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4-1 2004 7
36
*
Long-term Foraging Expedition and Subsistence of the Baka
in Northwestern Congo Basin:
An Example of Pure Foraging Life in Tropical Rain Forests
Yasuoka Hirokazu*
While “Pygmy” hunter-gatherers were generally assumed to be the original inhabit-ants of the central African rain forest, recent studies have proposed the hypothesis that it is impossible to subsist by hunting and gathering alone in the tropical rain forests without some degree of dependence on agricultural products. This hypothesis has been debated among researchers of hunter-gatherer societies in different parts of the world. There have been, however, few studies on this issue that were based on sound data on the actual hunting and gathering life of the forest peoples.
This paper examines the possibility of hunting and gathering life in the tropical rain forest, based on the data obtained from participant observation on molongo, a long-term hunting and gathering expedition, among the Baka in southeastern Cameroon. During the two and a half months of the expedition, the Baka subsisted solely on wild food resources, wild yams in particular, although it was during the dry season when food resources are generally thought to be scarce. The sustainability of such a forest life is examined in relation to the abundance and distribution patterns of wild food resources, hunting and gathering technologies, residential patterns and nomadic life style.
* , Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto
University
2004 4 14 2004 7 26
37
1
1.1
Turnbull 1965
Turnbull 1965; 1982; Bahuchet
1993a; 1997
1980 (revisionists)
Headland 1987 Bailey
1989
1
km
4-1
38
(molongo)
1.2
2 5,000
Joiris 1998 1950 1961
Joiris 1998
Kitanishi 2003; 2004
1991 Harako 1976; 1982
1995; Kitanishi 1995
Takeda 1996
1991; 2000
1
1991;
2000; Leclerc 2001; Kitanishi 2003; 2004
2002
19 89 km
2
2 1
4-1
40
Headland 1987
Wild Yam Question
Headland 1987; Bailey et al. 1989
1) Headland 1987
4,000 mm
4,000 mm 1992 Bailey 1989
1,000 mm
18
60 mm
2 (tropical moist
forest) Sommer 1976 Bailey
Bailey Sommer
41
Human Ecology Bahuchet et al. 1991; Brosius
1991; Dwyer and Minnegal 1991; Endicott and Bellwood 1991; Stearman 1991
(ecological)
(evolutionary)
Headland 1987 Bailey
1989
4-1
42
Headland 1997
Bailey and Headland 1991
Bailey and Headland
1991
2
Endicott and Bellwood 1991
89 93 15 2,067 kg
77
54
Bahuchet et al. 1991
1.24 ha
1 ha 2 kg Hladik et al. 1984
26 250 km2
2
Kitanishi
1995; Sato 2001 Mercader et al. 2000
Headland
2
2.1
150 km
2
43
(Zoulabot Ancien) 2
1
400 600 m 25
100 km 1,400 1,600 mm
12 2 yaka 1
(soko ma) 3 11 6
8 soko pekie
(Irvingia gabonensis) I. excelsa,
Bailonella toxisperma, Anonidium mannii
(semi-deciduous forest) Letouzey 1985
Scorodophloeus zenkeri
Anonidium mannii, Polyalthia suaveolens
Gilbertiodendron dewevrei
Hart
et al. 1989
