AP Review Material 2017

PROLOGUE-

Prescientific period- Socrates, Aristotle, Plato debated nature v. nurture, where the mind was and the relationship between thought and behavior

John Locke / Tabula Rasa at birth mind is a blank slateWatson give me a dozen healthy babies and I can make them into anything (doctor, beggar)

Meta-analysis- combining results from several independent studies.

Evolutionary Psychology (aka sociobiology) Darwin, natural selection, behavior traits that help us survive get passed down.

History (1-3%)(Wave one)James- wrote Psychologys first textbook - functionalismWundt- set up the first psychology laboratory trained subjects in introspection (Germany) - structuralismMnemonic Device- J before W and F before S.

(Wave two)

Gestalt (Wertheimer) criticized James and Wundt for not considering the whole self

Next set of waves of psychological thought were (Wave three) psychoanalysis (Freud) then (Wave four) Behaviorism (Skinner).Today it is the (Wave five) eclectic approach (multiple perspectives).

Research Methods (8-10%)

Hindsight Bias I knew it all along, upon hearing research findings, people have the tendency to believe that they could have predicted the findings. Goal of scientific research is to predict what will happen.

Applied research-(Ex.- sports, consumer psychology

industrial/organizational psychology- how to boost workers productivity, morale

Human Factors Psychology psychologists keep human factors in mind when designing machines / technology. Ex. gas pedals are located a few feet away from the car seat so that a human can reach it.

Basic research- Ex. social or developmental psychology.

RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY

Hypothesis- (Ex.-If given 6 alcoholic drinks a persons driving skill score will decrease)

Theory- (Ex-Alcohol consumption is correlated with driving skills)

Operationalized definition- explaining how you will measure a variable. (Ex. - abusive husband will be defined as a husband that physically hits his wife at least 2 times per year.) We operationally define variables so that we can replicate.

Sampling- process by which subjects (participants) are selected

Random selection- guarantees every member of a population has an equal chance of being picked. Ex-.Picking out of a hat OR Computer generated sample of 100 Butler students for survey. (Only use one of these examples). This increases likelihood of sample being representative

Representative Sample- goal of sampling, select a sample representative of a larger population. (Example- a representative sample at Butler would have roughly 15% Latino-Americans).

Stratified Sample allows researchers to ensure that a sample is directly representative of the population on some criteria. For example: Representative by race. If a population of 1000 has 500 white, 300 black, 200 latino then one would choose 50 white, 30 black, and 20 latino individuals for a sample of 100 total participants.

EXPERIMENT

Experimental method- this is the preferred method because it expresses a cause and effect relationship. You can do this by manipulating a variable. The disadvantage is that sometimes you cannot generalize what happens in a controlled laboratory environment to the real world.

Experiemntal/Control condtions- experiments requires these 2 groups. The experimental group

receives the independent variable to see if had any effect.

Independent variable- manipulated variable. (Ex.-the pill if youre testing a pill to see if it relieves hyperactivity or

depression.). This is given to the experimental group only.

Dependent variable- (measured variable) change in this is dependent on change in independent variable. This is the outcome

and is often a score or number.

Confounding variable- any difference between the experimental and control conditions that might affect the dependent variable (rule out anything that might affect validity of experiment) (example: the time of day or the room temperature in which two experiment were conducted. This is called situation relevant confounding variable)

Random assignment- participants are randomly assigned to either the control (group not receiving the treatment) or experimental group. (group receiving treatment) . This controls for any preexisting differences in the groups (bias). Differences in the participants is called participant relevant confounding variable.

Experimental bias- unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control group differently because he/she knows what the experiment is about

Double-blind procedure- neither the subjects nor researchers are aware of control/experiment (or those receiving placebo). This eliminates experimenter or subject bias. A single blind controls foe subject bias (he/she does not know about the experiment)

Hawthorne Effect- study in which workers were monitored to see if the amount of light in a room would affect worker productivity. Under both conditions, performance increased because they were being watched. This cause need for control group.

Placebo/ Placebo Effect- (example is a sugar pill) this controls for possible subject bias where the subjects knowledge of the treatment may cause them to think they are having the effects.

