Rabindranath Tagore 2.docx

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Rabindra nath T a gore Rabindrana th Ta gore β[›]  (IPA: /rə bindrə n t t r/ ˈ ˈ ɑ ˈ ɑɡɔ  ( listen ); Bengali:  রবনথ ঠক     র , Bengali  pronunciation: [robin ro na aur] d t ʰ ʈʰ ), also !ritten "ab#ndran$t%a &%$ ura, [']  ( a* +-+ . August +0+), 1[›]  sobri2uet Gurudev, 3[›]  !as a Bengali  pol*4at% !%o res%aped Bengali literature and 4usic, as !ell as Indian art !it% 5onte6tual odernis4 in t%e late +t% and earl* '7t% centuries8 Aut%or o9 Gitanjali and its pro9oundl* sensitie, 9res% and beauti9ul erse, [<]  %e beca4e t%e 9irst non=>uropean to !in t%e  ?obel Pri@e in iteratu re in ++<8 [0]  In translation %is poetr* !as ie!ed as spiritual and 4ercurial; %o!eer, %is elegant prose and 4agical  poetr* re4ain larg el* unno!n outside Bengal8 []  &a gore introduced ne! prose and erse 9or4s and t%e use o9 collo2uial language into Bengali literature, t%ereb* 9reeing it 9ro4 traditional 4odels based on classical Cansrit8 De !as %ig%l* in9luential in introducing t%e best o9 Indian culture to t%e Eest and ice ersa, and %e is generall* regarded as t%e outstanding creatie artist o9 t%e 4odern Indian subcontinent, being %ig%l* co44e4orated in India and Banglades%, as !ell as in Cri ana, ?epal and Paistan8 [-][][] A Pirali Bra%4in 9ro4 Folata !it% ancestral gentr* roots in Gessore, &agore !rote poetr* as an eig%t=*ear=old8 []  A t age si6teen, %e r eleased %is 9irst substantial poe4s  under t%e pseudon*4 Bhānusi   ha (Cun ion), !%ic% !ere sei@ed upon b* literar* aut%orities as long=lost classics8 [-][+7]  De graduated to %is 9irst s%ort stories and dra4asHand t%e aegis o9 %is birt% na4eHb* +8 As a %u4anist, uniersalist internationalist, and strident nationalist %e denounced t%e "a and adocated independenc e 9ro4 Britain8 As an e6ponent o9 t%e  Bengal "enaissance , %e adanced a ast canon t%at co4prised paintings, setc%es and doodles, %undreds o9 te6ts, and so4e t!o t%ousand songs; %is legac* endures also in t%e institution %e 9ounded, Jisa=B%arati Kniersit*8 [++][+'][+<][+0][+] &a gore 4odernised Bengali art b* spurning rigid classical 9or4s and resisting linguistic strictures8 Dis noels, stories, songs, dance=dra4as, and essa*s spoe to topics political and personal8 Gitanjali (Song Offerings), Gora (  Fair-Faced ) and Ghare-Baire (The Hoe and the World ) are %is best=no!n !ors, and %is erse, s%ort stories, and noels !ere acclai4edHor pannedH9or t%eir l*ricis4, collo2uialis4, naturalis4, and unnatural conte4plation8 Dis co4positions !ere c%osen b* t!o nations as national ant%e4s: IndiaLs Jana Gana Mana and Banglades%Ls  ṃar Shonar Bang la 8 &%e original song o9  Cri anaMs ?ational Ant%e4 !as also !ritten and tuned b* &agore8  [+-] Early life: 1861–1878 Main article: Early life of Rabindranath Tagore 1

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&%e *oungest o9 t%irteen sur i ing c%ildren, &agore !as born in t%eGorasan o 4ansion in Fol ata, India to parentsNebendranat% &agore (+ + .+ 7 ) and Carada Ne i (+ <7.+ ) 8O[›][+ ] &%e &agore 9a4il* ca4e into pro4inenceduring t%e Bengal "enaissance t%at started during t%e age o9Dussein C%a% (+0 <.+ + )8 &%e original na4e o9 t%e&agore 9a4il* !as Baner ee8 Being Bra%4ins, t%eir ancestors !ere re9erred to as L&%a ur4as%aiL or LDol* CirL8Nuring t%e Britis% rule, t%is na4e stuc and t%e* began to be recognised as &%a ur and e entuall* t%e 9a4il* na4egot anglicised to &agore8&agore 9a4il* patriarc%s !ere t%eBra%4o 9ounders o9 t%eAdi N%ar4 9ait%8 &%e lo*alistPrince N!ar anat% &agore, !%o e4plo*ed >uropean estate 4anagers and isited !it% Jictoria and ot%er ro*alt*,!as %is paternal grand9at%er8[+ ] Nebendranat% %ad 9or4ulated t%e Bra%4oist p%ilosop%ies espoused b* %is 9riend

"a4 o%an "o* , and beca4e 9ocal in Bra%4o societ* a9ter "o*Ls deat%8[+ ] ['7]

&%e last t!o da*s a stor4 %as been raging, si4ilar to t%e description in 4* songH Jhauro jhauro !orishe !aridhara [888 a4idst it] a %apless,%o4eless 4an drenc%ed 9ro4 top to toe standing on t%e roo9 o9 %is stea4er [888] t%e last t!o da*s I %a e been singing t%is song o er ando er [888] as a result t%e pelting sound o9 t%e intense rain, t%e !ail o9 t%e !ind, t%e sound o9 t%e %ea ing orai ["]i er, %a e assu4ed a 9res%li9e and 9ound a ne! language and I %a e 9elt li e a 4a or actor in t%is ne! 4usical dra4a un9olding be9ore 4e8

"abi !as raised 4ostl* b* ser ants; %is 4ot%er %ad died in %is earl* c%ild%ood and %is 9at%er tra elled !idel*8[''] Dis %o4e %osted t%e publication o9 literar* 4aga@ines; t%eatre and recitals o9 bot% Bengali and Eestern classical4usic 9eatured t%ere regularl*, as t%e Gorasan o &agores !ere t%e center o9 a large and art=lo ing social group8&agoreLs oldest brot%erN!i endranat% !as a respected p%ilosop%er and poet8 Anot%er brot%er,Cat*endranat%, !as

t%e 9irst Indian appointed to t%e elite and 9or4erl* all=>uropeanIndian 5i il Cer ice 8 Qet anot%er brot%er,G*otirindranat%, !as a 4usician, co4poser, and pla*!rig%t8 ['<] Dis sister C!arna u4ari beca4e a no elist8G*otirindranat%Ls !i9eFada4bari , slig%tl* older t%an &agore, !as a dear 9riend and po!er9ul in9luence8 Der abruptsuicide in + 0, soon a9ter %e 4arried, le9t %i4 9or *ears pro9oundl* distraug%t8

