural gas or kerosene; in addition to wood stoves. The unexpected jump in oil prices experienced during the winter of (2007/2008) has forced people with low income in the countryside and mountainous areas to switch to wood stoves because they use either olive husk or wood, which are available at low, or no cost in their immediate surroundings.

In spite of the fast growth of urban areas and industrial activities in Jordan, air pollution has not received due attention. Until 2010, air quality was not routinely monitored anywhere except at Al-Hashemeyyah (located in the Zarqa governorate to the northeast of Zarqa city) which experiences high levels of sulfur oxides and particulates. There have been a few studies that tackled air pollution in Jordan, but they have been limited to three stations only: Downtown and Shmeisani in Amman, as well as Al-Hashemeyyah.

Those studies have pointed out that local air quality is poor, where concentrations of criteria pollutants (NOx, SOx, CO, PM10, TSP, lead and hydrogen sulfide) exceed the National Air Quality Standards19,20. In this regard, MoEnv has launched an air quality monitoring program in cooperation with the Air Studies Division at the Energy, Water and Environment Cluster RSS to assess the ambient air quality of five areas vulnerable to air pollution: Al-Baq’a/Al-Balqa Governorate; Al-Mowaqqar/Amman Governorate; Al-Giza/Amman Governorate; Al-Russiefeh/Zarqa Governorate, and Al-Khaldeyyeh/Al-Mafraq Governorate (See Annex A4).

Pressure of increased energy demand:

Jordan has limited energy resources and the country depends heavily on imported crude oil for its energy use. The national energy sector main concern is the provision of adequate energy for development with the least possible cost and best quality. A few statistics help to highlight the urgency of the situation.

In 2008, heating accounted for 61% of household level energy use and this figure continues to rise.21 The energy consumption grew at an average of 14%/year and the energy bill averaged at 13% of gross national product (GNP) and consumed most of the foreign exchange earned by exports of all Jordanian commodities in the last 3 decades.

Jordan’s imported energy bill rose 21.3% in 2012, reaching JD4.75 billion, compared to JD4.0 billion in the year before (Figure 10). The surge was attributed to an increase in imports of crude oil and diesel, especially for generating electricity. Official figures also show that Jordan’s consumption of primary energy and electricity remains one of the highest in the world and is expected to increase by 5.5% and 7.4%, respectively, between 2014 and 2020. Other things being equal, the government expects primary energy consumption to reach 16 million tons of oil equivalent (toe) in 2020, compared to 7.4 million toe in 2011 (see Annex A5).

The high cost of importing energy puts a heavy burden on the public budget already constrained by running

16. Cooper, C.D. and Alley, F.C., Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 (1996) 27.17. Gillies, J., Abu-Allaban, M., Gertler, A., Lowenthal, D., Jennison, B. and Goodrich, A. JJEES, 1(1) (2008) 1.18. Kassel, R., “Dump Dirty Diesel: The Health and Air Quality Benefits of Cleaner Diesel Engines”. Diesel Retrofit Workshop, Oct. 21 (2003).19. Asi, R., Anani, F. and Asswaeir, J. “Studying Air Quality in Al-Hashemeyyah Area/Zarqa”. A report prepared by the Royal Scientific Society (RSS) for the

General Institution for the Protection of the Environment, Amman, Jordan, (2001).20. Hamdi, M.R., Bdour, A. and Tarawneh, Z. Environmental Engineering Science, 25(9) (2008) 1333.21. DoS/WFP ‘Poverty Study’ based on 2008/2009 HIES data.


Figure 10: Cost of Consumed Energy in Jordan.


costs and subsidies. The sector suffers from extreme fluctuations of oil prices and the ability to secure constant and sustainable energy supply for the country. Jordan is one of the world’s most energy insecure countries, importing about 97% of its energy needs. While Jordan has achieved many development goals, sustaining these results will increasingly depend on the transition to a sustainable energy future. Traditionally, the country has relied for 80% of its electricity generation on natural gas imported from Egypt. But due to a series of disruptions to this flow since 2011, the number has declined to 70%. In response, Jordan shifted to high costing crude oil imports, comprising 42%22 of energy imports in 2012 and adding approximately US$2 billion/year23 to Jordan’s import bill.

Energy imports have risen to make up approximately 20% of Jordan’s GDP, with overall energy costs likely have reached 30% of imports in 201324. In addition to long-standing structural challenges in the energy sector in

terms of supply, demand, and management, Jordan also faces exacerbating factors resulting from the increase of Syrian refugees, who comprise nearly 13% of Jordan’s 6.38 million population.25 Although Syrian refugees and forced migrants fall within the lower-income bracket and average energy consumptions remain less impactful on the broad energy challenges in Jordan relative to core energy users in the country, total residential energy consumption has risen significantly.

The policy of the Government of Jordan (GoJ) in the field of energy was shaped through the adoption of the Updated Master Strategy of Energy Sector in Jordan for the period 2007-2020. The main goal of the Energy Strategy is to secure reliable energy supply through increasing the share of local energy resources such as oil shale, natural gas in the energy mix, expanding the development of renewable energy projects, promoting energy conservation and awareness and generating electricity from nuclear energy (see Annex A5).

22. Department of Statistics, quoted http://english.nuqudy.com/Levant/Jordan%E2%80%99s_Energy_Cri-454723. See http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/13/imf-jordan-idUSL1N0I208M2013101324. Jordan Needs Assessments_ November 201325. See Central Bank of Jordan Monthly Statistical Bulletin, www.cbj.gov.jo



It should be noted that an equally important priority has been achieving local energy production, mainly by scaling up renewable energy, and improving energy efficiency solutions in Jordan. The 2013 Arab Future Energy Index (AFEX) shows that Jordan has made progress in this regard, ranking second in the Arab region for renewable energy trends and third for energy efficiency. The 2012 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Law is also a key enabler, providing incentives for sustainable energy solutions, as Jordan seeks to increase renewable energy from 1% of overall energy in 2010 to 10% in 2020, and to improve energy efficiency by 20% by 2020.26

Pressure on air quality:

In the context of air quality, there is an increase in the pollutants emitted to the ambient air as a result of the development of industrial and services sector in Jordan, the increase of Jordanian population, the fluxes of refugees, and the increase energy demand and number of vehicles, which in turn causes degradation of the air quality in many areas and can also impact public health adversely. Therefore; it is so important to monitor the ambient air quality of the residential areas that are close to the air pollution sources.