CORRELATION

Correlation- expresses a relationship between 2 variables. Correlations may be positive or negative, strong or weak. A Positive correlation is when both variables increase or both variables decrease at the same time. (Hint: when multiplying integers in math a negative times a negative equals a positive.) Negative correlation is when one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Sometimes a survey is used

Correlation does not mean causation- there are usually several different causes of something.

Naturalistic observation- . Research conducted in natural habitat (animals or humans). No interaction with subjects.

Case study- Positive: in-depth detailed study of individual or small groups. Criticism is that findings cannot be generalized to larger population.

STATISTICS

Measures of central tendency- mean (avg.), median (middle score), mode (most frequently occurring score)

Outliers Extreme scores - these can distort the mean (Ex. Bill Gates moves into a poor town and the average net worth rises to one million, If a student scores a zero on a test this brings down the class average)

Skewed Distributions Positively skewed contains more low scores than high scores (Bill Gates example) Negatively skewed contains more high scores. (Student with zero on test)

Measures of variability- range, variance, standard deviation, percentiles

Standard Deviation and variance -relates to the average distance of any score in a distribution from the mean. EX. If the mean on a standardized test is 78 and 1 SD (1z) = 7. Then 68% of test takers score between 71 and an 85. Then 2SD (2z) = 14. Then 95% of test takers score between 64 and 92. Then 3SD (3z) = 21, Then 99.9% of test takers score between 57 and 99.

Variance Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. Ex. If Variance is 25 then standard deviation is 5

Z-score measures the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation (1 z score = 1 Standard Deviation) If the score is below the mean, the z score is negative, above the mean then the z-score is positive.

Normal Curve theoretical bell-shaped curve. In a normal distribution, 68% fall within one Standard Deviation from the mean. 95% fall within 2SD and 99% fall within 3 SD

Correlational Coefficient- a number given showing the strength of the correlation. This ranges from positive 1 to negative 1. The farther away from 0 (either pos. or neg.) the stronger the correlation.

Scatter plots- used to show positive/negative correlations. If line goes up its positive.

Inferential Statistics statistical methods that determine if findings can be applied to a larger population. (ex. T-tests, ANOVAs and MANOVAs)

Statistical Significance and P Value Inferential statistics tests yield a p-value. If a p-value is equal to or less than .05 then the test is statistically significant. This means that there is a 5% chance exists that the results occurred by chance. A p-value will never be 0 because we can never be 100% certain the results are not due to chance.

All research must first be proposed to the Institutional Review Board and meet the following APA Ethical Guidelines

Animal Research-

- Clear, scientific purpose

- Humane treatment

- Acquire subjects legally

- Use procedures employing least amount of suffering feasible

Human Research-

- Informed consent (explain research and receive a signature).

- No coercion (cannot force to do)

- Debriefing (explain to subject the purpose (even if deceived a little) and results.

- No mental/physical risk/harm

-anonymity/confidentiality must be guaranteed.

Social Psychology (8-10%)

Mere exposure effect - the more you see something or someone familiarity occurs, which breeds acceptance. EX.- buying advertised namebrands, ad jingles often use popular songs, jingles. EX. once politicians win one term in office they are much more likely to win again

Central Route to Persuasion using facts and logic to persuade someone, message would be deeply processed

Peripheral Route to Persuasion using emotional appeal to persuade someone, message would be shallowly processed

. Ex. Car companies using beautiful women to sell cars OR polticians putting fear into voters minds.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory: if behaviors and attitudes/beliefs do not match then tension arises. Attitudes or behaviors must become consistent to relieve tension. EX. You think speeding is wrong and yet, you speed. You either stop speeding or say speeding is ok.

Festinger and Carlsmith Study participants complete a boring task. Some were paid $1 to lie to incoming participants and say the task was enjoyable. Others were paid $20 to lie. The subjects who were only paid $1 were more likely to feel dissonance because they receive insufficient justification for lying. As a response to the dissonance those paid $1 changed their mind and said the task was actually enjoyable, to remove the dissonance. Those paid $20 believed their lies were justified and did not feel dissonance and maintained that the task was boring.