&agore largel* a oided classroo4 sc%ooling and pre9erred to roa4 t%e 4anor or nearb*Bolpur and Pani%ati, id*lls!%ic% t%e 9a4il* isited8['0] [' ] Dis brot%er De4endranat% tutored and p%*sicall* conditioned %i4Hb* %a ing %i4s!i4 t%e anges or tre t%roug% %ills, b* g*4nastics, and b* practising udo and !restling8 De learned dra!ing,anato4*, geograp%* and %istor*, literature, 4at%e4atics, Cans rit, and >nglis%H%is least 9a ourite sub ect8['-] &agore loat%ed 9or4al educationH%is sc%olarl* tra ails at t%e localPresidenc* 5ollege spanned a single da*8 Qears

later %e %eld t%at proper teac%ing does not e6plain t%ings; proper teac%ing sto es curiosit*:[' ]

[It] noc [s] at t%e doors o9 t%e 4ind8 I9 an* bo* is as ed to gi e an account o9 !%at is a!a ened in %i4 b* suc%noc ing, %e !ill probabl* sa* so4et%ing sill*8 Ror !%at %appens !it%in is 4uc% bigger t%an !%at co4es out in!ords8 &%ose !%o pin t%eir 9ait% on uni ersit* e6a4inations as t%e test o9 education ta e no account o9 t%is8[' ]

A9ter %e under!ent anu"ana#an initiation at age ele en, %e and %is 9at%er le9t Fol ata in Rebruar* + < 9or a4ont%s=long tour o9 t%e "a 8 &%e* isited %is 9at%erLs Cantini etan estate and rested in A4ritsar en route to t%eDi4ala*an N%aulad%ars, t%eir destination being t%e re4ote %ill station atNal%ousie8 Along t%e !a*, &agore readbiograp%ies; %is 9at%er tutored %i4 in %istor*, astrono4*, and Cans rit declensions8 De read biograp%ies o9

Ben a4in Rran lin a4ong ot%er 9igures; t%e* discussed>d!ard ibbon Ls The Histor# of the $ecline and Fall of the%oṃan &ṃ"ire; and t%e* e6a4ined t%e poetr* o9F$lid$sa8[' ] In 4id=April t%e* reac%ed t%e station, and at ',<774etres ( , 0- 9t) t%e* settled into a %ouse t%at sat atop Ba rota Dill8 &agore !as ta en abac b* t%e regionLs deepgreen gorges, alpine 9orests, and 4oss* strea4s and !ater9alls8[' ] &%e* sta*ed t%ere 9or se eral 4ont%s and adopteda regi4e o9 stud* and pri ation t%at included dail* t!ilig%t bat%s ta en in ic* !ater 8[<7][<+]

De returned to Gorosan o and co4pleted a set o9 4a or !or s b* + , one o9 t%e4 a long poe4 in t%e ait%ili st*le o9Jid*apati ; t%e* !ere publis%ed pseudon*4ousl*8 "egional e6perts accepted t%e4 as t%e lost !or s o9B%$nusi4%a, a ne!l* disco ered S[›] + t%=centur*Jais%na a poet8[<'] De debuted t%e s%ort=stor* genre in Bengali!it% B%i %arini ( &%e Beggar Eo4an ), [<<][<0] and %isSandh#a Sangit (+ ') includes t%e 9a4ous poe4

?ir %arer C!apnab%anga ( &%e "ousing o9 t%e Eater9all )8 Cer ants sub ected %i4 to an al4ost ludicrousregi4entation in a p%ase %e dr*l* re iled as t%e ser ocrac* 8[< ] Dis %ead !as !ater=dun edHto 2uiet %i48 [<-] Deir ed %is ser ants b* re9using 9ood; %e !as con9ined to c%al circles in parod* o9CitaLs 9orest trial in t%e %aṃa#ana;and %e !as regaled !it% t%e %eroic cri4inal e6ploits o9 BengalLs outla!=dacoits8[< ] Because t%e Gorasan o 4anor!as in an area o9 nort% Fol ata ri9e !it% po ert* and prostitution,[< ] %e !as 9orbidden to lea e it 9or an* purpose

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ot%er t%an tra elling to sc%ool8 De t%us beca4e preoccupied !it% t%e !orld outside and !it% nature8 T9 %is + <isit to Cantini etan, %e !rote:

E%at I could not see did not ta e 4e long to get o erH!%at I did see !as 2uite enoug%8 &%ere !as no ser ant rule,and t%e onl* ring !%ic% encircled 4e !as t%e blue o9 t%e %ori@on, dra!n around t%ese solitudes b* t%eir presidinggoddess8 Eit%in t%is I !as 9ree to 4o e about as I c%ose8[< ]

Works

Fno!n 4ostl* 9or %is poetr*, &agore !rote no els, essa*s, s%ort stories, tra elogues, dra4as, and t%ousands o9songs8 T9 &agoreLs prose, %is s%ort stories are per%aps 4ost %ig%l* regarded; %e is indeed credited !it% originatint%e Bengali=language ersion o9 t%e genre8 Dis !or s are 9re2uentl* noted 9or t%eir r%*t%4ic, opti4istic, and l*ricalnature8 Cuc% stories 4ostl* borro! 9ro4 decepti el* si4ple sub ect 4atter: co44oners8 &agoreLs non=9ictiongrappled !it% %istor*, linguistics, and spiritualit*8 De !rote autobiograp%ies8 Dis tra elogues, essa*s, and lectures!ere co4piled into se eral olu4es, including &uro"e Jatrir 'atro ( (etters froṃ &uro"e) and Manusher $horṃo (The %eligion of Man)8 Dis brie9 c%at !it%>instein, ?ote on t%e ?ature o9 "ealit* , is included as an appendi6 tot%e latter8 Tn t%e occasion o9 &agoreLs + 7t% birt%da* an ant%olog* (titled )alanu*roṃi* %a!indra %achana!ali) o9t%e total bod* o9 %is !or s is currentl* being publis%ed in Bengali in c%ronological order8 &%is includes all ersionso9 eac% !or and 9ills about eig%t* olu4es8[ '] In '7++, Dar ard Kni ersit* Press collaborated !it% Jis a=B%arati

