Radiation , Types of Radiation , Uses and the Effect

8/13/2019 Radiation , Types of Radiation , Uses and the Effect

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Radiation , Types of Radiation , uses and The effect

Radiation, as used in physics, is energyin the form of wavesor moving subatomic particles. Radiation

can be classified as ionizingornon-ionizing radiation,depending on its effect on atomic matter. The most

common use of the word "radiation" refers to ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation has enough energy

to ionize atoms or molecules while non-ionizing radiation does not. Radioactive materialis a physicalmaterial that emits ionizing radiation.

This shows three different types of radiation and their penetration levels

Types of Radiation

Electromagnetic radiation !Energy in the form of electromagnetic waves or photons.

o #on-ionizing

Thermal radiation !heat radiation Radio waves

$icrowave radiation, as used in microwave ovens

Infrared radiation !IR, produced by heat

%isible light light that is visible to the na&ed eye

'ltraviolet radiation !'% is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter

than that of visible light, but longer than soft (-rays.

o Ionizing

(-rays, used in radiographyfor medical diagnosis

)amma radiation, usually emitted by radioactive atoms

*article radiation !Energy in the form of moving subatomic particles.

o +lpha radiation, composed of the nucleiof helium-atomso eta radiation, consisting of energetic electronsor positrons

o #eutron radiation, consisting ofneutrons

The effect of magnetic and electric fields on these particlesrays

*ositively charged alpha particles are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.

#egatively charged beta particles are also deflected by both types of fields, but in the opposite

direction from alpha particles.

#eutrons and electromagnetic radiation have no charge, and are unaffected by electromagnetic

fields.

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(-rays!or R/ntgen rays are a form of electromagnetic radiationwith awavelengthin the range of01 to 1.10 nanometers, corresponding to fre2uenciesin the range 31 *4zto 31 E4z. (-rays are

primarily used for diagnostic radiographyand crystallography. (-rays are a form of ionizing radiation

and as such can be dangerous. In many languages it is calledRntgen radiationafter one of the first

investigators of the (-rays, 5ilhelm 6onrad R/ntgen.+n (-ray picture !radiograph, ta&en by 5ilhelm R/ntgenin 0789, of his wife, +nna ertha :udwig;soft (-rays overlap the range of e?treme ultraviolet. The

fre2uency of hard (-rays is higher than that of soft (-rays, and the wavelength is shorter. 4ard (-rays

overlap the range of "long"-wavelength !lower energy gamma rays, however the distinction between thetwo terms depends on the source of the radiation, not its wavelength@ (-ray photonsare generated by

energetic electronprocesses, gamma rays by transitions within atomic nuclei.

(-ray A-series spectral line wavelengths !nm for some common target materials.


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$e 1.193GG8 1.19G188 1.11831 1.103F8

The basic production of (-rays is by accelerating electrons in order to collide with a metal target. !In

medical applications, this is usually tungstenor a more crac& resistant alloy of rhenium!F andtungsten !8F, but sometimesmolybdenumfor more specialised applications, such as when soft (-rays

are needed as in mammography. In crystallography, a coppertarget is most common, with cobaltoften

being used when fluorescence from ironcontent in the sample might otherwise present a problem. 4ere

the electrons suddenly decelerate upon colliding with the metal target and if enough energy is contained

within the electron it is able to &noc& out an electron from the inner shellof the metal atom and as a

result electrons from higher energy levels then fill up the vacancy and (-ray photons are emitted. This

process is e?tremely inefficient !J1.0 and thus to produce reasonable flu? of (-rays plenty of energy

has to be wasted into heat which has to be removed.

The spectral lines generated depends on the target !anode element used and thus are called

characteristic lines. 'sually these are transitions from upper shells into A shell !called A lines, into :shell !called : lines and so on. There is also a continuumBremsstrahlungradiation given off by the

electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the high-H !protonnumber nuclei.

(-rays can detect cancer, cysts, and tumors. Kue to their short wavelength, in medical applications (-

rays act more li&e a particle than a wave. This is in contrast to their application in crystallagraphy,

where their wave-li&e nature is most important.