6 CFA 50 1994
2003
(Boumba-Bek) (Nki)
1
4-1
44
2
2004
2003 8 35 140
50 Sato 1992; Tsuru 1998
(Dja)
5 km (Lebe)
1 1964 152 Cameroon
1966 2 11 1970
40 km (Boumba) bac2)
1970
2.2
2001 8 2002 9 2003 1 8 21
2002 2 4 2
2) 2001 (Bek)
2002 4
10 20
45
3 5 4 23 50
2 13 4 27
12 1 2 12 0.5 2
0 Ichikawa 1983 Kitanishi 1995
Kingdon 1997
(Herbier National) Dounias 1993
Garmin e-treck
GPS Centre Geographique National
20 1
10 87
2002 10 12 2003
1
5
1 2 3
2
16 3
38 2003 8 10
1
1
1
Leung 1968
4-1
46
3
3.1
50 km
Leclerc 2001
(sendo) (ngbasa) (maka) 4
2 3
1
Leclerc
1 1
(bala a waiya) (gba)
20 50 km
10
10 20 km
2004
49
10 20 km
2
2.4 n 45 10
5
58 17
natte ; ebo
1 10
2
10 30 m 3
1 1
50 100 2 3
4
2
2
3 1
ngendi; Cephalophus
callipygus ngbomu; C. dorsalis mongala/mie;
C. leucogaster monjumbe; C. nigrifrons (pame;
Potamochoerus porcus) (bemba; C. silvicultor)
(dengbe; C. monticola) (mboke;
Atherurus africanus) (mboko; Syncerus
4-1
50
caffer) (mbongo; Tragelaphus euryceros)
4
500 1,000 Fcfa 655.957 Fcfa 1 euro,
(kelepa; Smutsia gigantea)
1 10 kg
Ichikawa
1991
3.2.2 (ngali)
(karabin) (loli)
1 12,000 Fcfa
(ya; Loxodonta africana cyclotis)
2
1 (sala)
grande chasse big hunting
1 1 2
20 6.9 2.2 25
(tuma)
10
51
10
2001 10 2003 8 38
1 1
2 1
bai
1 2
Tsuru 1998
(mokopolo)
2 3
petite chasse small hunting Leclerc
2001
kalu; Colobus guereza tamba; Cercocebus
agilis gada; Lophocebus albigena koi; Cercopithecus nictitans
500 Fcfa
3.2.3 (benga)
4-1
52
1991
14
3 4
4 10 6 5
2 1 2 2 1
(bambe; Varanus sp.)
(mokakele; Osteolaemus sp.) (meke; Python sp.) (boma; Bitis
sp.) (bolo)
Harako 1976
6 4
10
2
Joiris 1998
4-1
54
3.3
3.3.1
(noa)
(ngbala)
(head)
Dounias 1993; 2001 (paracultivation)
giving environment Bird-David 1990
15 17 (Dioscorea spp.) 2
(Dioscoreophyllum spp.) Hladik and Dounias 1993; Dumont et al.
1994; Hamon et al. 1995 Dounias 20013 (sapa; Dioscorea praehensilis)
(esuma; D. semperflorens) (ba; D. mangenotiana) (keke; D. burkilliana) (kuku;
D. minutiflora) (baloko; D. smilacifolia) (njakaka; D. sp.)
(ngbi; Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii) Dounias 1993
(sende; D. hirtiflora) (boli; D. sp.) (pange; D. sp.)
(bilango; Dioscoreophyllum sp.)
Dounias 2001
11 3
1
3) p f f
55
1 30 kg
Dounias
2001 ndondo;
Dounias 1993
(head)
1 5 kg 10 kg
(head)
Dounias
2001; Sato 2001
Hladik 1984 waiting phase
1
1
(ngbi)
3.3.2
soko pekie 6 8
8 ha 10 cm
215 4,088 23 671
(mabe; Bailonella toxisperma
(bambu; Gambeya lacourtiana) (pekie; Irvingia gabonensis)
(gangendi/payo; Irvingia excelsa) (kombele/payo; Irvingia
robur) (solia; Irvingia grandifolia) (bokoko; Klainedoxa gabonensis)
(ngoyo; Trichoscypha abut) (gongu; Antrocryon klaineanum)
(gimba; Afrostyrax lepidophyllus) (ngata; Myrianthus
4-1
56
arboreus) (gobo; Ricinodendron heudelotii) (kana;
Panda oleosa) (mbe; Anonidium manii)
(tokomboli; Chytranthus atroviolaceus)
(kaso; Tetracarpidium conophorum) (koko; Gnetum spp.)
