Questioning comprehensive sanctions: the birth of a norm

Questioning comprehensive sanctions:the birth of a norm

DARREN HAWKINS and JOSHUA LLOYD

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe

Humanitarian Sanctions

Network and Emerging

NormIraq

CubaConclusion

Humanitarian or ‘smart’ sanctions are increasingly entering the International Relations lexicon for the past years. In fact, it has been incorporated into the declarations of important intergovernmental organizations, including the United Nations Security Council. Argument: comprehensive economic sanctions, and the subsequent emergence of a norm favoring humanitarian sanctions are connected. Recent and proposed (as of April 2002) changes to comprehensive sanctions in Iraq and Cuba buttress the argument presented in the paper and suggest that the norm is beginning to influence behavior even in difficult cases.

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

Potential criticisms of the argument

Despite progress, powerful states have still not abandoned comprehensive sanctions in all cases and have, so far, failed to approve new general rules governing the use of sanctions.

Other forces may be at work that has convinced states that it is in their best economic interest to discontinue such embargoes. Some would argue that domestic and international business interests are really driving the change of state perspective and policy in this area

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

There is some evidence that the sanctions are beginning to change in ways consistent with humanitarian principles, thus suggesting that the norm not only exists but that it is beginning to constrain state behavior.

At the same time, the Security Council has failed to produce new general rules governing the use of sanctions despite two years of effort and reports of impending success.

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

1. 2 elements of Norm Emergence: Norm Entrepreneur and Organizational Platform

2. Norm Entrepreneur relies on information and framing to call attention to the need for a new norm.

Entrepreneur - consist of documented information about the nature of the problem

Framing - strategic use of language and symbols to gain attention of others.

3. Organizational Platforms are used as avenues that can promote ideas and information of Entrepreneurs.

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

1. 2 important Factors: Accessibility and the Preexisting normative environment

2. Accessible - standard operation procedures allow entrepreneurs to distribute information and participate in key decision - making processes.

-> different from a democratic organization

Examples: UN - it is accessible but not democratic, US congress

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

3. Preexisting Norms - entrepreneurs show new ideas that are logically consistent with prevailing norms. Which ideas are added to the existing set of shared understanding.

Examples: Anti- Slavery activists - successful for protestant revival norms of individual worth and personal responsibility for salvation in Christian churches in Britain and the northeastern US. But was not in local governments in Southern states

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

Network INGOs and IGOs (Catholic Church to the United Nations Children’s Fund)

•Generally opposed to all comprehensive sanctions, both in the abstract and in specific instances.

Two additional networks:1.US sanctions on Cuba2.UN sanctions on Iraq

* Focuses almost all of its time and energy on its own particular case, paying less attention to broader issues or other cases

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

Comprehensive Sanctions

1. August 1990: Security Council imposed mandatory, comprehensive sanctions against Iraq for its invasion of Kuwait

•February 1991: WHO and Unicef: public health crisis caused by the destruction of electrical generators and pumping stations from the bombing campaign initiated in the invasion

•UN Under-Secretary General Marti Ahtisaari: humanitarian disaster and recommended lifting food sanctions and distributing humanitarian aid

•April 3, 1991: Security Council lifted food sanctions and authorized the distribution of humanitarian aid

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

2. May 1992: comprehensive sanction on Yugoslavia in connection with the war in Bosnia

•Included WHO, Unicef, the World Food Program, CARE, the Open Society Foundation, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and emergency aid agencies from Germany, France, the United States and others

•June 1993: sanctions deepened the suffering they were supposed to relieve

• Late 1993: ‘Trying to implement a humanitarian program in a sanctions environment represents a fundamental contradiction’ sanctions had produced much ‘unintended’ human suffering, and that future sanctions should try to minimize such suffering

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

Humanitarian Impact of Sanctions•‘Sanctions should not make the ‘disadvantaged even more disadvantaged’- UN High Commissioner for refugees

•Blunt instrument – General Boutros-Ghali

•‘sanctions were ineffective yet caused immense human suffering’

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

Response to Sanctions •Peace Action: ‘Abolition of Comprehensive Sanctions ‘ in July 1998

•Catholic Church and Pope John Paul II: condemned comprehensive actions

•(1995) permanent members of the Security Council: future sanctions should ‘minimize unintended adverse side effects of sanctions on the most vulnerable segments of targeted countries’

•post-1994: every case has been limited to sanctions that do not impose widespread humanitarian problems ‘smart sanctions’

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

Emergence of new norm •April 2000: Working Group on General Issues on SanctionsStates have found it easier to oppose comprehensive sanctions than to design a new alternative

•Powerful states are not willing to completely abandon the policy tool of comprehensive sanctions

Purpose: make sure that sanctions do not harm civilian populations

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraq

CubaConclusion

Why did humanitarian groups gain relatively rapid acceptance for this norm? individual states to the United Nations made the key difference End of Cold War•UN: primary supporter of sanctions•Security Council: tied to other parts of the UN system (through information sharing and common charter•Humanitarian IGOs (Unicef and WHO)•UN Charter: based on relief of human suffering across the globe

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

UN sanctions against Iraq Background:

•Sanction: sanctions imposed in 1990

•Largest network of activists against the sanction

•More than 150 different English-speaking groups (then)

•Purpose: to alleviate or remove the sanctions against Iraq.

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



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Conclusion

Entities:•Denis Halliday

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

Entities:•Denis Halliday

“incompatible with the spirit of the UN Charter, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, [and] the Convention on Human Rights...The United Nations is running a programme that is in fact killing and maiming children...I mean that this is just a disaster; A disaster for the Iraqis and a disaster for the UN.”