Compliance Strategies

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: tendency for people who first agree with small request to larger one. EX.- Get someone to lend you 5$ he/she is more likely to lend you 15$ later.

Door-in-the face Ex. Ask someone for $100, he says No easier to get $20.

Norms of Reciprocity- after giving something to somebody it is easier to receive something back because they feel as if they owe you. EX- Companies send something free in the mail.

Attribution Theory: tendency to give causal explanation of behavior to persons situation (external) or disposition (biological trait).

Ex. Johnny is a bad kid. Situation attribution Johnny feeds off of other bad kids in the class. Disposition attribution Johnny is bad in all situations

Self-fulfilling prophecy- ones beliefs/expectations about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the belief. (EX. - teacher is told specific students are on the verge of significant academic growth. By the end of the year these students IQs grew more than the others. This was attributed to how the teacher treated them and was called the Pygmalion in the classroom experiment.

Fundamental Attribution error: tendency to overestimate impact of personal disposition

False Consensus Effect tendency for people to overestimate the number of people that agree with them

Self-serving bias: to take more credit for good outcomes than deserve. ( EX. coach emphasizes his/her role in win, blames players, referees when lose)

Just world phenomenon tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve. (EX- poor are poor because theyre lazy)

Outgroup homogeneity tendency to see members of your own group as more diverse than members of other groups

In-group bias preference for members of own group (most similar to you in gender, race, class, age, proximity (EX- belief that Butler students are better than Providence students (even though this is a fact).

Prejudice and Contact Theory Contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity if the two groups are made to work toward a superordinate goal.

Sherifs study combative boys at summer camp began getting along after working cooperatively toward a shared superordinate goal. This led to the use of cooperative learning groups to help alleviate prejudice. This also caused an increased use of cooperative learning (groupwork- with one grade) in schools during integration.

Frustration-aggression hypothesis- frustration creates anger

Bystander effect (aka bystander intervention) tendency for bystanders to be less likely to give aid the larger the amount of bystanders that are present. This is known as a diffusion of responsibility- EX. Kitty Genovese raped in NY.. Pluralistic Ignorance is the tendency for people to look to others to decide what is right in a situation. Ex:seeing smoke in a room while taking a test. Also people will judge the seriousness of situation before intervening.

Altruism unselfish giving

Attraction Studies -we are attracted to people based on similarity, proximity and reciprocal liking. Thus, opposites do not usually attract, absence does not usually make the heart grow fonder. Also, better looking people are perceived as being more intelligent and confident.

Social facilitation tendency to perform better (on easier tasks) with an audience

Social Impairment (aka social inhibition): tendency to perform worse (on difficult tasks) with an audience

Conformity- changing ones attitudes/behaviors to match a group norm.

Aschs study of Conformity Q. Which line matches the standard line? Group pressure caused participants to change opinions (even when answer is obvious) about a third of the time. Conformity did not increase after 3 members were in group.

Individualism- behaviors/decisions relatively uninfluenced from that of the majority groups.

Milgrams study of Obedience: Subjects were deceived into thinking that they were shocking someone. Participants continued shocking other participants while they were screaming to Stop! Obedience increased when: 1) authority close at hand 2) authority by prestigious institution 3) victim depersonalized (in another room) 4) no role models for defiance. This experiment has been criticized on ethical grounds. 63% went to XXX. It showed how ordinary people can be influenced by authority figures to do immoral things.

Norms- rules about how group members should act

Social loafing: individual tendency for effort to decrease when working in groups

Group polarization- enhancement of groups attitudes more toward the extreme through discussion in a group .EX. after spending 3 hours on a hate group chat line one feels even more hatred toward that group.

Deindividuation loss of self-restraint in-group situations where one becomes anonymous. If you could be invisible for 24 hours what would you do.

Group Think- mode of thinking when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. EX- Pres. Kennedys advisors decided to invade Cuba or the decision to launch the spaceship challenger or Iraq invasion.

Prejudice- usually negative, unjustifiable attitude toward a group.

Discrimination: negative action taken against prejudice group

Principles shown in Zimbardos Prison Experiment Deindividuation (prisoner and guards lost their own identity and began to do things they would not do if they were identifiable) and Role Playing (Prisoners and Guards began to take their roles too seriously.