(njii; Aframomum spp.) (tondo)
(mbila;
Elaeis guineensis)
(tulu)
6 8 soko pekie
soko mabe
2001
2002 2003
(leka) (la)
6 1 20 30 kg
1 2 3
(gie)
2
(kingili)
(mita mabe)
1 2
57
2 1 1 1.5 kg
500 Fcfa 1 1,000 Fcfa
(tondo) 1 250 500 Fcfa
3.3.3
(libenji)
(pendi)
(yenda) (yanji) (yalo)
ngili/mobabo/gba
(kopa)
Gilbertiodendron dewevrei
(mokobe)
(tongia; Apis adansonii) (poki)
(Meliponinae) (dandu, mopapele, molengi, pende, etc.)
(dandu)
(mbalaka;
Pentaclethra macrophylla)
(mongamba; Dichostemma glaucescens)
(mobay; Pericopsis elata)
2
(gbado; Triplochiton scleroxylon)
(boso; Petersianthus macrocarpus) (nguluma; Duboscia
macrocarpa) (boyo; Entandrophragma cylindricum) (kaanga;
Entandrophragma candolei) (taku; Bridelia grandis) (sengi;
4-1
58
Uapaca spp.) (kopo)
kopo gbado
3 (peke; Raphia spp.)
(pose kpokolo) (bandi)
(mbembe)
3.4
2 3 1 (nguma) 2 3
10 kg
(gbigbi; Malapterurus electricus)
5 cm 10 cm (si) (kaanji)
(njenje)
10
Stearman 1991
keystone resource
(mongombo; Millettia sanagana)
(mboloa; Diospyros canaliculata) (asama; Turraeanthus africanus)
30 km 40 km
3.5
59
1 2 (gbie)
(ndo; Musa spp.) (boma; Maniot esculenta)
(jabuka)
(wono; Arachis hypogaea) (mbombo; Zea mays)
(langa; Xanthosoma sagitifolium) (mebuta; Ipomoea batatas)
(alamba; Capsicum annuum)
timekuma;
bala; (manio)
3.6
1,000 2,000 Fcfa (ngongo; Megaphrynium
macrostachyum) (bili; Marantochloa sp.) (bungu)
1 1,000 Fcfa
2
3
4
4.1
12 2001 12
3 2
61
29 4)
19 89 17 22
12 14 2 12 27 9
1 8 3
2
1 50 Sato 1992; Tsuru 1998
2.4 10
89
4.2
8
(mongulu)
1 5 10
7 4
2 4 km 3 km
3 1
2 3 1
4
2 3 km
4) 2.1 35 2003 8 2002 2
2 8 5
1
63
1,930 kg
65 9
2
17
12 5
200
6 250 12
26 300 1 25
1 1 9 16 15 16 16 18
2 80
3 km 41
100
2 3 9 4 20
(kg)*
(kg) **
65 15.9 1034.3 157 Cephalophus callipygus ngendi 38 16.3 619.4 269
C. dorsalis ngbomu 21 15.9 333.9 487
C. leucogaster mongala/mie 5 13.6 68.0 2045 C. nigrifrons monjumbe 1 13.0 13.0
Cephalophus silvicultor bemba 9 35.8 322.2 1136 Potamochoerus porcus pame 3 32.6 97.8
Pan troglodytes seko 3 31.0 93.0
Tragelaphus euryceros mbongo 2 71.8 143.6
Hyemoschus aquaticus geke/akolo 2 12.1 24.2
Felis aurata ebie 2 7.2 14.4
Cephalophus monticola dengbe 2 3.7 7.4
Syncerus caffer mboko 1 141.7 141.7
Smutsia gigantea kelepa 1 26.7 26.7Panthera pardus sua 1 25.1 25.1
91 1930.4 112
* ** 10,223 1
1 5
4-1
64
4.3.2
19 36
21 3 11