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NO, NO₂) have been recently monitored in five areas (Table 4) vulnerable to air pollution nearby emitting factors, as these pollutants result from fuel burning in both stationary and mobile sources, taking into consideration the relatively high sulfur content in the Jordanian heavy fuel oil and diesel. These emissions are highly associated with human daily activities, and they increase in direct proportional trend with population size.

Having large number of refugees concentrated in the northern governorates will certainly increase the human activities, and subsequently affect the amounts of emissions released into the air. The results of this monitoring study show increase in the concentrations of the said pollutants. For example: observations of Irbid governorate, that hosts 25% of the refugees, show variations and an increase in the concentrations over the past 5 years. According to the monitoring study this increase is due to unprecedented increase in population, especially with presence of more than 150,000 refugees in Irbid (MoEnv, 2013).

Table 4: Irbid Station /yearly average concentration of major pollutants that cause respiratory diseases (MoEnv, 2013)27

YearPM2.5

Mg/m3

CO

ppm

NO

ppm

NO2

ppm

NOx

ppm

2009-2010 36 0.15 0.002 0.007 0.008

2010-2011 27 0.727 0.001 0.008 0.009

2011-2012 21 1.325 0.002 0.007 0.008

2012-2013 40 2.382 0.004 0.007 0.011

Air quality issues are challenged by lack of capacities and technologies for maintaining the monitoring programme of air quality. It is worth noting that refugee camps, including Zaatari camp and its surrounding, do not have a facility for measuring air quality. Due to the increase in population and human activities, all emitting factors, such as waste water treatment plants, and factories, have been maximizing their productive capacities, and this results in increased emissions, which in turn causes an increase in the incidence of respiratory allergies the kingdom, especially among children. It is shown in Figure 11 that all monitored pollutants (except NO2) started showing an increasing trend in 2012/2013. However, such short period of measurements is not enough to judge the observance of a certain trend, and more measurements should be collected in the future.

Another monitoring programme run by RSS for MoEnv is monitoring air quality at five stations in the country; one of them is Al-Khalideyyah/Al-Mafraq which is 12 km to the south of Al-Zaatary Syrian Refugee Camp. As shown from air quality measurements at Al-Khalideyyah for SO2, NO2, PM2.5, and PM10, it is clear that the concentrations of all pollutants started raising up after 2011/2012. This observation is valid for the five stations with regards to SO2 (See Annex A4). However, this observation for such a short period of measurements needs more investigation and statistical testing, nevertheless, the judgment will be more reliable in light of the availability of more data from an extended monitoring period in the future, to ascertain the exact impacts.

26. Jordan Energy Efficiency Roadmap, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (2010), Amman.27. Source: Ministry of Environment and the Royal Scientific Society, Assessment of Air Quality Study, 2013.


Figure 11: Yearly average concentration of major pollutants that cause respiratory diseases/Irbid Station (MoEnv, 2013).


3.6 DPSIR ASSESSMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE AND MEDICAL WASTE

Solid waste management (SWM) has been improving in Jordan, with current collection rates estimated at 90% and 70% in urban and rural areas, respectively. Municipal solid waste (MSW) generation has increased from 1.5 million tons/year in 2000 to about 2 million tons/year in 2010 with an average increase of 500,000 tons annually, and with an average generation rate of 0.95 kg/cap/day in urban areas and 0.85 kg/cap/day in rural areas. The total daily amount of MSW disposed at the Jordanian landfills was found to be 5500 tons/day in average in 2010. This increase is mainly attributed to normal increase of population and changes in their living standards and consumption patterns. The solid waste stream is mainly composed of organics with 52% of weight. Annex A6 shows key indicators of Jordan’s waste and management based on a country report on the solid waste management in Jordan (2010).

Municipal solid waste (MSW) generations was in 2009/2010 about 1,964,284 tons. Generation of

agricultural waste, hazardous waste, and medical waste was 1.56 million tons/year, 15,000 tons /year, and 3,285 tons/year, respectively. The amount of solid industrial hazardous waste was 15,000 tons in 2007, while this amount is projected to reach 59,000 tons in 2027.

Different estimates on hazardous waste were presented in the National Agenda. The estimated amount in 2001 was 23,000 tones, while in 2007 it was 27,480 tones, and it is expected to increase 5% every year to reach 84,421 tons by 2027. The difference is due to the fact that the national agenda estimation includes both solid and liquid hazardous wastes, while environmental status report estimates are for solid hazardous waste only.

For medical waste, the survey carried out by Abu Qdais et al. (2007) estimated that the daily amount of the medical waste generated by all Jordanian hospitals is about 6 tons/day. Adding the medical waste generated from medical centers, clinics, and labs, the estimated daily amount of medical waste generated in Jordan in 2007 was about 9 tones.

With the notable exception of Amman (which accounts for about half of total solid waste generation), safe disposal remains a concern, since most of the other municipalities discharge solid waste in open dump



sites with no lining, leachate management, or biogas collection. Management of hazardous and medical waste is also inadequate, since most of the former (totaling 15,000 tons in 2010 and expected to increase to 68,000 tons/year by 2017) is disposed of with no treatment; whereas half of the latter (which is amounted at 3,285 tons in 2010) is treated in outdated incinerators located in populated areas, and the other half is mixed with municipal waste in open dump sites. Nevertheless, an increase in about 30% in medical waste, solid waste, and hazardous waste was generated after the influx of Syrian refugees according to MoEnv (2014).

All municipalities are operating without full cost recovery of operations. In Amman, the cost recovery reached 63% in 2007, while other municipalities are operating with less than 50% cost recovery. The difference is usually subsidized from municipal budgets. For detailed information on municipal solid waste (MSW) composition and service indicators in three main cities (Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa), refer to Annex A6.