Biological Basis of Behavior (Neuroscience) (8-10%)

Neuroanatomy- anatomy of nerve cell (neuron)

Dendrites- root like, makes synaptic connections with other neurons. Receives the neurotransmitter on receptor sites

Cell body- (aka soma) contains nucleus.

Axon - longest part of neuron.

Myelin sheath- covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses.. Breakdown of Mylin Sheath (MS) is related to Multiple Sclerosis (MS).

Terminal Buttons of axon (aka end buttons, terminal branches, synaptic knobs))- branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters

synaptic vesicles (holds neurostransmitter until release)

Neurotransmitters chemicals that enable neurons to communicate

Synapse- space between neurons.

Neuron in a resting state negative ions within the cell and mostly positive ions on the outside

Action potential electrical message firing

Threshold- neurons are pushed past this to begin the firing. (Toilet flushing)

Neuron firing- all or nothing either fires or doesnt (like a toilet flushing)

Refractory period brief time when a neuron must recharge and cannot fire (toilet)

Sodium and Potassium Ions

Neuron has a negative charge at rest (analogy was dirty urine(negative) water in toilet

Slightly positive charge sodium ions on the outside (analogy was clean water waiting to rush in when flushed)

During the firing, sodium ions rush in the axon causing depolarization

Potassium ions rush out of the axon causing it to return to its resting state (negative charge)

Inhibitory neurotransmitters chemicals that inhibit (slow down) the next cell from firing (Antagonist)

Excitatory neurotransmitters chemicals that excite (speed up) the next cell firing (Agonist)

Reuptake The re-absorption of neurotransmitters from the sending neuron

Neurotransmitter- _______ Function Problem associated with it

a.) Acetylcholine (Ach) motor movement Alzheimers (lack of Ach)

b.) Dopamine motor movement Parkinsons and Schizophrenia (excess)

c.) Serotonin mood Depression

d.) Endorphins (substance p) pain Addictions

e.) Norepenephrine mood Depression

Afferent/Efferent neurons- acronym is SAME. Sensory Afferent / Motor Efferent. Sensory neurons (Afferent) go from body to brain such as when you sense pain from hitting your knee. Motor neurons go from brain to body such as when your brain and tells you to raise your hand to catch a ball.

Interneurons- take messages from the sensory neurons to motor neurons

Reflexes are processed by the spine.

CNS (Central Nervous System) - brain and spinal cord

PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) all other nerves in your body

Autonomic controls automatic functions of the body such as heart, lungs

Sympathetic Nervous System- arouses body systems, decreases digestion, dilates pupil

Parasympathetic Nervous System- calms body systems, increases digestion, contracts pupil etc. (Mnemonic: once your parachute opens you calm, the paramedics come to calm you down)

Somatic controls voluntary muscle movements

Reflexes spine sends message to body

STUDYING THE BRAIN

Accidents Phineas Gage thought, planning emotion are located in front of brain

Lesion- removal or destruction of part of the brain.

EEG- detects electrical activity of brain waves. Uses electrodes

CAT (aka CT Scan) - x-ray of brain structure only

MRI- locates brain material. Most detailed picture

PET- activity of brain in pictures. Use of radioactive glucose to locate activity

FMRI A combination of the PET scan and MRI, shows brain activity using an MRI

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

Medulla- heartbeat, breathing

Pons- controls facial expressions.

Cerebellum- balance, motor movement (Mnemonic: Sara on a balance beam)

Thalamus- contains sensory (senses) cortex (except smell)

Hypothalamus body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst

Amygdala- emotions (Mnemonic: Picture a friend named Amy that is very emotional)

Hippocampus- formation of new memories (Mnemonic: If you saw a hippo on campus you wouldnt forget it)

Reticular Formation responsible for body arousal (Mnemonic: tic toc an alarm clock wakes you up)

HEMISPHERES

Contra lateral control- the left hemisphere controls the motor movement of the right hand.

Hemispheric Specialization (aka brain lateralization)- outdated theory suggesting that each hemisphere controls all specific functions. Its factual however that the left is where most language takes place. Right is spatial. (map reading etc.)