#owadays, for many !non-medical applications, (-ray production is achieved by synchrotrons!see

synchrotron light.

To create a blood or artery (-ray, also called digital angiography, iodine is inLected into the veins and adigitized image is created. Then, a second image is established of only the parts of the (-rayed section

without iodine. The first image is subtracted then a final image is produced containing both the first and

second images together. :astly, the results are printed. The doctor or surgeon then compares the results

of the angiography to a perfect angiography structure to see if there are any malfunctions.

To ta&e an (-ray of the bones, no iodization is re2uired. >hort (-ray pulses are shot through a body at

first. #e?t, the bones absorb the most waves because they are more dense and contain 6a which absorbs

stronger than the carbon, o?ygen, and nitrogen atoms of soft tissue !due to more electrons in 6a atom.

$edical uses

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(-Ray Image of the *aranasal >inuses, :ateral *roLection

>ince R/ntgen;s discovery that (-rays can identify bony structures, (-rays have been developed for their

use inmedical imaging. Radiologyis a specialized field of medicine. Radiographers employ radiography

and other techni2ues for diagnostic imaging. Indeed, this is probably the most common use of (-ray

technology.

(-rays are especially useful in the detection of pathology of the s&eletal system, but are also useful for

detecting some disease processes in soft tissue. >ome notable e?amples are the very common chest (-ray,

which can be used to identify lung diseases such as pneumonia, lung canceror pulmonary edema, and

the abdominal (-ray, which can detect ileus!bloc&age of theintestine, free air !from visceral

perforations and free fluid !in ascites. In some cases, the use of (-rays is debatable, such as gallstones

!which are rarely radiopa2ue or&idney stones!which are often visible, but not always. +lso,

traditional plain (-rays pose very little use in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brainor muscle.

Imaging alternatives for soft tissues are computed a?ial tomography!6+T or 6T scanning, magnetic

resonance imaging!$RI or ultrasound. >ince G11F, (-rays are listed as a carcinogenby the '.>.

government.

Radiotherapy, a curative medical intervention, now used almost e?clusively for cancer, employs higher

energies of radiation.

The efficiency of (-ray tubes is less than G. $ost of the energy is used to heat up the anode.

Mther uses

Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of

scattered (-rays passing through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crystalline structure.

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Mther notable uses of (-rays include

(-ray crystallography in which the pattern produced by the diffractionof (-rays through the

closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then analyzed to reveal the nature of

that lattice !most notably used by Rosalind Dran&linto discover thedouble heli?structure of

K#+.

(-ray astronomy, which is an observational branch of astronomy, which deals with the study of

(-ray emission from celestial obLects.

(-ray microscopic analysis, which uses electromagnetic radiationin the soft (-ray band toproduce images of very small obLects.

(-ray fluorescence, a techni2ue in which (-rays are generated within a specimen and detected.

The outgoing energy of the (-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample.

*aintings are often (-rayed to reveal the underdrawingand pentimentior alterations in the

course of painting, or by later restorers. $any pigmentssuch as lead whiteshow well in (-ray

photographs

)amma rays!denoted asN are a form of electromagnetic radiationor light emissionoffre2uencies produced by sub-atomicparticle interactions, such as electron-positron annihilationorradioactive decay. )amma rays are generally characterized as electromagnetic radiationhaving the

highest fre2uency and energy, and also the shortest wavelength, within the electromagnetic spectrum,

i.e. high energy photons. Kue to their high energy content, they can cause serious damage when absorbed

by living cells

'ses

ecause the wavelength of gamma radiation is so short, a single incident photon can impart significant

damage to a living cell. This property means that gamma radiation is often used to &ill living organisms,

in a process called irradiation. +pplications of this include sterilising medical e2uipment !as analternative to autoclavesor chemical means, removing decay-causing bacteriafrom many foodstuffs or

preventing fruit and vegetables from sprouting to maintain freshness and flavour.

Kue to their tissue penetrating property, gamma rays(-rays have a wide variety of medical uses such as

in 6T >cansand radiation therapy!seeX-ray. 4owever, as a form of ionizing radiationthey have the

ability to effect molecular changes, giving them the potential to cause cancerwhen K#+is affected. The

molecular changes can also be used to alter the properties of semi-precious stones, and is often used to

change white topaz into blue topaz.