Pressure through increased production of waste:

The MoEnv governs waste in through a several legislations, among of which is the environment protection law 52/2006, the directive 24 of 2005 on management, transportation and handling of harmful and hazardous substances, solid waste bylaws, medical waste management instructions, hazardous wastes management instructions, liquid acid batteries requirement, and used oil regulations.

The MoEnv works on the solid waste management and recycling through the reduction of waste generation at source, develop areas of recycling and reuse a comprehensive integrated system, improve the disposal of solid waste in an environmentally sound manner, establish the treatment center of hazardous and medical wastes in Swaqa Hazardous landfill, increase the percentage of medical wastes treated, establish and enforce a documentation and information system for hazardous, medical and solid waste, complete the set of legislations to manage hazardous and medical wastes, develop and execute a national program to manage electronic wastes and implement the international conventions related to hazardous and medical wastes.

The Syrian refugees have put extra pressure on the management of all kinds of wastes, including solid waste but notably the volume of medical wastes have been increased due to the expansion of healthcare services that is inevitably accompanied by the increase of the population and refugees. Table 5 shows quantity of solid wastes of municipalities (ton) 2000-2012. It is obvious that there was a noticeable jump of solid wastes quantity from 2,024,832 tons in 2011to 2,242,967 tons in 2012 to 2,529,997 in 2013. This could be traced easily in Figure 12

Table 5: Quantity of solid wastes of municipalities sector (ton) (DOS 2014).

Year Quantity of solid wastes of all municipalities (ton)

2000 1,387,000

2002 2,226,500

2005 2,358,868

2006 2,309,575

2007 2,207,298

2008 2,111,251

2009 1,921,857

2010 2,069,111

2011 2,024,832

2012 2,242,967

2013 2,529,997

Given the difficult health care situation in Syria these days, refugees come, in most cases, with a need for health services, and consequently, hospitals and health care centers have been producing larger amounts of medical waste than normal cases (pre-crisis). Table 5 shows the amounts of medical waste that came into Swaqa hazardous landfill (run by MoEnv) over the past 8 years, it can be observed from Figure 13 that medical waste has been increasing intensely since the crisis in Syria started.


Figure 12: Quantity of solid wastes for all municipalities (ton) 2000-2013. (DOS, 2014).

Figure 13: Amounts of medical waste in kg for all municipalities from 2006-2013 (MoEnv 2014).


Table 6: Amount of medical waste that came into Swaqa landfill over the past 8 years, (MoEnv, 2014).28

Year Amounts of Medical Waste in kg

2006 198,078

2007 261,957

2008 216,665

2009 235,306

2010 355,526

2011 401,986

2012 508,772

2013 502,491

The treatment of hazardous waste is challenged by the lack of human capacities, equipment, data bases, and proper monitoring programmes. Also waste management is challenged by the availability of proper transport means and treatment technologies. With the increasing waste arising across all waste types, it is essential to develop a revised and updated approach to minimise negative environmental impacts.

28. Source: Data base of the Ministry of Environment, Hazardous waste data base, 2014.


PROPOSED RESPONSES AND LINKAGES WITH NRP4

This section highlights the critical linkages between the environment and the key components of the NRP. The JRP Resilience component will entail a large number of projects year 2015-onwards valued in total at about $2 billion to be implemented over a period of 12-18 months. In an already resource-scarce and environmentally fragile area like Jordan, this can exacerbate such stresses in the medium term unless mitigation measures are put in place within the design of projects. This can also help prevent and address risks to community well-being and grievance (MoPIC, 2013)29. Under current legislation, all projects in Jordan are to conduct an EIA where their size or activities present grave potential risks to the environment, and for which mitigation measures and opportunities for sustainable solutions can be engaged. There are a number of JRP projects likely to fall within this category under various sub-chapters/sectors related to issues like shelter, infrastructure, livelihoods, transport, municipal development, land use, water, etc.30. In addition, it is imperative to mainstream biodiversity conservation in all development sectors by developing an economic value for the ecosystem services (water, food, and energy). This can be supported by green financing and CSR initiatives from the private sector. A general approach to environmental screening for all JRP projects is therefore

strongly advocated, including the establishment of a dedicated unit for this purpose under the JRP Secretariat.

The set of responses proposed by this study are projects and investments to address some of the key environmental challenges related to the Syrian refugee influx against the background of priority environmental issues facing Jordan. It includes policies and strategies to monitor, mitigate, and control air pollution, habitat loss, and risks from medical and hazardous waste. The Government is seeking solutions for water and energy shortages through mega projects (Red Sea Canal, Disi Water Conveyer, nuclear power generation, oil shale exploration, and renewable energy) but such technical solutions may not provide adequate sustainability without taking the human factor into consideration. Environmental initiatives would benefit from encouragement of co-management of natural resources with the concerned communities, and take into consideration the impact of environmental initiatives on the quality of human life.31

One of the critical issues identified through this study are the data and information gaps. This is an important point of action for the continued development and implementation of the NRP. The economic valuation of the direct and indirect impacts of the refugees on

29. National Resilience Plan, 2014. Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Jordan. 30. Jordan’s Environment Protection Law (EPL) no. 52/2006 and its Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulation no. 37/2006,31. Wardam B/UNEP ROWA, “National Environment Summary”, 2011


4. PROPOSED RESPONSES AND LINKAGES WITH NRP

the ecosystems of host regions of Jordan requires an in-depth scientific research which would lead to a clear policy document needed to support decision-making in regards to the sustainability of ecosystems, their goods and services, as well as their biodiversity, under crisis conditions such as the Syrian refugee case. Environmental degradation inflicts a cost to society, in terms of mortality and morbidity from air and water pollution, foregone income of activities linked to natural resource use (such as agriculture, tourism), and cost of “aversive behavior” (e.g., water filtration, purchase of bottled water to reduce exposure to water-borne diseases). The Cost of Environmental Degradation (COED) in Jordan is evaluated taking into account both immediate and longer-lived impacts of degradation that have taken place in a reference year (2006). Using a range of well-established and internationally accepted methodologies, the total COED is estimated to be in the range of JOD143-332 million, with an average of JOD237 million, or 2.35% of GDP in 2006. If the impact of emissions on global environment is added, the total cost to Jordan and the global community as a whole would be JOD393 million. Besides, absence of proper monitoring regimes for both air quality and hazardous waste challenges keeping records of changes in the ambient air and flow of waste, also the MoEnv lacks for convenient data base system for maintaining records of all air parameters, kinds and amounts of waste. Thus, more investment should be put to enhance the monitoring and documenting capacities for air quality control and waste management.