Split brain patients can write a word they see in the right visual field but cannot say it because the left hemisphere controls language

Corpus collosum- connects the 2 hemispheres and transmits messages to each other. People who get epileptic seizures have this surgically cut and become split brain patients.

AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

Brocas Area- speech production (broken CD player does not make sound)

Wernickes Area- language comprehension.

Frontal Lobe (aka prefrontal cortex)- thought, planning, judgement

Parietal Lobe- sensory cortex, sense of touch.

Occipital Lobe- vision. (Optometrist and Optical illusion starts with an O)

Temporal Lobe- auditory, sound.

Motor Cortex sends signals to the muscles, controlling voluntary movement. Located at the back of the frontal lobe

Sensory Cortex receives incoming touch sensations from the body. Located at the front of the parietal lobe.

Brain Plasticity- specific parts of brain can adapt to perform tasks of other parts of brain. This helps explain phantom limb sensations. (Video with armless man)

Endocrine System- system of glands that secrete hormones including adrenal (adrenaline), testes (testosterone), ovaries (estrogen)

Endocrine System Glands:

Pituitary controls other glands

Thyroid controls metabolism

Pineal sleep/wake cycle

Pancreas digestion / secrets insulin

CH 3 Nature v Nurture

Evolutionary psychology (aka sociobiology) / Natural selection / Darwin/ human behavior involves those traits that have helped us survive and get passed down.

Gender Typing- - the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Gender Roles a set of expectations for males and females.

Gender constancy- knowledge that Gender is constant (permanent).

GENETICS

Downs Syndrome- babies with extra chromosome (form of mental retardation)

Twin Studies- Bouchard found 100 sets of twins separated at birth and raised in different environments.

Developmental Psychology (7-9 %)

RESEARCH METHODS

Cross-sectional studies participants of different ages.

Longitudinal studies same participants over long period of time. Positive is same participants neg. time consuming

Maturation- development that is relatively uninfluenced by experience. Ex. Cannot teach a 6 month old to walk

Teratogens- chemicals or agents that if ingested by mother can cause harm (ex. Fetal alcohol syndrome).

REFLEXES

Rooting- baby touched on cheek turns head in search of nipple

Moro- when startled baby flings arm out

Babinski- curls toes when touched on bottom of foot

Newborns Senses- can hear before birth, can only see 8-12 inches, same taste/smell preferences as adult humans.

Self-Recognition (Rogue Test) occurs in the Sensorimotor stage (btw ages 1-2) Small children with rouge on their forehead recognize themselves and notice something different about their appearance

Critical Period the vital time in which some development must occur

Ex. Lorenz and Imprinting

Ex. Language development

Habituation decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus. Eventually a baby will become disinterested with the ball.

Theory of Mind the belief that others think, feel and perceive develops in the preoperational stage

Ex. Autistic individuals lack theory of mind (also lack verbal communication skills)

PARENTING

Attachment Theories (bond between child and parent)

Lorenz imprinting of Geese- animals form attachments to first object they see shortly after birth

Harlows monkeys. Baby monkeys preferred wire mother with fur over wire mother with bottle. This proved that babies do not form attachment to mothers just because of nourishment but rather contact comfort. Also showed monkeys becoming stressed/frightened when placed in new situation

Mary Ainsworth studied how human babies reacted when placed in strange situations away from mother. This suggested whether they had formed secure or resistant/ambivalent attachments which effected then throughout their life. Secure babies explore environment, stressed when mom leaves and come to parents upon return

Parenting Styles

authoritative (most well adjusted individuals- consistent rules with an explanation, sometimes rules are arrived at democratically)

authoritarian (rhymes with librarian or totalitarian). Q. Why cant I stay out later? A. Because I said so.

permissive (few rules or consequences)

STAGE THEORISTS

Continuity v. discontinuity Q. Do we develop in stages or continuously?

ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE THEORY (in chronological order) - experiences with others are important. Humans hope to end each stage closer to the first concept.

Trust v. mistrust- (Birth to 1) - establishes a sense of basic trust in world

Autonomy v. shame/doubt (favorite word is No- shows independence, toilet training)

Initiative v. guilt (favorite word is Q. Why?)