Kni ersit* to publis%The &ssential Tagore, t%e largest ant%olog* o9 &agoreLs !or s a ailable in >nglis%; it !asedited b* Ra rul Ala4 and "ad%a 5%a ra art%* and 4ar s t%e + 7t% anni ersar* o9 &agoreLs birt%8[ <]

No els&agore !rote eig%t no els and 9our no ellas, a4ong t%e4 +haturanga, Shesher )o!ita, +har Odha#, and,ou*adu!i 8Ghare Baire (The Hoṃe and the World )Ht%roug% t%e lens o9 t%e idealistic aṃindar protagonist ?i %ilHe6coriates rising Indian nationalis4, terroris4, and religious @eal in t%eS.adeshi 4o e4ent ; a 9ran e6pressiono9 &agoreLs con9licted senti4ents, it e4erged 9ro4 a + +0 bout o9 depression8 &%e no el ends in Dindu= usli4iolence and ?i %ilLsHli el* 4ortalH!ounding8 [+' ]

Gora raises contro ersial 2uestions regarding t%e Indian identit*8 As !it%Ghare Baire, 4atters o9 sel9=identit*( jāti), personal 9reedo4, and religion are de eloped in t%e conte6t o9 a 9a4il* stor* and lo e triangle8[+' ] In it anIris% bo* orp%aned in t%eCepo* utin* is raised b* Dindus as t%e titular gora H !%ite* 8 Ignorant o9 %is 9oreignorigins, %e c%astises Dindu religious bac sliders out o9 lo e 9or t%e indigenous Indians and solidarit* !it% t%e4against %is %ege4on=co4patriots8 De 9alls 9or a Bra%4o girl, co4pelling %is !orried 9oster 9at%er to re eal %is lostpast and cease %is nati ist @eal8 As a true dialectic ad ancing argu4ents 9or and against strict traditionalis4 , ittac les t%e colonial conundru4 b* portra*[ing] t%e alue o9 all positions !it%in a particular 9ra4e [888] not onl*s*ncretis4, not onl* liberal ort%odo6*, but t%e e6tre4est reactionar* traditionalis4 %e de9ends b* an appeal to !%at%u4ans s%are8 A4ong t%ese &agore %ig%lig%ts identit* [888] concei ed o9 as dharṃa/ [+<7]

In Jogajog ( %elationshi"s), t%e %eroine Fu4udiniHbound b* t%e ideals o90i1a-Sati, e6e4pli9ied b* N$ s%$*ani H is torn bet!een %er pit* 9or t%e sin ing 9ortunes o9 %er progressi e and co4passionate elder brot%er and %is 9oil: %eroue o9 a %usband8 &agore 9launts %is 9e4inist leanings; "athos depicts t%e plig%t and ulti4ate de4ise o9 !o4entrapped b* pregnanc*, dut*, and 9a4il* %onour; %e si4ultaneousl* truc s !it% BengalLs putrescent landed gentr*8[+<+]

&%e stor* re ol es around t%e underl*ing ri alr* bet!een t!o 9a4iliesHt%e 5%atter ees, aristocrats no! on t%edecline (Biprodas) and t%e %osals ( ad%usudan), representing ne! 4one* and ne! arrogance8 Fu4udini,BiprodasL sister, is caug%t bet!een t%e t!o as s%e is 4arried o99 to ad%usudan8 C%e %ad risen in an obser ant ands%eltered traditional %o4e, as %ad all %er 9e4ale relations8

Tt%ers !ere upli9ting:Shesher )o!ita Htranslated t!ice as (ast 'oeṃ and Fare.ell Song His %is 4ost l*rical

no el, !it% poe4s and r%*t%4ic passages !ritten b* a poet protagonist8 It contains ele4ents o9 satire andpost4odernis4 and %as stoc c%aracters !%o glee9ull* attac t%e reputation o9 an old, out4oded, oppressi el*reno!ned poet !%o, incidentall*, goes b* a 9a4iliar na4e: "abindranat% &agore 8 &%oug% %is no els re4aina4ong t%e least=appreciated o9 %is !or s, t%e* %a e been gi en rene!ed attention ia 9il4 adaptations b* "a* andot%ers:+ho*her Bali and Ghare Baire are e6e4plar*8 In t%e 9irst, &agore inscribes Bengali societ* ia its %eroine: a

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rebellious !ido! !%o !ould li e 9or %ersel9 alone8 De pillories t%e custo4 o9 perpetual 4ourning on t%e part o9!ido!s, !%o !ere not allo!ed to re4arr*, !%o !ere consigned to seclusion and loneliness8 &agore !rote o9 it: I%a e al!a*s regretted t%e ending 8

"tories&agoreLs t%ree= olu4eGal"aguchchha co4prises eig%t*=9our stories t%at re9lect upon t%e aut%orLs surroundings, o4odern and 9as%ionable ideas, and on 4ind pu@@les8[<<] &agore associated %is earliest stories, suc% as t%ose o9 t%eSadhana period, !it% an e6uberance o9 italit* and spontaneit*; t%ese traits !ere culti ated b* aṃindar &agoreLs

li9e in Patisar, C%a adpur, C%elaida%a, and ot%er illages8[<<]

Ceeing t%e co44on and t%e poor, %e e6a4ined t%eirli es !it% a dept% and 9eeling singular in Indian literature up to t%at point8[+<'] In &%e Rruitseller 9ro4 Fabul ,&agore spea s in 9irst person as a to!n d!eller and no elist i4puting e6otic per2uisites to an A9g%an seller8 Dec%annels t%e lucubrati e lust o9 t%ose 4ired in t%e blasU, nidorous, and sudori9ic 4orass o9 subcontinental cit* li9e:9or distant istas8 &%ere !ere autu4n 4ornings, t%e ti4e o9 *ear !%en ings o9 old !ent 9ort% to con2uest; and I,ne er stirring 9ro4 4* little corner in Fol ata, !ould let 4* 4ind !ander o er t%e !%ole !orld8 At t%e er* na4eo9 anot%er countr*, 4* %eart !ould go out to it [888] I !ould 9all to !ea ing a net!or o9 drea4s: t%e 4ountains, t%eglens, t%e 9orest [888]8[+<<]