In terms of specific interventions, there are a number of already planned projects proposed by the relevant line ministries in the Government of Jordan:

• Response to address water-related issues: The MoWI has an invesement plan to address water leakage, rehabilitation of infrastructure including WWTPs, water mega projects like the Red-Dead Canal, control of illegal water pumping, management of water demand including water pricing, and public awareness.

• Response to address air quality-related issues: The MoEnv had contributed to the development of the response plan to the Syrian refugees. The priority investments are to establish air quality monitoring stations near the Syrian refugeee camps, developing waste management facilities in Al-Akaider and other

sites near the refugee camps in Azraq. Besides, there are plans at the Greater Amman Municipality to develop public transit system in Amman, and between Amman and Zarqa. (refer to Annex A6)

• Response to address land and agriculture related issues: The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) is promoting efficient use of water to enhance water productivity and sound cropping patterns. Different water managment schemes are supported like Water Users’ Associations in the Jordan Valley and the engagement of the private sector. The MoA had policies to support the protection of range lands and forestes through regulation and awareness.

In terms of additional proposals for interventions, one specific focus is on energy. It is imperative to harness the use of renewable energy and appropriate green technologies in the refugee camps to address the energy security in Jordan. The overarching energy insecurity challenge in Jordan has led the government to shift to a broader energy supply mix reflected in the National Energy Strategy. This includes a diversification of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) possibly from Qatar or the new Leviathan Basin in the Eastern Mediterranean, a new LNG port planned in Aqaba; new oil and gas pipelines from Iraq; and search for new shale potentials.

With regards to increased energy demands from Syrian refugees and forced migrants in cities and towns, there is a need to (i) accelerate energy efficiency and renewable energy measures in buildings and residences across Jordan to offset increased power demands from the Syrian crisis (short-term), and (ii) establish new renewable energy power supply capacities to bolster pressures on the power grid (medium-term). The Government foresees additional power demand in cities and towns as a result of the Syrian crisis to be approximately 225MW, with estimated capital investment to meet this additional demand estimated at US$337.5 million.32

Separate to this are the needs for bringing power to the Zaatari Camp including new power needs of 46MW costing US$14 million in capital costs and US$5.6 million/month in operational costs. With regards to expanding access to water in the Zaatari Camp, the Government also estimates a demand in power of 500kilowatt needed to power two planned wells for the camp, which sits over the country’s largest aquifer. Within this process, renewable energy options could be explored based on

32. Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Impact of Hosting Syrian Refugees, October 2013, Amman.



initial successes by the donor community in supporting solar lighting in Zaatari Camp and solar energy in Azraq Camp.

Given the estimated levels of incremental power needed for response to the Syrian crisis of 225MW for cities/towns, responses can align to and benefit from the new strategic investments planned within Jordan’s overall drive for sustainable energy solutions. Instead of developing new import-dependent power capacities, the suggestion is to meet extra loads through energy efficiency and renewable energy solutions.

One significant deployable and low-cost priority in line with the 2013 NEEAP is to install 38 thousand solar water heaters in buildings and residences (cost of US$35.34 million), freeing up 73MW and reducing electricity costs by US$20 million.33 A second significant deployable and low-cost priority would be to replace 3 million inefficient lights in residences and buildings with new compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) (cost of US$14.8 million), freeing up 144MW of power in the years 2014 and 2015, while also creating US$50 million in energy subsidy savings.

Both solar water heaters and CFLs have a good basis for production and with deployment readily available locally in Jordan, these two very cost-effective priorities from the NEEAP could be rapidly implemented in 2014-2015 to free up 58% of new Syrian crisis-related energy demand in the year 2014 and up to the full need in the year after 2015. Further scaling up of these capacities planned in 2015-2016 could fully cover all new energy demands expected from the Syrian crisis, and would also bring long-term benefits for Jordan’s sustainable energy vision, outlasting the risks from the Syrian crisis.

Rapid energy efficiency and renewable energy gains could also be coupled with a third priority – the deployment, installation, and operations of Photo Voltaic (PV) solar panel systems in different locations for 12,000 households in the host communities, in addition to the awareness campaigns and advocacy to introduce these units and their benefits to different communities across the country.

The actions proposed under this sector would introduce solar energy solutions to address the expanded demand stemming from the Syrian refugee influx. The proposed interventions will be prepared in full coordination with the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR).

In addition, the proposed interventions will include large-scale community awareness campaigns to raise awareness, educate, and increase the acceptance of the solar systems into the community, as well as energy efficiency and saving. Capacity building programmes for the ministry and municipal government staff on technical issues related to installation and maintenance of PV solar systems shall be included.

These interventions are vey much related to infrastructural responses, and represent a key opportunity to mainstream environmental sustainability across such projects.

In terms of specific environmental interventions under the headings addressed in the above study, the environment sector has not been considered in the NRP of 2013, thus, no interventions have been implemented or initiated in response to the Syrian crisis in this sector. Nonetheless, the following interventions are proposed to mitigate the adverse impacts of Syrian crisis on environmental components:

33. Jordan National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP), MED-ENEC Project, Cairo (2013).


Table 1: Proposed response to address impact of Syrian refugees on the environment.

Domain Priorities

Environment Mainstreaming Interventions

• Establish an EIA unit in the JRP Secretariat to lead environmental review and support the overall implementation of JRP Resilience projects.

• Commence with a rapid environmental assessment during the launch of JRP of key sectors/sub-chapters. It should contain environmental risks, taking into account the gendered impact of environmental change and natural resource management. This is an urgent need for 2015 to understand the actual impacts of the crisis on environmental resources.