Industry (or competence) v. inferiority (elementary years) - may develop inferiority complex if not successful at elementary tasks.

Identity v. role confusion (adolescence= teens) test out different roles

Intimacy v. isolation (20s-30s)

Generativity v. stagnation (middle age)- psychological need to give to the next generation

Integrity v. despair. (Late adulthood) look back and decide if a.)We are satisfied with accomplishments b.)life was meaningful

PIAGETS COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Schema aka schemata- conceptual framework (interpretation) of the world based on experiences, stereotypes etc.

Assimilation- attempting to incorporate new information into existing schema. (Ex. Boy say doggy for all 4 legged animals)

Accommodation- changing our schema to fit new information. (EX- Some 4 legged animals are horses, some are cows)

Sensorimotor (0-2) Object Permanence. Child learns that if a ball leaves the room it still exists.

Preoperational (2-7) egocentrism (child is center of the universe), language development, Artificialism (belief that humans make everything), establishes a theory of mind

Concrete operational (7-11) conservation-child learns that volume of liquid remains the same even when the shape of glass changes. (Tall glass, short fat glass) Another example is cutting a sandwich in half seems like more. Logical thinking also develops.

Formal operational (11-adult) ability to think abstractly, hypothetically and morally reason

Criticism of Piagets cognitive development - Piaget underestimated children (Children begin stages earlier than expected and pass through stages faster than expected.), Development may be more continuous than occur in discrete stages.

KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT- gave people of varying ages the Heinz Dilemma (Q. Should he steal drug to save wife?)

Preconventional- morality based on rewards and punishment.

Conventional- morality based on social acceptance, approval. Ex. obeying laws.

Postconventional-morality based on ethical principles (Ex- breaking a law that you think is unjust (civil disobedience)

Criticism of Kohlberg from Carol Gilligan - Boys/Girls come to moral conclusions differently.

Sensation and Perception- (6-8%) activation of our senses (eyes, ears, smell, taste, touch)

Transduction - sensory signals are transformed into neural impulses which travel to the thalamus (except smell)

Sensory Adaptation Decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation.

Selective Attention (cocktail party effect) - can only focus on one thing at a time. However, if sense carries meaning (such as hearing your name) then focuses changes.

Inattentional blindness- failing to see visible oblects when our attention is elsewhere (moonwalking bear OR texting while driving)

Change blindness- failing to notice changes in the environment

ENERGY SENSES (hearing, feeling, seeing)

Vision

Step one - gathering light

The color we see is determined by light intensity and light wavelength

Intensity- brightness of objects

Wavelength- determines hue (color) Wavelengths shorter than visible light = ultraviolet waves and x-rays

Step 2 -Within Eye

Cornea- light enters eye

Pupil- like the shutter of a camera, the iris opens, closes based on how much light should enter it

Iris muscles that open and close the pupil to let more or less light in

Lens- curvature is changed by a process called accommodation which helps with focus

Retina- inverted image is projected

Step 3 Transduction light is transformed into neural impulses

Rods (night vision- black/white), cones (color). Hint: Co/Co (bipolar, ganglion cells)

Foveal vision (more cones, clarity aka visual acuity) vs. Peripheral vision . Rods are located at the periphery of the retina.

Stroop Effect- when reading words such as red, blue or yellow that are written in a color different from the word then the brain has a more difficult time processing

Step 4 In the Brain- Hubel and Weisel discovered feature detectors- specific parts of the brain that detect form, shape, horizontal lines, angles etc.- Ex. Kittens that do not use these by a certain critical period may not have them.

THEORIES OF COLOR VISION

Trichromatic theory- 3 types of cones in retina blue, red, green = primary colors of light.

Opponent- Process theory- 3 pairs (6 colors) red/green, yellow/blue, black/white pairs Explains color blindness (usually a red/green deficiency) and afterimages. (Stare at black, green, yellow flag)

HEARING

Sound waves have amplitude (height of wave-loudness) and frequency (length of wave- think of how frequent a wave comes by. This determines pitch)

Sound Localization sound waves from the right arrive in the right ear before the left. This is how we can tell the direction of a sound. Sounds coming from directly in front, above or behind us are more difficult to locate since the waves arrive at the same time

Order in which sound waves travel through the ear ear canal, eardrum, hammer, anvil, stirrup (middle ear), cochlea

Cochlea- structure shaped like a snails shell filled with fluid, this is where transduction occurs.