4
26
2.2 1
66.5
1 1 605 g
60 363 g 74
615 g 369 g
3 2 13 4 27
(kg)Potamochoerus porcus pame 4 130Python sp. meke 1 35
Cephalophus silivicultor bemba 1 28
Varanus sp. bambe 1 5
Bitis sp. boma 1 3
Herpestidae spp. nganda 1 1-5 *
Atherurus africanus mboke 1 1.5-4
Osteolaemus sp. mokakele 2 10
Tragelaphus euryceros mbongo 1 97 ***
Lophocebus albigena gada 1 5
Loxodonta africana cyclotis ya 1 778** ****
Kinxys sp. kunda 2 3
Cephalophus dorsalis ngbomu 1 2
Pelusios sp. lende 1 2
Phataginus tricuspis or Uromanis tetradactyla kokolo 1 1Cephalophus monticola dengbe 1 1
21 1099
* Kingdon 1997 **
***
**** 6
65
100 g
150 kcal Leung 1968 553 kcal 4
1 1 580 g Ichikawa 1983 680 g Hart and Hart 1986
1.5
Hart 1978; Ichikawa 1983;
1991 1 1 270 g
Kitanishi 1995: Appendix
3 1
4.3.3
1
1 5)
5) 100 1 100 100
1 1
4
[kg] 1930 3029
* 48 74
** 3192 4921
1 [g] 605 363 615 369
1 [kcal]*** 544 553
* 3 11 4 27 48
74 ** 66.5 *** 1 (g) 0.6 100 g
150 kcal Leung 1968
4-1
66
112 5
20 km 6
122
14 91 24 691
71 74
1 1 0.18
0.50
1 2.9
2002 4
4.4
5
91 71 691 74
10223 84125
112 122
12 2.7
1 25 72
1 1 0.18 0.50
20 km 6
67
1 1 1.64 kg
85 6
1,786 kcal 6 Leung 1968 Kitanishi 1995
2,339 kcal
6 3 5 4 23
(kg)
1 1
(g)
1 1
(kcal)*
Dioscorea praehensilis sapa 4519.8 1359.3 1305.0D. semperflorens esuma 654.6 196.9 189.0
D. mangenotiana ba 61.8 18.6 17.8
D. burkilliana keke 184.7 55.5 53.3
D. minutiflora kuku 22.7 6.8 6.5Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii ngbi 3.1 0.9 0.9
Panda oleosa kana 14.0 4.0 16.0Irvingia excelsa gangendi (payo) 10.4 2.9 11.8I. robur kombele (payo) 0.9 0.2 1.0
(Apis adansonii) poki 146.1** 54.9 128.1dandu 62.4** 23.4 54.7
tulu 15.7 4.4 1.4kopo 0.6 0.2 0.1si 2.6 0.7 0.4
1786.1
* 3335 Leung 1968 Kitanishi1995 0.8 120 kcal/100 g Panda oleosa
Irvingia excelsa 670 kcal/100 g
** 3 20 4 21
4-1
68
76 67
56
7
2
6 7 2
12 2
7
*
66 39 14 2 2 3 10
1 4 4 3 8
11 4 64 187
1 1 17 51
22 8 54 48 8 22
17 6 2 2 4 11
8 24
8 36 13 57 51 1 3
25 50 18 40 36 24 69
0 13 12 3 8
** 100 36 89 293
3 4 7 8 3 5 7 8
* 4 6 **
69
4.5
10 10 4
8 5 11
3 15
4
5 10
50 km
8 10
30 km 6
3
8 10
(km)20-30 2 11
20 5 15
15 5 12
15-30 5 6
15-30 10 7
30-50 10 4 Ngato
45 10 10
40-60 10 8
40-45 10 5
30-35 10 6
12 10 30 km 5
Ngato
4-1
72
50
2 (yaka) 1
30
soko pekie: 6 7
10 15
30
30 km
(Lingondo)
30
WWF
WWF 1
WWF 1998: 25
5
5.1
73 74 89
73