-> became a symbol for activists

-> see him as someone who has seen the problem firsthand from the inside, and stood up against what he thought was wrong

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

Entities:•Han Von Sponeck

-> subsequent UN Humanitarian Mission Coordinator

-> also resigned from his post

“The sanctions are something that has failed...we must not do

this again.”

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

Entities:•Felicity Arbuthnot

-> United Kingdom

-> employee of Amnesty International

-> become a vocal opponent of the sanction by helping people to organize and mobilize support for the groups

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

Entities:•Ramsey Clark

-> former US Attorney General

-> International Action Center

->Most prominent issue: elimination of comprehensive sanctions

-> source of information and a framework organization to mobilize activism

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

Organization/Institution: Iraq Action Coalition•one of the best sources of information and analysis on nearly every aspect of the sanctions

•provides links to 45 different groups that are working towards the same purpose

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

Activities of Organization in order to Publicize their Concern•organize trips to targeted countries and undertake campaigns to educate the publics of different nations on the actions of the Security Council

•hold conferences for elites and activists so that they can better coordinate their efforts

•use opportunities given them to influence the UN

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

Changes that were imposed in order to minimize damage done:•Security Council: In August 1991, Oil-for-Food deal (Resolution 706)

•In May 1991, UN Inter-Agency Humanitarian Program

•In early 1999, US agreed with France to allow Iraq to sell unlimited amounts of oil in order

•In March 1999, Great Britain proposed an initiative to further boost the Oil-for-Food program.

•In November 2001, Security Council adopted a US and British proposal to lift the broad ban on the export of goods to Iraq and to replace it with a more narrowly drawn list of goods.

>

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

Why the Change of Mind?-> France, Russia and China

* invoked humanitarian suffering in their opposition to comprehensive sanctions on Iraq

* BUT, also have economic and political motives to end those sanctions

*same with Great Britain and US*US view/option: ->smart sanctions offered an appealing

compromise between Russian desires for an end to sanctions

->impulses for strong, unyielding sanctions

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

In November 2001, Russia finally agreed to implement the new rules in mid-2002 Humanitarian network undoubtedly prepared the ground by making smart sanctions politically desirable and publicly legitimate, but states needed additional reasons to finally adopt them in the difficult case of Iraq.

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

I. Anti-Sanctions Network A. Principal Motivation

a. The extremism and combative attitudes of the ultra-conservative Cuban movements that have repeatedly punished Cuba for nearly 40 years with the US embargo

b. Concerns about its effects on the Cuban population at large

B. Groups That Effort To Lift The Sanctions On Cuba• Cuban Committee for Human Rights, the Partido Pro

Derechos Humanos, the Comisión de Derechos Humanos y Reconciliación Nacional, and the Moviemiento Cristiano Liberación.

i. Suffering in Cuba ii. Gives the dictator a reason to continue his strict defiance

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

b. Cuban Committee for Democracy (CCD)i. Made up of academicians, professionals and

businessmen

ii. ‘..goal of promoting a democratic Cuba would be better served by constructive engagement rather than by fruitless isolation that contributes to the misery of the Cuban people’ (Cuban Committee for Democracy 1999)

c. Cambio Cubanoi. membership is made up mostly of Cuban immigrants in

Miami, Mexico and Latin America

ii. founded in 1992 by a Cuban exile on the principle that not all Cuban Americans endorse the embargo (Cambio Cubano 1999)

iii.Cuban Humanitarian Trade Act and the Cuban Women and Children Humanitarian Relief Act

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

C. NGOs That Network to Promote Change in US-Cuba Policya. The Center for International Policy (CIP)

i. Cuba Project- work for a peaceful change in the Cuban regime through engagement with the U.S.

ii. Sponsored conferences- mobilizes moderate Cuban Americans to work for removal of the sanctions

iii. Counter the Helms-Burton legislation

iv. Has formed alliances with important business interests

i. Instrumental in the formation of the Association for Humanitarian Trade with Cuba (AHTC), which is a conglomeration of agricultural and pharmaceutical companies that have an interest in trading with Cuba (ibid)

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

II. Changes in The Sanctions

A. Bill Clintona. March 1998 and January 1999- more direct cash remittances

to flow to individuals in Cuba and sell some medicine and food

b. October 2000- the US Congress passed a complicated bill- allowed the delivery of food and medicine to Cuba

c. Cuba purchased small amounts of food and lumber to aid recovery from Hurricane Michelle-> Represents the first direct US sale to Cuba of food since 1962

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



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Conclusion

II. Changes in The Sanctions

B. House of Representativesa. Summer 2001

Provisions that prevent the executive branch from enforcing the travel ban to Cuba

C. ‘the plight of the Cuban people’ (Clinton)•Lift the food and medicine embargo on Cuba

•Highlighting the negative humanitarian consequences of the sanctions

•State Department-‘increase support for the Cuban people by facilitating the transfer of food and humanitarian assistance’ (Rubin 1998)

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



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Conclusion

III. Business and Agricultural Sectors

USA*Engage- 674 businesses, agriculture groups and trade associations

A very strong interest in opening the gates to Cuba

IV. Changes in US policy and Discourse

The traditional structural and attitudinal constraints in the United States against Cuba indicate that a new norm has emerged.

Introduction

Theorizing Norm

EmergenceThe



NormIraqCuba

Conclusion

• United Nations played a big role in the success of the transnational

network while humanitarian organization and norms are major components in the system.

• Norms shared by individuals is significant for the activist to determine the issues in comprehensive sanctions.

• Although Humanitarian sanctions have the capability to influence, they can’t entirely convince some powerful actors in changing their opinion and arguments in other sanctions.

• Furthermore, sanctions are said to be effective to bring change in a non violent way.

Questioning comprehensive sanctions: the birth of a norm

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