&%eGol"oguchchho ( Bunch of Stories) !as !ritten in &agoreLs Sa!uj 'atra period, !%ic% lasted 9ro4 + +0 to + +

and !as na4ed 9or anot%er o9 %is 4aga@ines8[<<]

&%ese *arns are celebrated 9are in Bengali 9iction and areco44onl* used as plot 9odder b* Bengali 9il4 and t%eatre8 &%e "a* 9il4+harulata ec%oed t%e contro ersial &agoreno ella ,astanirh (The Bro*en ,est )8 In tithi , !%ic% !as 4ade into anot%er 9il4, t%e little Bra%4in bo* &arapadas%ares a boat ride !it% a illage aṃindar 8 &%e bo* relates %is 9lig%t 9ro4 %o4e and %is subse2uent !anderings8&a ing pit*, t%e elder adopts %i4; %e 9i6es t%e bo* to 4arr* %is o!n daug%ter8 &%e nig%t be9ore %is !edding,&arapada runs o99Hagain8Strir 'atra (The Wife2s (etter ) is an earl* treatise in 9e4ale e4ancipation8[+<0] rinal is!i9e to a Bengali 4iddle class 4an: priss*, preening, and patriarc%al8 &ra elling alone s%e !rites a letter, !%ic%co4pre%ends t%e stor*8 C%e details t%e pettiness o9 a li9e spent entreating %is iraginous irilit*; s%e ulti4atel* gi eup 4arried li9e, proclai4ing, ṃio !ach!o/ &i !achluṃ: And I s%all li e8 Dere, I li e8

Haiṃanti assails Dindu arranged 4arriage and spotlig%ts t%eir o9ten dis4al do4esticit*, t%e %*pocrisies plaguingt%e Indian 4iddle classes, and %o! Dai4anti, a *oung !o4an, due to %er insu99erable sensiti it* and 9ree spirit,9oredid %ersel98 In t%e last passage &agore blasts t%e rei9ication o9CitaLs sel9=i44olation atte4pt; s%e %ad 4eant toappease %er consort "a4a Ls doubts o9 %er c%astit*8 Musalṃani $idi e*es recrudescent Dindu= usli4 tensions and,in 4an* !a*s, e4bodies t%e essence o9 &agoreLs %u4anis48 &%e so4e!%at auto=re9erential $ar"aharan describes a9e* *oung 4an !%o %arbours literar* a4bitions8 &%oug% %e lo es %is !i9e, %e !is%es to sti9le %er literar* career,dee4ing it un9e4inine8 In *out% &agore li el* agreed !it% %i48 $ar"aharan depicts t%e 9inal %u4bling o9 t%e 4anas %e ulti4atel* ac no!ledges %is !i9eLs talents8 As do 4an* ot%er &agore stories, Ji!ito o Mrito e2uips Bengalis!it% a ubi2uitous epigra4: )adoṃ!ini ṃori#a "roṃan *orilo she ṃore nai H Fado4bini died, t%ereb* pro ing t%ats%e %adnLt8

#oetry&agoreLs poetic st*le, !%ic% proceeds 9ro4 a lineage establis%ed b* + t%= and +-t%=centur* Jais%na a poets, ranges9ro4 classical 9or4alis4 to t%e co4ic, isionar*, and ecstatic8 De !as in9luenced b* t%e ata istic 4*sticis4 o9J*asa and ot%errishi=aut%ors o9 t%eKpanis%ads, t%eB%a ti=Cu9i 4*stic Fabir , and "a4prasad Cen 8[+< ] &agoreLs4ost inno ati e and 4ature poetr* e4bodies %is e6posure to Bengali rural 9ol 4usic, !%ic% included 4*stic Baul ballads suc% as t%ose o9 t%e bardalon 8[+<-][+< ] &%ese, redisco ered and repopularised b* &agore, rese4ble + t%=centur* Fart$b%a $ %*4ns t%at e4p%asise in!ard di init* and rebellion against bourgeois!hadralo* religious andsocial ort%odo6*8[+< ][ +< ] Nuring %is C%elaida%a *ears, %is poe4s too on a l*rical oice o9 t%eṃoner ṃanush, t%eB$ulsL 4an !it%in t%e %eart and &agoreLs li9e 9orce o9 %is deep recesses , or 4editating upon t%e jee1an de1ata H

t%e de4iurge or t%e li ing od !it%in 8['+]

&%is 9igure connected !it% di init* t%roug% appeal to nature and t%ee4otional interpla* o9 %u4an dra4a8 Cuc% tools sa! use in %is B%$nusi4 V%a poe4s c%ronicling t%e"ad%a=Fris%na ro4ance, !%ic% !ere repeatedl* re ised o er t%e course o9 se ent* *ears8 [+07][+0+]

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&%e ti4e t%at 4* ourne* ta es is long and t%e !a* o9 it long8I ca4e out on t%e c%ariot o9 t%e 9irst glea4 o9 lig%t, and pursued 4* o*age t%roug% t%e !ildernesses o9 !orlds lea ing 4* trac on 4an*a star and planet8It is t%e 4ost distant course t%at co4es nearest to t%*sel9, and t%at training is t%e 4ost intricate !%ic% leads to t%e utter si4plicit* o9 a tune8&%e tra eller %as to noc at e er* alien door to co4e to %is o!n, and one %as to !ander t%roug% all t%e outer !orlds to reac% t%einner4ost s%rine at t%e end8* e*es stra*ed 9ar and !ide be9ore I s%ut t%e4 and said LDere art t%ouWL&%e 2uestion and t%e cr* LT%, !%ereXL 4elt into tears o9 a t%ousand strea4s and deluge t%e !orld !it% t%e 9lood o9 t%e assurance LI a4W

&agore reacted to t%e %al9%earted upta e o9 4odernist and realist tec%ni2ues in Bengali literature b* !riting4atc%ing e6peri4ental !or s in t%e + <7s8 [+0<] &%ese include frica and +aṃalia, a4ong t%e better no!n o9 %islatter poe4s8 De occasionall* !rote poe4s using Shadhu Bhasha, a Cans ritised dialect o9 Bengali; %e later adopteda 4ore popular dialect no!n as +holti Bhasha8 Tt%er !or s include Manasi, Sonar Tori (Golden Boat ), Bala*a (Wild Geese, a na4e redolent o9 4igrating souls), [+00] and 'uro!i 8Sonar Tori2 s 4ost 9a4ous poe4, dealing !it% t%e9leeting endurance o9 li9e and ac%ie e4ent, goes b* t%e sa4e na4e; %auntingl* it ends:Shunno nodir tire rohinu"o3i 4 Jaha chhilo loe g5lo shonar tori H all I %ad ac%ie ed !as carried o99 on t%e golden boatHonl* I !as le9tbe%ind8Gitanjali ( ) is &agoreLs best= no!n collection internationall*, earning %i4 %is ?obel8[+0 ]