Bailey 1989
Hart and Hart 1986 Hart and Hart
5
Ricinodendron
heudelotti
Bahuchet 1991
Hart
12 2
4
Dounias 2001
11 3
4
4
3 km
10 km
11
4-1
74
11 4 100
Dounias 1993;
2001
Dounias 2001
140
1,000 3,000 km2
0.05 0.1 km2 89
40 km2 1
80 km2 12.5
37.5
1
1
5.2
Hart and
75
Hart 1986
Ricinodendron heudelotti Anonidium manii
Bailonella toxisperma
100 km
8 9 (manja)
5.8 kg/ha Sato 2001
73 8
Dounias 2001
1,700 ha 17 km2 1.64 kg 100
26)
89
2.4 10
Dounias 2001
1
6) 5.2 ha 1,000 km2
77
(pene)
(pote)
100
1
113 91
71
Tanno 1977; 1982; Hart and Hart 1986 1995; Kitanishi
1995
Kitanishi 1995 Harako 1976
83
100 56 78 9
52 96
Kitanishi 1995
7 19 5
14 1994
16 13
10 kg
10 30 kg Ichikawa 1983
6.3 kg
21.2 kg
4-1
78
Bahuchet 1993b
1
WWF
1998 150 km Fimbel et al. 2000
Hart 2000
Noss 2000
10
12 20 km2 3 9 km2
3 km2 5 15 km2
79
9
*
42 78 11 20 54 Harako 1976
66 52 39 31 126 Tanno 1977
98 69 25 18 142 Ichikawa 1983
23 96 1 4 24 Kitanishi 1995
112 69 46 28 162 1995
440 75 64 11 70 589 Noss 2000
4 10 18 46 7 5 39 Kitanishi 1995
37 5 574 73 782
38 31 45 36 124 Noss 2000
14 38 16 43 4 37 1990
60 47 29 23 16 127 1994
* 10Cephalophus monticola Cephalophus callipygus; C. dorsalis; C. leucogaster; C. nigrifrons
Atherurus africanus Hyemoschus aquaticus Cephalophus silivicultor Potamochoerus porcus
10
(No./km2)
(kg/km2)
(No./km2)
(kg/km2)
(No./km2)
(kg/km2)
11.7 55.0 3.9 73.3 15.6 128.3 Hart 2000*
17.8 83.7 8.7 163.6 26.5 247.3 Hart 2000
14.8-20.4 69.6-95.9 2.4-3.0 45.1-56.4 17.2-23.4 114.7-151.3 Noss 2000**
2.2-3.8 10.3-17.9 5.5-15.1 103.4-285.8 7.7-18.9 113.7-303.7 Fimbel et al. 2000***
0.4-2.3 1.9-10.8 5.3-10.0 99.6-188.0 5.7-12.3 101.5-198.8 WWF 1998****
* Hart 2000: 132 10 km ** Noss 2000: 298 5-10 km, 10-15 km *** Fimbel et al. 2000: 365 10-20 km 20-30 km 30 km **** WWF 1998: 34-35 Boumba-Bek Corridor forest Nki forest
4.7 kg 18.8 kg Koster and Hart 1988
4-1
80
Sato 1983; Takeda 1996
1995
1995
100 2
1 1 605 g
363 g
20
9
7)
434
1990 112
91
11
7 18 (r) 0.29 Noss
2000 5.3 10.0 km2
WWF 1998: 34-35 0.36 0.68 km2
7) 211 1 1 2
105 124 30 38 1994
81
8) 40 km2
200 400 14.4 27.2
65
1/6 1/3
2 3
3 6
6
1
Hart and Hart 1986
Headland 1987
1992
1,500 mm
8) (r) 1.34
10
0.2 Robinson and Redford 1991
4-1
82
20
2002 4
1 2.5
21 COE
14219101 A2
12371004
Ngalo=Daniel=Mayua Makaba=Roger=Mboko
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