Kespite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types of cancer. In the

procedure called gamma-&nifesurgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are directed on thegrowth in order to &ill the cancerous cells. The beams are aimed from different angles to focus the

radiation on the growth while minimizing damage to the surrounding tissues.

4ealth effect

The gamma rays are the most dangerous form of radiation emitted by a nuclear e?plosionbecause of the

difficulty in stopping them. They are also the smallest ray in the electromagnetic spectrum. )amma-rays

are not stopped by the s&in. They can induce K#+ alteration by interfering with the genetic material of

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the cell. K#+ double-strand brea&s are generally accepted to be the most biologically significant lesion

by which ionizing radiation causes cancer and hereditary disease.


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+lpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generatorsused for space

probesand artificial heart pacema&ers. +lpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other

forms of radioactive decay. *lutonium-G37, for e?ample, re2uires only G.F mmof leadshielding to

protect against unwanted radiation.

beta decay

In nuclear physics, beta decay is a type ofradioactivedecay in which a beta particle!an electronor apositron is emitted. In the case of electron emission, it is referred to as "beta minus" !B, while in the

case of a positron emissionas "beta plus" !BQ.

In Bdecay, the wea& interactionconverts a neutron!n1 into aproton !pQ while emitting an electron !e

and an anti-neutrino!

.

+t the fundamentallevel !as depicted in the Deynman diagrambelow, this is due to the conversion of a

down 2uar&to an up 2uar&by emission of a 5- boson@ the 5-boson subse2uently decays into an

electron and an anti-neutrino.

In BQdecay, energy is used to convert a proton into a neutron, a positron!eQ and a neutrino!Se

.

>o, unli&e beta minus decay, beta plus decay cannot occur in isolation, because it re2uires energy, the

massof the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton. eta plus decay can only happen inside

nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energyof the daughter nucleus is higher than that of the

mother nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into

a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the &inetic energy of these particles.

In all the cases where BQdecay is allowed energetically !and the proton is a part of a nucleus with

electron shells, it is accompanied by the electron captureprocess, when an atomic electron is captured

by a nucleus with the emission of a neutrino

.

ut if the energy difference between initial and final states is low !less than GmecG, then BQdecay is not

energetically possible, and electron captureis the sole decay mode.

If the proton and neutron are part of an atomic nucleus, these decay processes transmuteone chemicalelement into another. Dor e?ample

!beta minus,

!beta plus,

!electron capture.

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eta decay does not change the number of nucleonsAin the nucleus but changes only its chargeZ. Thus

the set of all nuclides with the sameAcan be introduced@ these isobaricnuclides may turn into each

other via beta decay. +mong them, several nuclides !at least one are beta stable, because they present

local minima of the mass e?cess if such a nucleus has !A,Z numbers, the neighbour nuclei !A,Z0 and

!A,ZQ0 have higher mass e?cess and can beta decay into !A,Z, but not vice versa. It should be noted,

that a beta-stable nucleus may undergo other &inds of radioactive decay !alpha decay, for e?ample. In

nature, most isotopes are beta stable, but a few e?ceptions e?ist with half-livesso long that they have not

had enough time to decay since the moment of their nucleosynthesis. Mne e?ample is 1 A, which

undergoes all three types of beta decay !beta minus, beta plus and electron capture with half life of0.G018years.

>ome nuclei can undergo double beta decay!BB decay where the charge of the nucleus changes by two

units. In most practically interesting cases, single beta decay is energetically forbidden for such nuclei,

because when B and BB decays are both allowed, the probability of B decay is !usually much higher,

preventing investigations of very rare BB decays. Thus, BB decay is usually studied only for beta stable

nuclei. :i&e single beta decay, double beta decay does not change A@ thus, at least one of the nuclides

with some givenAhas to be stable with regard to both single and double beta decay.

eta decay can be considered as a perturbation as described in 2uantum mechanics, and thus follows

Dermi;s )olden Rule.

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Radiation , Types of Radiation , Uses and the Effect

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Transcript of Radiation , Types of Radiation , Uses and the Effect