&agoreLs poetr* %as been set to 4usic b* co4posers:Art%ur C%ep%erdLs tript*c% 9or soprano and string 2uartet,

Ale6ander Ye4lins * Ls 9a4ous *ric C*4p%on*, Gose9 Bo%usla Roerster Ls c*cle o9 lo e songs,eoZ Gan \e Ls9a4ous c%orus Potuln Z^lenec ( &%e Eandering ad4an ) 9or soprano, tenor, baritone, and 4ale c%orusHGE0/0<Hinspired b* &agoreLs + '' lecture in 5@ec%oslo a ia !%ic% Gan \e attended, and arr* Cc%*4an Ls Praan ,an adaptation o9 &agoreLs poe4 Ctrea4 o9 i9e 9ro4Gitanjali8 &%e latter !as co4posed and recorded !it% ocalsb* Palbas%a Ciddi2ue to acco4pan* Internet celebrit* att Darding Ls '77 iral ideo8 [+0 ] In + + %is !ords !eretranslated adeptl* and set to 4usic b* Anglo=Nutc% co4poser"ic%ard Dage4an to produce a %ig%l* regarded artsong: No ?ot o, * o e 8 &%e second 4o e4ent o9 Gonat%an Dar e*Ls Tne > ening (+ 0) sets an e6cerptbeginning As I !as !atc%ing t%e sunrise 888 9ro4 a letter o9 &agoreLs, t%is co4poser %a ing pre iousl* c%osen ate6t b* t%e poet 9or %is piece Cong T99erings (+ )8[+0 ]

#oliticsTagore hosts %andhi and &ife 'ast(rba at "antiniketan in 1)$*+

&agore opposed i4perialis4 and supported Indian nationalists,[+ 7][ + +][ + '] and t%ese ie!s !ere 9irst re ealed inManast , !%ic% !as 4ostl* co4posed in %is t!enties 8[00] > idence produced during t%e Dindu. er4an 5onspirac*&rial and latter accounts a99ir4 %is a!areness o9 t%e %adarites, and stated t%at %e soug%t t%e support o9 GapanesePri4e inister &erauc%i asata e and 9or4er Pre4ier _ u4a C%igenobu 8[+ <] Qet %e la4pooned t%eC!ades%i4o e4ent ; %e rebu ed it in &%e 5ult o9 t%e5%ar a , an acrid + ' essa*8 [+ 0] De urged t%e 4asses to a oidicti4olog* and instead see sel9=%elp and education, and %e sa! t%e presence o9 Britis% ad4inistration as apolitical s*4pto4 o9 our social disease 8 De 4aintained t%at, e en 9or t%ose at t%e e6tre4es o9 po ert*, t%ere can

be no 2uestion o9 blind re olution ; pre9erable to it !as a stead* and purpose9ul education 8[+ ][ + -]

Co I repeat !e ne er can %a e a true ie! o9 4an unless !e %a e a lo e 9or %i48 5i ilisation 4ust be udged and pri@ed, not b* t%e a4ounto9 po!er it %as de eloped, but b* %o! 4uc% it %as e ol ed and gi en e6pression to, b* its la!s and institutions, t%e lo e o9 %u4anit*8

Cuc% ie!s enraged 4an*8 De escaped assassinationHand onl* narro!l*Hb* Indian e6patriates during %is sta* ina Can Rrancisco %otel in late + +-; t%e plot 9ailed !%en %is !ould=be assassins 9ell into argu4ent8[+ ] &agore !rotesongs lionising t%e Indian independence 4o e4ent8[+ ] &!o o9 &agoreLs 4ore politicall* c%arged co4positions,5%itto Get%a B%a*s%un*o ( E%ere t%e ind is Eit%out Rear ) and > la 5%alo "e ( I9 &%e* Ans!er ?ot to &%*

5all, Eal Alone ), gained 4ass appeal, !it% t%e latter 9a oured b* and%i8 [+-7] &%oug% so4e!%at critical o9and%ian acti is4, [+-+] &agore !as e* in resol ing a and%i. A4bed ar dispute in ol ing separate electorates 9oruntouc%ables, t%ereb* 4ooting at least one o9 and%iLs 9asts unto deat% 8[+-'][ +-<]

,

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Hindi

?u4eral in Dindi

Ne anagari Ccript "o48 Dindi- -- --- C%uni*e

- -- >

- -- No

- --- &een- --- 5%ar

- --- - Panc%

- -- 5%e%

- --- Caat

- -- Aat%

- -- ?ao-- -- Nas

-- -- ---- *aara%

-- ---- Baara%

-- -- -- &e%ra%-- ---- 5%auda%

-- -- ---- Pandra%-- ---- Caula%

-- --- -- Catra%

-- ----- At%ara%-- --- --- Knnis

8

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-- --- Bees

-- ---- I is

-- ---- Bais

-- -- -- &eis

-- ----- 5%aubis

-- --- --- Pac%is

-- --- --- 5%abis-- ----- Catais

-- --- ---- At%ais

-- ----- Knatis

-- --- &is

-- ----- I atis

-- ---- Batis

-- -- ---- &entis

-- --- --- 5%autis

-- -- ---- Pentis

-- ---- 5%atis

-- -- ---- Cetis

-- --- --- Ad%tis

-- ------- Kntaalis

-- ----- 5%alis

-- ------- I talis-- ------ B*alis

-- -- ----- &etalis

-- ------ 5%a alis

-- -- ------ Pentalis

-- ------ 5%*alis

-- -- ------ Cetalis

-- --- ----- Adtalis-- ----- Knac%as

-- ---- Pac%as

-- --- ---- I *a an

-- ---- Baa an

-- ----- &irepan

-- ---- 5%au an

-- ---- Pac%pan

-- --- -- 5%appan

-- ----- Cata an

-- ----- At%aa an

)