• Undertake rapid EIAs for identified high level risk projects with mitigation options project implementation. The cost of ecosystem degradation and the value of ecosystem services are to be mainstreamed in the policy and decision-making.

• Provide support for identification of appropriate clean technology solutions in JRP response projects across infrastructure, municipal development, livelihoods, water, and other sectors/sub-chapters.

Water and Wastewater

• Enhance the control systems, standards, and the performance efficiency of the water supply system and wastewater treatment and reuse.

• Operationalize the investment plan in MoWI and MoEnv.• Develop small-scale water supply and treatment units. • Enhance the control systems, standards, and the performance efficiency of the wastewater

treatment plants, factories and other emitting facilities.

Soil Degradation, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services34

• Rehabilitate the affected ecosystems and habitats. More research is needed to deeply analyze impacts of Syrian crisis on the affected ecosystem services.

• Develop income generation opportunities for local communities targeting the most vulnerable members of the community, including women in the surroundings of impacted protected areas.

• Enhance enforcement of wildlife protection-related legal framework. • Rehabilitate the affected rangelands and PAs.

Air Quality and Energy

• Building on existing initiatives, develop an air quality monitoring network and database on emissions and air quality.

• Strengthen the organizational capacities (DoS and RSS) and knowledge management of measuring air quality, especially in areas nearby refugees’ communities and camps, this includes strengthening the human capacities, equipment, and field monitoring.

• Provide support for identification of appropriate clean technology solutions like solar energy.

• Implement a plan to install appropriate small-scale green technologies including solar water heaters, recycling, and bio-energy.

Hazardous Waste and Medical Waste

• Enhance the operation and organizational capacities of collection, transport, and disposal of medical and hazardous waste. This includes building the human capacities, provision of needed equipment, and transportation of medical and hazardous waste from Swaqa to be disposed outside the country.


34. These two sectors, while assessed separately in the study are combined due to overlaps.



• Department of Statistics (DOS). 2012. Population sub-website. http://www.dos.gov.jo/dos_home_a/main/index.htm

• Department of Statistics (DOS). 2012. http://www.dos.gov.jo/dos_home_a/main/index.htm

• Department of Statistics (DOS).Jordan Poverty Report. 2011. Based on analysis of 2008 Household survey results

• DOS (2010). Agricultural Statistics, 2010, Department of Statistics, Jordan.

• FAO, 2012. Assessment of the risks from climate change and water scarcity on food productivity in Jordan.

• Harrison, S(2010) (a). Impacts of Future Climate Change on Vegetation. The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature.

• IEA Statistics © OECD/IEA, http://www.iea.org/stats/index.asp), International Energy Agency electronic files on CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion.

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2014. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html.

• IPCC, 2013. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp.

• Jordan’s Ministry of Environment (2009), Jordan’s Fourth National report to the Convention of Biological Diversity.

• MoEnv, 2009. Jordan's Second National Communication to the UNFCCC. Ministry of Environment, Amman, Jordan.

• MoEnv, 2012. Climate Change Adaptation in the Zarqa River Basin: Assessment of Direct and Indirect Impacts of Climate Change Scenarios, (Water Resources Study, Vol. l). Ministry of Environment, Funded by UNDP, Amman, Jordan.

• MoEnv, 2012. Executive Summary for Decision Makers on “Prioritization of Adaptation Interventions and Adaptation Programmee for the Zarqa River Basin”. Funded by UNDP, Ministry of Environment, Amman, Jordan.

• MoEnv, 2013. The National Climate Change Policy of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan 2013-2020. Sector Strategic Guidance Framework. Supported by Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Ministry of Environment, Jordan.

• The population higher council, 2011. The status of Jordanian population

• The World Bank (2009). Jordan Poverty Update - Volume I: Main Report. Report No. 47951-JO

• UNDP, 2012. Assessment of Direct and Indirect Impacts of Climate Change Scenarios (Water Resources Study Vol 1).

• State of Environment Report for Jordan, Jordan Ministry of Environment, 2009.

REFERENCES


ANNEXES

A1 POPULATION DATA IN JORDAN

Table A1.1: Population Census per Governorate from 2010 to 2013 (DOS, 2014).

Governorate and Province Year

2013 2012 2011 2010

Middle Province 4,102,200 4,012,900 3,925,600 3,840,200

Amman 2528500 2473400 2419600 2367000

Balqa 437500 428000 418600 409500

Zarqa 972900 951800 931100 910800

Madaba 163300 159700 156300 152900

Northen Province 1,815,300 1,776,000 1,737,200 1,699,400

Irbid 1162300 1137100 1112300 1088100

Mafraq 306900 300300 293700 287300

Jarash 195900 191700 187500 183400

Ajloun 150200 146900 143700 140600

Southern Province 612,500 599,100 586,200 573,400

Karak 254700 249100 243700 238400

Tafila 91400 89400 87500 85600

Ma’an 124100 121400 118800 116200

Aqaba 142300 139200 136200 133200

TOTAL 6,530,000 8,763,100 6,249,000 6,113,000

العاصمة

البلقاء

الزرقاء

مادبا

اربد

املفرق

جرش

عجلون

الكرك

الطفيلة

معان

العقبة

املجموع

قليم الجنوب

إقليم الشامل

إقليم الوسط

املحافظة واإلقليم السنة


A2 WATER KEY INDICATORS

Table A2.1: Results of Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water Samples by Source and Governorate, 2011.