Conductive v Nerve Deafness- Conductive is a mechanical problem, Nerve is damage by loud noise- concerts etc.

TOUCH

Gate-control theory- explains how we experience pain. Endorphins swing the gate open or shut and messages are sent to the brain. Pressure, Pain, warmth and cold= 4 sensations

CHEMICAL SENSES

Taste (Gustation) taste buds located on papillae (bumps) The more densely packed, the stronger the taste. sweet, sour, salty and bitter.

Smell (Olfactory) - what we taste is combination of both chemical systems

Vestibular Sense tells us about how our body is positioned. Tubes from semicircular canals in the ear fill with liquid as body moves. (Explains Roller coaster nausea, dizziness.)

Kinesthetic Sense- knowledge of where our body parts are (touching ones nose with fingers) - athletes

Perception - process of understanding/interpreting our sensations

THRESHOLDS

Absolute threshold- smallest amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time (EX. See a candle flame 30 miles away).

Subliminal- stimulation below threshold. Does NOT change unwanted behavior

Difference threshold- (JND- Just Noticeable difference) smallest amount of change in a stimulus that is detectable (EX. Detecting the difference in weight between 2 and 3 donuts but not 4 and 5 donuts.

Webers Law- change needs to occur in proportion (EX. 10 pound weight gain by a 100 pound person is noticeable. You may need a 20 pound weight gain on a 200 pound person)

Signal Detection Theory when we have stimuli happening at the same time we tend to detect the one that is most important to us (EX. - mother hears baby crying in another room while she is having a conversation with someone). Mistakes are in the form of false positives (thinking you perceive a stimuli that is not present) or false negatives (not perceiving a stimuli that is present)

Top- down processing- Perception (higher level) we perceive things by filling in gaps often using background knowledge. EX- seeing faces in the rocks of textbook picture.

Schemata mental representation of how we perceive the world.

Perceptual set (expectancy set) a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. (Ex. Believing in the Loch Ness Monster makes you expect to see it in the picture. Ex. Being told that a munchkin hung himself on the set of the Wizard of Oz causes one to see this.)

Bottom-up processing- Sensation - use only the features of objects to perceive.

Figure ground illusion- part of visual image is the figure and part is the background (EX. Vase and two faces)

Gestalt Rules- Perceptual grouping to make objects meaningful.

a. Proximity- objects closer perceived to be grouped

b. Similarity- objects similar in appearance are grouped. watching a basketball game and seeing 5 red players and 5 green players rather than 10 players.

c. Continuity- objects with continuous form

d. Closure- filling in gaps. (Ex.- seeing a connect the dots picture and saying, thats a dog

e. Connectedness- seeing objects as connected if they meet

Constancy our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in angle, light, distance, (shape, brightness, size)

Phi Phenomenon A series of lights turned on and off at a particular rate will appear to be one moving light.

DEPTH CUES

Visual cliff- experiment by Eleanor Gibson used to measure when an infant develops depth perception. (Using glass table)

Monocular cues require only one eye for depth (EX- artists use these in paintings to show depth)a. Linear perspective- railroad tracks being drawn as in the distanceb. Relative size- larger = closer

c. Relative Height higher in field of vision = distant

d. Relative Clarity- more clear = closer

c. Interposition- objects blocking must be closer

e. Texture gradient- see details = closer

F.Relative motion (Motion Parallax) when we are moving objects closer appear to move faster than objects far away. Explains the moon illusion as if moon is following you.

Binocular Cues looking at 3 dimensional objects requires both eyes for depthRetinal Disparity- each eye sees slightly different view of objectConvergence- as object gets closer to face, moves eyes towards one another

Muller-Lyer illusion-. Perceptual illusion dealing with which line is longer. Research found that humans not exposed to right angles/corners or do not see buildings in their cultures are not fooled by the illusion.