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-- ---- Knsad%

-- --- Caad%

-- ---- I sad%

-- ---- Baasad

-- ----- &irsad%

-- --- -- 5%ausad%

-- -- --- Pensad%-- ------ 5%i*asad%

-- --- -- Cad%sad%

-- --- -- Asd%sad%

-- ----- Kna%tar

-- --- -- Cattar

-- ----- I a%tar

-- ---- Ba%atar

-- ----- &i%atar

-- ----- 5%au%atar

-- ----- Pac%%atar

-- ----- 5%i*a%atar

-- ----- Cata%atar

-- ----- Ad%a%atar

-- --- ---- Knnasi

-- --- -- Assi-- --- ---- I *asi

-- ----- B*aasi

-- ------ &irasi

-- ------ 5%aurasi

-- ----- Pac%asi

-- ------ 5%i*aasi

-- ----- Cataasi-- --- ---- At%asi

-- ----- ?auasi

-- --- -- ?abbe

-- --- ----- I *aana e

-- ----- Baana e

-- ------- &irana e

-- ------- 5%auraana e

-- ------ Pac%aana e

-- ------- 5%i*aana e

-- ------ Cataana e

1*

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.ncient Ro/an architect(re

M.%R0##. 34"TERT05M E30T

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The 3olosse(/ in Ro/e 0taly

The Ro/an #antheon &as the largest do/e in the &orld

Ancient Roman architecture

de eloped di99erent aspects o9 Ancient ree arc%itecture and ne!er tec%nologies suc% as t%e arc% and t%e do4e to create ane! arc%itectural st*le8 "o4an arc%itecture 9louris%ed t%roug%out t%e>4pire during t%ePa6 "o4ana 8 Its use o9 ne!4aterials, particularl* concrete, !as an i4portant 9eature8

"o4an Arc%itecture co ers t%e period 9ro4 t%e establis%4ent o9 t%e"o4an "epublic in 7 B5 to about t%e 0t% centur* AN,a9ter !%ic% it beco4es reclassi9ied asate Anti2ue or B*@antine arc%itecture8 ost o9 t%e 4an* sur i ing e6a4ples are 9ro4t%e later i4perial period8 "o4an arc%itectural st*le continued to in9luence building in t%e 9or4er e4pire 9or 4an* centuries,and t%e st*le used in Eestern >urope beginning about +777 is called"o4anes2ue arc%itecture to re9lect t%is dependence on

basic "o4an 9or4s8

&%e Ancient "o4ans !ere responsible 9or signi9icant de elop4ents in %ousing and public %*giene, 9or e6a4ple t%eir publicand pri ate bat%s and latrines, under=9loor %eating in t%e 9or4 o9 t%e%*pocaust, 4ica gla@ing (e6a4ples inTstia Antica), andpiped %ot and cold !ater (e6a4ples in Po4peii and Tstia )8

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istoryackgro(nd

Ractors suc% as !ealt% and %ig% population densities in cities 9orced t%e ancient "o4ans to disco er ne! arc%itecturalsolutions o9 t%eir o!n8 &%e use o9aults and arc%es, toget%er !it% a sound no!ledge o9 building 4aterials, enabled t%e4 toac%ie e unprecedented successes in t%e construction o9 i4posing structures 9or public use8 >6a4ples include t%ea2ueducts o9"o4e , t%eBat%s o9 Niocletian and t%eBat%s o9 5aracalla, t%e basilicas and 5olosseu4 8 &%ese !ere reproduced at s4allerscale in 4ost i4portant to!ns and cities in t%e >4pire8 Co4e sur i ing structures are al4ost co4plete, suc% as t%e to!n !allso9 ugo in Dispania &arraconensis, no! nort%ern Cpain8

&%e Ancient "o4ans intended t%at public buildings s%ould be 4ade to i4press, as !ell as per9or4 a public 9unction8 &%e"o4ans did not 9eel restricted b* ree aest%etic a6io4s alone in ac%ie ing t%ese ob ecti es8[citation needed ] &%e Pant%eon is ane6a4ple o9 t%is,particularl* in t%e ersion rebuilt b*Dadrian,!%ic% re4ains per9ectl* preser ed, and !%ic% !ere o er t%ecenturies t%at %as ser ed, particularl* in t%e Eestern De4isp%ere,as t%e inspiration 9or countless public buildings8[+] &%e sa4ee4peror le9t %is 4ar on t%e landscape o9 nort%ern Britain !%en %e built a !all to 4ar t%e li4its o9 t%e e4pire, and a9ter9urt%er con2uests inCcotland, t%e Antonine Eall !as built to replace DadrianLs Eall8

0n9(ences

&%e"o4ans !ere indebted to t%eir >truscan neig%bors and 9ore9at%ers !%o supplied t%e4 !it% a !ealt% o9 no!ledge

essential 9or 9uture arc%itectural solutions, suc% as t%e use o9%*draulics and t%e construction o9 arc%es8 &%e "o4ans absorbedree Arc%itectural in9luence bot% directl* (e8g8agna raecia ) and indirectl* (e8g8 >truscan Arc%itecture !as itsel9in9luenced b* t%e ree s)8 &%e in9luence is e ident in 4an* !a*s; 9or e6a4ple, in t%e introduction and use o9 t%e&ricliniu4 in "o4an illas as a place and 4anner o9 dining8 &%e "o4ans !ere also no!n to e4plo* ree cra9ts4en and engineers toconstruct "o4an buildings8

Ro/an .rchitect(ral Re ol(tion

&%e"o4an Arc%itectural "e olution , also no!n as t%e +oncrete %e1olution,[0][ ][ -] !as t%e !idespread use in "o4anarc%itecture o9 t%e pre iousl* little=used arc%itectural 9or4s o9 t%earc%, ault , and do4e 8 Ror t%e 9irst ti4e in %istor*, t%eirpotential !as 9ull* e6ploited in t%e construction o9 a !ide range o9 ci il engineering structures, public buildings, and 4ilitar*9acilities8 &%ese includeda4p%it%eatres, a2ueducts, bat%s, bridges, circuses, da4s , do4es , %arbours, and te4ples 8

A crucial 9actor in t%is de elop4ent, !%ic% sa!a trend to!ard 4onu4ental arc%itecture , !as t%e in ention o9 "o4anconcrete (o"us caeṃenticiuṃ), !%ic% led to t%e liberation o9 s%apes 9ro4 t%e dictates o9 t%e traditional 4aterials o9 stone andbric 8[ ]