ANNEXES

Type

Governorate

Private Tanks Private Resources Public Networks Public Resources

%املحافظة Non-Conforming Samples

Total Number of Samples

% Non-Conforming Samples






Amman 4.4 37 847 7.5 18 239 1.6 85 5334 0.8 7 824 العاصمة

Balqa 0.6 15 2666 0.0 0 228 0.2 1 559 1.2 17 1450 البلقاء

Zarqa 4.4 20 451 0.0 0 429 0.0 0 1692 0.2 1 423 الزرقاء

Madaba 0.0 0 123 0.0 0 361 0.0 0 347 0.0 0 21 مادبا

Irbid 1.6 26 1617 1.2 1 81 0.6 17 3020 0.0 0 324 اربد

Mafraq 1.5 12 781 0.0 0 63 0.2 3 1477 0.0 0 457 املفرق

Jarash 4.1 31 747 0.0 0 72 2.3 15 646 0.3 3 982 جرش

Ajloun 0.0 0 353 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 686 0.0 0 361 عجلون

Karak 1.2 6 498 0.0 0 87 0.0 0 638 0.0 0 475 الكرك

Tafila 0.0 0 578 0.0 0 91 0.0 0 278 0.0 0 104 الطفيلة

Ma’an 0.0 0 193 0.0 0 67 0.0 0 326 0.0 0 216 معان

Aqaba 0.0 0 391 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 385 0.0 0 230 العقبة

TOTAL 17.8 147 9235 8.8 19 1718 4.8 121 15388 2.5 28 5867 املجموع

Source: M.O.H. Environment HealthNote: Slight differences in the totals of some tables are due to weighting procedures and rounding of figures

السنة السنة

النسبة املئويةالنسبة املئوية العينات غري املطابقة العدد الكيل للعينات العينات غري املطابقة العدد الكيل للعينات


ANNEXES

Type

Governorate










Amman 4.4 37 847 7.5 18 239 1.6 85 5334 0.8 7 824 العاصمة

Balqa 0.6 15 2666 0.0 0 228 0.2 1 559 1.2 17 1450 البلقاء

Zarqa 4.4 20 451 0.0 0 429 0.0 0 1692 0.2 1 423 الزرقاء

Madaba 0.0 0 123 0.0 0 361 0.0 0 347 0.0 0 21 مادبا

Irbid 1.6 26 1617 1.2 1 81 0.6 17 3020 0.0 0 324 اربد

Mafraq 1.5 12 781 0.0 0 63 0.2 3 1477 0.0 0 457 املفرق

Jarash 4.1 31 747 0.0 0 72 2.3 15 646 0.3 3 982 جرش

Ajloun 0.0 0 353 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 686 0.0 0 361 عجلون

Karak 1.2 6 498 0.0 0 87 0.0 0 638 0.0 0 475 الكرك

Tafila 0.0 0 578 0.0 0 91 0.0 0 278 0.0 0 104 الطفيلة

Ma’an 0.0 0 193 0.0 0 67 0.0 0 326 0.0 0 216 معان

Aqaba 0.0 0 391 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 385 0.0 0 230 العقبة

TOTAL 17.8 147 9235 8.8 19 1718 4.8 121 15388 2.5 28 5867 املجموع


النوع

شبكات عامة مصادر عامة


املصدر: وزارة الصحة – صحة البيئةمالحظة: يوجد هناك اختالف طفيف يف مجاميع بعض الجداول وذلك بسبب عملية التثقيل

)الرتجيح( والتقريب

نتائج الفحوص الجرثومية لعينات مياه الرشب حسب املحافظة واملصدر 2012


Table A2.2: Results of Microbial Analysis of Drinking Water Samples by Source and Governorate, 2012.

ANNEXES

Type

Governorate










Amman 7.8 68 869 1.6 1 62 1.5 62 6092 0.8 6 792 العاصمة

Zarqa 3.9 16 413 0.3 1 381 - - 1413 - - 422 الزرقاء

Madaba 1.5 3 199 0.6 2 325 0.2 1 598 - - 49 مادبا

2.9 36 2858 229 0.2 4 2156 3.3 18 1312

Irbid 14.6 55 1864 4.5 2 80 2.6 14 2844 - - 366 اربد

Mafraq 30.0 39 1033 4.5 65 - - 1387 - - 374 املفرق

Jarash 0.4 35 701 - - 81 1.3 8 593 0.4 4 970 جرش

Ajloun 0.5 2 443 - - - - - 664 - - 210 عجلون

Karak 1.0 6 560 - - 92 - - 625 - - 414 الكرك

Tafila - - 595 - - 100 - - 336 - - 127 الطفيلة

Ma’an - - 164 - - 72 - - 324 - - 214 معان

Aqaba - - 513 - - - - - 279 - - 206 العقبة

TOTAL 2.3 247 10512 0.8 13 1610 0.5 91 17311 0.5 28 5456 املجموع


السنة

النسبة املئويةالنسبة املئوية العينات غري املطابقة العينات غري املطابقة العدد الكيل للعينات العدد الكيل للعينات

السنة


ANNEXES

Type

Governorate










Amman 7.8 68 869 1.6 1 62 1.5 62 6092 0.8 6 792 العاصمة

Zarqa 3.9 16 413 0.3 1 381 - - 1413 - - 422 الزرقاء

Madaba 1.5 3 199 0.6 2 325 0.2 1 598 - - 49 مادبا

2.9 36 2858 229 0.2 4 2156 3.3 18 1312

Irbid 14.6 55 1864 4.5 2 80 2.6 14 2844 - - 366 اربد

Mafraq 30.0 39 1033 4.5 65 - - 1387 - - 374 املفرق

Jarash 0.4 35 701 - - 81 1.3 8 593 0.4 4 970 جرش

Ajloun 0.5 2 443 - - - - - 664 - - 210 عجلون

Karak 1.0 6 560 - - 92 - - 625 - - 414 الكرك

Tafila - - 595 - - 100 - - 336 - - 127 الطفيلة

Ma’an - - 164 - - 72 - - 324 - - 214 معان

Aqaba - - 513 - - - - - 279 - - 206 العقبة

TOTAL 2.3 247 10512 0.8 13 1610 0.5 91 17311 0.5 28 5456 املجموع


النوع

نتائج الفحوص الجرثومية لعينات مياه الرشب حسب املحافظة واملصدر 2012


شبكات عامة مصادر عامة

املصدر: وزارة الصحة – صحة البيئةمالحظة: يوجد هناك اختالف طفيف يف مجاميع بعض الجداول وذلك بسبب عملية التثقيل

)الرتجيح( والتقريب


Table A2.3: Number of Drinking Water Samples Microbially Analyzed and Number of Non-Conforming Samples (1998-2012).

