Cohesive devices1. REFERENCEThe relationship of identity which holds between two linguistic expressions. Words that refer back to previously-mentioned entities.E.g. Mrs Thatcher has resigned. She announced her decision in the morning.The pronoun SHE refers back to MRS THATCHERPRONOUNS, THE, THIS/THAT/THOSE/THESEE.g. Mrs Thatcher has resigned. This delighted her opponents.PRONOUNS ESTABLISH CHAINS OF REFERENCE

Hercule Poirot sat on the white sand and looked out across the sparkling blue water. He was carefully dressed in a dandified fashion in white flannels and a large panama hat protected his head. He belonged to the old-fashioned generation which believed in covering itself carefully from the sun. Miss Pamela Lyall, who sat beside him and talked carelessly, represented the modern school of thought in that she was wearing the barest minimum of clothing on her sun-browned person.

Anaphoric cohesive elements used to refer back to an already-mentioned entity:RepetitionPoirotCo-reference the famous detectiveGeneral wordthe manPronominal referencehe

Co-reference: it is not strictly linguistic but depends on our world knowledge (another way of calling the person/thing)e.g.: Mrs Thatcher, the Iron Lady, Maggie, the Prime Minister

2. Substitution and ellipsis (pro-forms)Grammatical relationshipsSUBSTITUTION: an item is replaced by another itemE.g. A: I like movies. B: And I do.E.g. A: Do you think Joan already knows? B: I think everybody does. (does replaces knows)E.g. A: Ill have two eggs on toast, please. B: Ill have the same.E.g. A: Im going to get an umbrella. B: Get one for me too.

2. Substitution and ellipsis (pro-forms)ELLIPSIS: involves the omission of an item (we leave something unsaid which is nevertheless understood, as the grammatical structure points to an item that can fill the slot in question)E.g. Joan brought some roses, and Jenny some daffodils. (ellipted item: brought in the second clause)Ellipsis is typical of journalism and advertising ( and poetry).E.g. A new range. With new vivid colour and trim.Brilliant. Colourful. Original.

3. ConjunctionIt signals relations between parts of a text, signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is about to be said to what has been said before. Logical relations between clauses or sentences. additive (and, for instance, besides, similarly)adversative (but, yet, however, on the other hand)causal (consequently, so)temporal (then, finally, in conclusion)continuatives (now, anyway, after all)

4. Lexical cohesionIt refers to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in organizing relations within a text.Lexical chains in a text reiteration (repetition of lexical items, synonyms, general word, superordinate)collocationlexical chains (semantically-related items): thats the top and bottom of it (antonymy) (boy/girl, love/hate, etc.)This documentary is about tigers. These endangered animals (hyponymy)Clear away the table and chairs (same semantic field)

Activity on CohesionIdentify cohesion in the following text: THE SORTING HATHarry had never even imagined such a strange and splendid place. It was lit by thousands and thousands of candles which were floating in mid-air over four long tables, where the rest of the students were sitting. These tables were laid with glittering golden plates and goblets. () the hundreds of faces staring at them looked like pale lanterns in the flickering candelight. Dotted here and there among the students, the ghosts shone misty silver. () Harry looked upwards and saw a velvety black ceiling dotted with stars. () It was hard to believe there was a ceiling there at all, and that the Great Hall didnt simply open on to the heavens.(From Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone by J. K. Rowling)

Lexical cohesion in the above textStrange and splendid= quasi-synonymsLit, candles, glittering golden, pale lanterns, flickering candlelight, shone misty silver= all items in the lexical string contribute to the construction of the same semantic field of light, they are collocatesCeiling-ceiling, Harry-Harry, students-students= repetitionsTables-plates and goblets= same semantic fieldCeiling-Great Hall= part and whole relationshipStars-heavens= collocatesCeiling-heavens= textually constructed as quasi-synonymsSuch a strange and splendid place - the Great Hall= co-reference, quasi-synonyms

Reference in the above text Use of pronounsIT= placeWHICH= candlesThese tables= four long tables

TRANSLATION TASKTRANSLATE an extract from Barack Obamas book. Focus in particular on word order, thematic structure and cohesive devices.

PRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCEPragmatics: the study of language in use (in action)of the meaning conveyed and manipulated by participants (writer/reader, speaker/hearer) in a communicative situation.Language as communication, interaction.