.rchitect(ral feat(res

&%e "o4an use o9 t%earc% and t%eir i4pro e4ents in t%e use o9concrete and bric s 9acilitated t%e building o9 t%e 4an*a2ueducts t%roug%out t%ee4pire , suc% as t%eA2ueduct o9 Cego ia and t%e ele en a2ueducts in "o4e itsel9, including t%eA2ua 5laudia and Anio ?o us 8 &%e sa4e concepts produced nu4erous bridges, so4e o9 !%ic% are still in dail* use, 9ore6a4ple t%ePuente "o4ano at Urida in Cpain, and t%ePont Gulien and t%e bridge atJaison=la="o4aine , bot% in Pro ence,Rrance8

&%edo4e per4itted construction o9 aulted ceilings !it%out crossbea4s and 4ade possible large co ered public space suc%as public bat%s and basilicas8 &%e "o4ans based 4uc% o9 t%eir arc%itecture on t%e do4e, suc% as DadrianLsPant%eon in t%ecit* o9 "o4e, t%e Bat%s o9 Niocletian and t%e Bat%s o9 5aracalla8

&%e use o9 arc%es t%at spring directl* 9ro4 t%e tops o9 colu4ns !as a "o4an de elop4ent, seen 9ro4 t%e +st centur* AN, t%at!as er* !idel* adopted in 4edie al Eestern, B*@antine and Isla4ic arc%itecture8

Art %istorians suc% asott9ried "ic%ter in t%e + '7s %a e identi9ied t%e 4ost i4portant "o4an arc%itectural inno ation as t%e&riu4p%al Arc%8 &%is s*4bol o9 po!er !as trans9or4ed and utilised !it%in t%e 5%ristian basilicas !%en t%e "o4an >4pire o9 t%e Eest !as on its last legs8 &%e arc% !as set be9ore t%e altar to s*4boli@e t%e triu4p% o9 5%rist and t%e a9terli9e8 &%e arseen in a2ueducts, especiall* in t%e 4an* sur i ing e6a4ples, suc% as t%ePont du ard , t%e a2ueduct at Cego ia and t%ere4ains o9 t%eA2ueducts o9 "o4e itsel98 &%eir sur i al is testi4on* to t%e durabilit* o9 t%eir 4aterials and design8

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&%e "o4ans 9irst adopted t%e arc% 9ro4 t%e >truscans, and i4ple4ented it in t%eir o!n building8 An arc% trans4its loade enl* and is still co44onl* used in arc%itecture toda*8

0saac Ne&ton

Sir Isaac Newton P"C P (/ n u tən/;[ ] ' Nece4ber +-0' . '7 arc% + '-/ [+]) !as an >nglis% p%*sicist and4at%e4atician (described in %is o!n da* as a natural p%ilosop%er ) !%o is !idel* recognised as one o9 t%e 4ostin9luential scientists o9 all ti4e and as a e* 9igure in t%escienti9ic re olution8 Dis boo 'hiloso"hi7 ,aturalis'rinci"ia Matheṃatica ( at%e4atical Principles o9 ?atural P%ilosop%* ), 9irst publis%ed in +- , laid t%e

9oundations 9orclassical 4ec%anics8 ?e!ton 4ade se4inal contributions to optics, and %e s%ares credit !it%ott9ried eibni@ 9or t%e de elop4ent o9calculus8

?e!tonLs 'rinci"ia 9or4ulated t%e la!s o9 4otion and uni ersal gra itation , !%ic% do4inated scientistsL ie! o9t%e p%*sical uni erse 9or t%e ne6t t%ree centuries8 B* deri ingFeplerLs la!s o9 planetar* 4otion 9ro4 %is4at%e4atical description o9 gra it*, and t%en using t%e sa4e principles to account 9or t%e tra ectories o9co4ets , t%etides, t%e precession o9 t%e e2uino6es, and ot%er p%eno4ena, ?e!ton re4o ed t%e last doubts about t%e alidit* o9t%e%eliocentric 4odel o9 t%e Colar C*ste48 &%is !or also de4onstrated t%at t%e4otion o9 ob ects on >art% and o9celestial bodies could be described b* t%e sa4e principles8 Dis prediction t%at t%e >art% s%ould be s%aped as anoblate sp%eroid !as later indicated b* t%e 4easure4ents o9 aupertuis , a 5onda4ine , and ot%ers, !%ic% %elped

con ince 4ost 5ontinental >uropean scientists o9 t%e superiorit* o9 ?e!tonian 4ec%anics o er t%e earlier s*ste4 o9 Nescartes8

?e!ton built t%e 9irst practical re9lecting telescope and de eloped a t%eor* o9 colour based on t%e obser ation t%at apris4 deco4poses !%ite lig%t into t%e 4an* colours o9 t%e isible spectru4 8 De 9or4ulated an e4pirical la! o9cooling, studied t%espeed o9 sound, and introduced t%e notion o9 a ?e!tonian 9luid 8 In addition to %is !or oncalculus, as a 4at%e4atician ?e!ton contributed to t%e stud* o9 po!er series , generalised t%e bino4ial t%eore4 tonon=integer e6ponents, de eloped a 4et%od 9or appro6i4ating t%eroots o9 a 9unction, and classi9ied 4ost o9 t%ecubic plane cur es 8

?e!ton !as a 9ello! o9 &rinit* 5ollege and t%e seconducasian Pro9essor o9 at%e4atics at t%eKni ersit* o95a4bridge 8 De !as a de out but unort%odo6 5%ristian and, unusuall* 9or a 4e4ber o9 t%e 5a4bridge 9acult* o9 t%eda*, %e re9used to ta e %ol* orders in t%e5%urc% o9 >ngland, per%aps because %e pri atel* re ected t%e doctrine o9t%e&rinit*8 Be*ond %is !or on t%e 4at%e4atical sciences, ?e!ton dedicated 4uc% o9 %is ti4e to t%e stud* o9biblical c%ronolog* and alc%e4*, but 4ost o9 %is !or in t%ose areas re4ained unpublis%ed until long a9ter %is

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deat%8 In %is later li9e, ?e!ton beca4e president o9 t%e "o*al Cociet*8 ?e!ton ser ed t%e Britis% go ern4ent asEarden and aster o9 t%e "o*al int 8

.lbert Einstein

Albert Einstein (/ ̀lb ər t a n s ta n/; er4an: [ alb rt a n ta n] ( listen); +0 arc% + . + April + ) !as aer4an=born t%eoretical p%*sicist and p%ilosop%er o9 science8[<] De de eloped t%e general t%eor* o9 relati it*, oneo9 t%e t!o pillars o94odern p%*sics (alongside 2uantu4 4ec%anics)8['] [0] De is best no!n in popular culture 9or %is