Pourcentage of Non-Conforming Drinking

Water Samples %

No. of Non-Conforming Samples

Total No. of Analyzed Samples

Year

2.1 1054 50312 1999

1.7 786 46820 2000

1.3 589 44016 2001

1.3 466 35537 2002

1.1 350 33246 2003

0.9 304 33710 2004

0.8 243 32109 2005

1.1 339 31695 2006

1.1 383 34827 2007

1.2 414 35093 2008

1.2 426 34725 2009

1.1 361 33825 2010

0.9 316 33996 2011

1.1 379 34967 2012

Source: M.O.H. Environmental HealthNote: Slight differences in the totals of some tables are due to weighting procedures and rounding of figures

ANNEXES

عدد عينات مياه الرشب املحللة جرثوميا وغري املطابقة 1999 – 2012

املصدر: وزارة الصحة – صحة البيئةمالحظة: يوجد هناك اختالف طفيف يف مجاميع بعض الجداول وذلك بسبب عملية

التثقيل )الرتجيح( والتقريب

السنة

عدد العينات غري املطابقةعدد العينات املحللة الكلية النسب املئوية لعينات مياه الرشب

غري املطابقة


A3 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTS

Table A3.1: Irrigated, Non-Irrigated and Total Cultivated Area, 2000-2011 (000 Dunum).

Non-Irrigated Area Irrigated Area Total Area Year

1584.9 769.1 2354.1 2000

1829.9 734.5 2564.4 2001

1856.6 749.3 2605.9 2002

1673.2 713.2 2386.4 2003

1947.5 761.2 2708.8 2004

1673.4 800.5 2473.9 2005

1687.8 834.5 2522.3 2006

1061.0 810.9 1871.9 2007

1385.5 928.4 2313.9 2008

1293.7 948.2 2241.9 2009

1568.8 1024.7 2593.5 2010

1443.2 694.5 2137.7 2011

Source: Department of Statistics

العقبة

ANNEXES

املساحة البعلية املساحة املروية املساحة الكليةالسنة

املصدر: دائرة االحصاءات العامة

املساحة املروية والبعلية واملساحة الكلية 2011-2000 )ألف دونم(.


Table A3.3: Quantity of Imported Agricultural Pesticides by Kind, 2000-2011 (Meteric Ton).

Type

Total Vital Insecticides Acricides Fungicides Herbicides Fungicides1 Oil Rodenticides& Molluscicides

PublicHealth

Veterinary Year

983.7 0.4 198.3 30.8 390.0 58.1 179.7 94.2 8.0 21.6 2.5 2000

983.7 0.0 132.0 26.4 321.9 46.0 106.8 72.5 10.2 24.7 0.0 2001

740.6 0.0 198.0 64.7 411.3 65.4 19.6 179.7 6.6 117.0 0.0 2002

967.0 0.0 191.0 71.0 315.0 35.0 284.0 35.0 13.0 23.0 0.0 2003

1079.2 0.0 184.0 87.5 476.0 87.0 50.0 143.0 14.6 37.1 0.0 2004

1320.9 0.0 278.6 102.8 641.5 93.8 99.6 54.0 19.4 31.2 0.0 2005

963.4 0.0 204.9 91.6 486.4 54.7 41.5 28.5 16.3 39.5 0.0 2006

1413.3 0.0 270.9 102.9 627.1 127.6 62.4 145.7 51.2 25.5 0.0 2007

1251.9 1.3 270.0 116.9 628.7 105.0 61.0 38.0 3.7 27.4 0.0 2018

1383.3 0.0 263.4 121.5 427.1 296.5 80.2 139.6 7.5 47.5 0.0 2009

1445.4 0.0 259.8 11.7 620.4 149.8 146.5 58.9 5.8 92.5 0.0 2010

1956.4 5.0 849.5 181.0 582.8 116.0 92.3 50.8 10.8 68.2 0.0 2011

Source: Ministry of Agriculture(1) Fumigant of Soil, Seed and Store

Table A2.2: Number of Forest Fire Accidents, Number of Damaged Trees and Area Damaged for the Years 2002-2013.

Year No. of Forest Fires No. of Damaged Trees Area Damaged (Dunum)

2002 40 6643 653.1

2003 47 6672 617.0

2004 45 4098 849.5

2005 53 3352 1434.0

2006 51 4248 994.0

2007 59 6016 1553.3

2008 60 2825 1046.0

2009 33 1675 216.0

2010 48 2020 1094.8

2011 65 1945 11529.0

2012 57 4323 1296.0

2013 64 5615 2711.0

Source: Ministry of Agriculture - Directorate of Forestry

السنة

النوع

عدد حرائق الغابات

املصدر: وزارة الزراعة/مديرية الحراج

عدد األشجار املترضرة املساحة املترضرة )دونم(

ANNEXES

بيطري السنةقوارض وقواقع صحة عامة

املجموع حيويحرشي?فطري أعشاب معقامتزيوت

املصدر : وزارة الزراعة)1( معقامت الرتبة والبذور والخازن

كمية املبيدات الزراعية املستوردة حسب النوع 2000 – 2011 )طن مرتي(.

عدد حرائق الغابات وعدد األشجار واملساحة املترضرة للسنوات 2002-.2013


A4 AIR QUALITY KEY INDICATORS

Table A4.1: Number of Registered Vehicles and Percentage of Change, 2000-2012.

% Change No. of Vehicles (000) Year

15.9 373 2000

12.6 420 2001

29.4 543 2002

4.4 567 2003

8.5 615 2004

10.6 680 2005

11.1 755 2006

11.4 842 2007

7.6 906 2008

9.9 995 2009

8.0 1075 2010

6.7 1147 2011

5.8 1213 2012

Source: Trafic Department

نسبة التغري عدد املركبات )باأللف( السنة

املصدر: دائرة السري :

ANNEXES

عدد املركبات املسجلة ونسبة التغري 2000 – 2012


Figure A4.2: Average annual concentrations for SO2 in 5 monitoring locations (2008-2013) in ppm (RSS and MoEnv, 2014).

Figure A4.1: Number of Registered Vehicles and Percentage of Change, 2000-2012

ANNEXES

Average annualconcentrations forSO2 in 5 monitoringlocations (2008-2013)ppm


Figure A4.3: Average annual concentrations for NO2 in 5 monitoring locations (2008-2013) in ppm (RSS and MoEnv, 2014).