Austin (1962) How to do things with words: ability to do things with words, ability of sentences to perform actions (e.g. promising, warning, ordering, assessing, etc.)

Several notions in pragmatics: coherence, implicatures, presupposed meaning, cooperative principle

COHERENCE= the network of conceptual relations which organize and create a text by establishing continuity of sense.Coherence is related to subjective evaluation, it depends on the reader or the hearer, on their ability to interpret indications present in the discourse.

The coherence of a text is the result of the interaction between knowledge presented in the text and the readers/audiences own knowledge and experience of the world.

COHERENCEThe readers or hearers evaluation can be influenced by his/her:Knowledge/experience of the worldagesexracenationalityeducationoccupationpolitical and religious affiliation(culture)

In translating, the translator has to take account ofthe knowledge available to his/her target readersconventions of text typesappropriateness or inappropriateness of linguistic and non-linguistic behaviourIf I think my TA would not share a specific knowledge, I need to either explain the item, or make some transformations (e.g. the main store Harrods.the splendid Knightsbridge store)

COHERENCE AND INTERPRETATION: IMPLICATUREImplicature= a term used in pragmatics to refer to what the speaker means or implies rather than what s/he literally says.e.g. I went to the cinema. The beer was good.Coherent. Speaker went to the cinema, drank a beer which was good. Hearer provides links to render the discourse coherent.Implicature: the film was bad (the beer was the only good thing). It is not said, but it is my interpretation of what the speaker is implying.

COHERENCE AND INTERPRETATION: IMPLICATUREe.g. A: Shall we go for a walk? B: Its raining.We assume that the exchange is coherent, that B is actually answering the question, so there is an implicature. What is the implied meaning? No./Yes, but we must take an umbrella/Yes, we both like walking in the rain? It depends on the context, and we can infer it from facial expressions, tone of voice, extralinguistic elements/signs.

GRICES THEORY OF IMPLICATURE(based on question/answer sequences in conversation)

Discourse is a co-operative effortMAXIMS (maxims to which participants conventionally adhere to in communication):Quantity(do not say too much or too little)

GRICES THEORY OF IMPLICATURE (cont.)2) Quality (tell the truth)3) Relevance (say things that are related to the ongoing discourse)4) Manner (be clear, unambiguous, brief and orderly)Any deviation from the maxims is perceived by other participants as meaningful, as involving an IMPLICATURE (they will infer unexpressed content, implied meaning)

Words and expressions that convey implied meaning:Do you know what time it is?Standard implicature: I wish to know the timeConversational implicature: You are very late (E questa lora di arrivare?)Correct me if Im wrong Conversational implicature: I know Im right- Would you like to ?Id love to, but Conversational implicature: No

The principle of Politeness: the propositional content may remain the same, but different degrees of politeness in the forms of expression, used in different situations, with different peopleE.g. DIRECTNESS/LESS POLITE answer the phone, I want you to, Will you?, Can you? Would you mind? Could you possibly? INDIRECTNESS/MORE POLITEPeople are indirect because they want to be polite, or for several other reasons (e.g. You may/might want to tell him how you feelThis may be too complex)TRANSLATION: there is intercultural variation in the expression of politeness (not universal)

TRANSLATIONDIFFICULTY: ability to assess the target readers range of knowledge and assumptions about various aspects of the worldAre TL readers/viewers as able to infer unexpressed content (implied meaning) as SL readers/viewers would be? Do SC and TC express politeness in the same way?Need to strike a balance between fulfilling the Target Readers expectations and maintaining their interest in the communicationBE CAREFUL: do not overdo things by explaining too much, leaving TReaders/viewers with nothing to do.TR/TA can make a cognitive effort

Editing a translation for reasons of cross-cultural communication(with the authors permission)A text is too repetitiveA text is too verboseA text is syntactically too complexA text seems to be incoherentA text is too explicitA text may be offensiveIt depends on target readers/audience, context

REFERENCESBaker, Mona, 1992, In Other Words. A coursebook on translation, chapters 5-6-7 (thematic structure, cohesion, pragmatics)Taylor, Christopher, 1998, Language to Language (cohesion pp. 19-21)N.B.: non necessario procurarsi i capitoli di Baker, sono sufficienti gli appunti delle lezioni.