4ass.energ* e2ui alence 9or4ula & ṃc' (!%ic% %as been dubbed t%e !orldLs 4ost 9a4ous e2uation )8[ ] Derecei ed t%e + '+ ?obel Pri@e in P%*sics 9or %is ser ices to t%eoretical p%*sics, and especiall* 9or %is disco er* o9t%e la! o9 t%e p%otoelectric e99ect8[-] &%e latter !as pi otal in establis%ing2uantu4 t%eor*8

?ear t%e beginning o9 %is career, >instein t%oug%t t%at ?e!tonian 4ec%anics !as no longer enoug% to reconcile t%ela!s o9 classical 4ec%anics !it% t%e la!s o9 t%eelectro4agnetic 9ield8 &%is led to t%e de elop4ent o9 %isspecialt%eor* o9 relati it*8 De reali@ed, %o!e er, t%at t%e principle o9 relati it* could also be e6tended togra itational9ields, and !it% %is subse2uent t%eor* o9 gra itation in + +-, %e publis%ed a paper on t%e general t%eor* o9relati it*8 De continued to deal !it% proble4s o9statistical 4ec%anics and 2uantu4 t%eor*, !%ic% led to %ise6planations o9 particle t%eor* and t%e4otion o9 4olecules 8 De also in estigated t%e t%er4al properties o9 lig%t

!%ic% laid t%e 9oundation o9 t%e p%oton t%eor* o9 lig%t8 In + + , >instein applied t%e general t%eor* o9 relati it* to4odel t%e large=scale structure o9 t%euni erse 8[ ]

De !as isiting t%e Knited Ctates !%en Adol9 Ditler ca4e to po!er in + << and, being Ge!is%, did not go bac toer4an*, !%ere %e %ad been a pro9essor at t%eBerlin Acade4* o9 Cciences8 De settled in t%e K8C8, beco4ing anA4erican citi@en in + 078[ ] Tn t%e e e o9 Eorld Ear II, %e endorsed a letter to President Rran lin N8 "oose elt alerting %i4 to t%e potential de elop4ent o9 e6tre4el* po!er9ul bo4bs o9 a ne! t*pe and reco44ending t%at t%eK8C8 begin si4ilar researc%8 &%is e entuall* led to !%at !ould beco4e t%ean%attan Pro ect 8 >instein supportedde9ending t%e Allied 9orces, but largel* denounced t%e idea o9 using t%e ne!l* disco erednuclear 9ission as a!eapon8 ater, !it% t%e Britis% p%ilosop%er Bertrand "ussell , >instein signed t%e"ussell.>instein ani9esto ,

!%ic% %ig%lig%ted t%e danger o9 nuclear !eapons8 >instein !as a99iliated !it% t%eInstitute 9or Ad anced Ctud* inPrinceton, ?e! Gerse* , until %is deat% in + 8

>instein publis%ed4ore t%an <77 scienti9ic papers along !it% o er + 7 non=scienti9ic !or s8 [ ][ ] Tn Nece4ber'7+0, uni ersities and arc%i es announced t%e release o9 >insteinLs papers, co4prising 4ore t%an <7,777 uni2ue

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docu4ents8[+7][++] >insteinLs intellectual ac%ie e4ents and originalit* %a e 4ade t%e !ord >instein s*non*4ous!it% genius[+'] so t%at in a sense %e 4a* be regarded as t%e greatest genius !%o e er li ed8

Tho/as Edison

Thomas Alva Edison (Rebruar* ++, + 0 . Tctober + , + <+) !as an A4erican in entor and business4an 8 Dede eloped 4an* de ices t%at greatl* in9luenced li9e around t%e !orld, including t%e p%onograp%, t%e4otion pictureca4era , and a long=lasting, practical electriclig%t bulb8 Nubbed &%e Ei@ard o9 enlo Par ,[<] %e !as one o9 t%e9irstin entors to appl* t%e principles o94ass production and large=scale tea4!or to t%e process o9 in ention, andbecause o9 t%at, %e is o9ten credited !it% t%e creation o9 t%e 9irst industrial researc% laborator*8[0]

>dison !as a proli9ic in entor , %olding +,7 <KC patents in %is na4e, as !ell as 4an* patents in t%e KnitedFingdo4, Rrance, and er4an*8 ore signi9icant t%an t%e nu4ber o9 >disonLs patents !as t%e !idespread i4pacto9 %is in entions:electric lig%t and po!er utilities, sound recording, and 4otion pictures all establis%ed 4a or ne!industries !orld=!ide8 >disonLs in entions contributed to4ass co44unication and, in particular,teleco44unications8 &%ese included astoc tic er , a 4ec%anical ote recorder, a batter* 9or an electric car,electrical po!er, recorded 4usic and 4otion pictures 8

Dis ad anced !or in t%ese 9ields !as an outgro!t% o9 %is earl* career as a telegrap% operator8 >dison de eloped as*ste4 o9 electric=po!er generation and distribution[ ] to %o4es, businesses, and 9actories . a crucial de elop4entin t%e 4odern industriali@ed !orld8 Dis 9irst po!er station !as on Pearl Ctreet in an%attan , ?e! Qor 8[ ]

Electric lightTho/as Edison s ;rst s(ccessf(l light b(lb /odel (sed in <(blic de/onstration at Menlo #ark=ece/ber 187)

>dison did not in ent t%e 9irst electric lig%t bulb, but instead in ented t%e 9irst co44erciall* practical incandescentlig%t8[0-] an* earlier in entors %ad pre iousl* de ised incandescent la4ps, including Alessandro Jolta Lsde4onstration o9 a glo!ing !ire in + 77 and in entions b* Denr* Eood!ard and at%e! > ans 8 Tt%ers !%o

de eloped earl* and co44erciall* i4practical incandescent electric la4ps included Du4p%r* Na *, Ga4esBo!4an indsa* , oses 8 Rar4er ,[0 ] Eillia4 >8 Ca!*er , Gosep% C!an and Deinric% bel 8 Co4e o9 t%ese earl*bulbs %ad suc% 9la!s as an e6tre4el* s%ort li9e, %ig% e6pense to produce, and %ig%electric current dra!n, 4a ingt%e4 di99icult to appl* on a large scale co44erciall*8[0 ] :'+ .'+

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