Figure A4.4: Average annual concentrations for PM 2.5 & PM 10 in 5 monitoring locations (2008-2013) in micro-gram/m3 (RSS and MoEnv, 2014).

ANNEXES

Average annualconcentrations forPM2.5 & PM10 (microgram/m3)

Average annualconcentrations forNO2 in 5 monitoringlocations (2008-2013)ppm


A5 ENERGY KEY INDICATORS

Table A5.1: Electricity Consumption (GWh) in Jordan during 2007 - 2012.

Total

Others1 Streets Lighting Water Pumping Commercial Industrial Household

Year% Qty % Qty % Qty % Qty % Qty % Qty

10538 0.0 0 2.6 269 15.1 1592 16.7 1759 27.7 2917 38.0 4001 2007

11509 0.0 0 2.5 284 14.9 1713 16.7 1925 27.2 3128 38.7 4459 2008

11956 0.0 0 2.6 310 14.8 1773 16.6 1979 25.1 3006 40.9 4888 2009

12843 0.0 0 2.4 315 14.5 1867 17.0 2184 25.4 3258 40.6 5220 2010

13535 0.0 0 2.5 334 14.3 1939 16.8 2269 25.5 3445 41.0 5548 2011

14274 0.0 0 2.1 305 13.7 1955 17.0 2427 24.2 3461 42.9 6126 2012

Source: Electrical International Company(1) Include Governemental Consumption and Hospital, Charities, Hotels, Broadkasting and TV

Figure A5.1: Electrical Energy Used by Sector, 2007-2012 (GWH).

ANNEXES

املجموع

أخرى انارة شوارع ضخ مياه

الكمية الكمية الكمية


A5 ENERGY KEY INDICATORS

Table A5.1: Electricity Consumption (GWh) in Jordan during 2007 - 2012.

Total

Others1 Streets Lighting Water Pumping Commercial Industrial Household

Year% Qty % Qty % Qty % Qty % Qty % Qty

10538 0.0 0 2.6 269 15.1 1592 16.7 1759 27.7 2917 38.0 4001 2007

11509 0.0 0 2.5 284 14.9 1713 16.7 1925 27.2 3128 38.7 4459 2008

11956 0.0 0 2.6 310 14.8 1773 16.6 1979 25.1 3006 40.9 4888 2009

12843 0.0 0 2.4 315 14.5 1867 17.0 2184 25.4 3258 40.6 5220 2010

13535 0.0 0 2.5 334 14.3 1939 16.8 2269 25.5 3445 41.0 5548 2011

14274 0.0 0 2.1 305 13.7 1955 17.0 2427 24.2 3461 42.9 6126 2012

Source: Electrical International Company(1) Include Governemental Consumption and Hospital, Charities, Hotels, Broadkasting and TV

Table A5.2: Local Production of Oil & Gas and Total Consumption of Primary Energy, 2008-2012 (000 Ton oil equivalent).

ANNEXES

Percentage of Domestic

Production to Total Consumption (%)

Total Consumption

(%)

Production

YearTotal Gas Oil

3.2 7335 155.8 154.1 1.7 2008

2.1 7739 163.4 161.9 1.5 2009

1.9 7357 137.6 136.4 1.2 2010

1.8 7457 135.0 134.1 0.9 2011

2.4 7979 122.0 121.0 1.0 2012

Source: Ministry of Energy

السنة

األنتاج

نسبة األنتاج املحيل اىل االستهالك الكيل املجموع غاز نفط األستهالك الكيل%

املصدر: وزارة الطاقة

املصدر: رشكة الكهرباء الوطنية)1( تحتوي عىل األستهالك الحكومي والقوات املسلحة واستهالك املستشفيات، املؤسسات

الخريية والتلفزيون والرصد والفنادق

تجاري السنة منزيل

السنةالكميةالكميةالكمية

الطاقة الكهربائية املستخدمة حسب القطاع 2007 2012 )ج.و.س(.

االنتاج املحيل للنفط والغاز واالستهالك الكيل للطاقة األولية 2008 – 2012 )ألف طن مكاىفء نفط(.


ANNEXES

Figure A5.2: Energy and Electricity Demand Forecast in Jordan.


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THE ENERGY MIX IN JORDAN (2008-2020)

Figure A5.3: Jordan’s Energy Strategy for the Year 2020.

31%

2%

2%

2%

2010

2015

2020

2%

65%

40%

51%

29%

29%

11%

14%

7%

10%6%

Oil Products

Oil Products

Oil Products

N. Gas

N. Gas

N. Gas

Oil Shale

Oil Shale

Imported Electricity



Renewable

Renewable

Nuclear

Renewable


A6 SOLID WASTE

Table A6.1: MSW composition in three main cities (Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa) in Jordan in 2010.(SWEEP net’s country report on the solid waste management in Jordan, July 2010)

Solid waste component Average percent by weight

Amman Irbid Zarqa

Food waste 54.4 77.5 73

Paper and cardboard 14 14.9 9

Plastics 13.2 2.5 10

Metals 2.4 1.3 2

Glass 2.8 2.6 2

Miscellaneous 13.2 1.2 4

Moisture content (%) 65 62 57

Density (kg/m3 259 241 223

Table A6.1: Solid waste service indicators in three major cities of Jordan Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa).(SWEEP net’s country report on the solid waste management in Jordan, July 2010)

Indicator City

Unit Amman Irbid Zarqa

Number of service regions No. 20 12 9

Population served person 1,800,000 371,000 483,000

Population served per worker person 630 742 867

Population served per vehicle person 11,320 14,840 15,580

Average number of containers per km of collection vehicle No. 3.93 371,000 4.5

Average daily number of containers served per collection vehicle No. 37.7 42.2 31.8

Average cost of collection and transport US$/ton 29 20.1 22.7

Average daily SW collected by worker kg/day 557 650 518

Ratio of workers to inspectors 8.6 12.5 6

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RAPID ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF SYRIAN … Non-Governmental Organization NRP National Response...

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