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B.V. Patel Institute of Business Management, Computer & Information

Technology, Uka Tarsadia University

Question Bank 030030611: Training and Development

Unit: 1 Training and Analysis of Training Need

1 mark Questions

1. Differentiate between education and training.

Training is job oriented. It is skill learning. Education is wider in scope and general in

purpose whereas training is organisation specific and practice based.

2. Mention the challenges fulfilled by training and development.

Manpower training and development programmes.

3. Mention one advantage of training.

Improves the individual learning level and by their behaviour.

4. What is the first step of training needs assessment?

Broad issues that can influence training needs.

5. Mention any one component of person analysis.

Performance appraisal data

6. Mention any one data sources of organizational analysis.

Organizational goal and objectives, personnel inventories, skill inventories etc.

7. State any one advantage of training need assessment

Training needs assessment sharpens the focus and orientation.

8. What is the difference in motivational forces between training and development?

Training has extrinsic motivation while development has intrinsic motivation.

9. Write the full form of TNA

Training Needs Assessment.

10. State the major classifications of training.

Training can be classified into two major types (a) on-the job training (b) off-the-job

training.

TYBBA-HRM

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2 marks Questions

1. What is meant by competency assessment?

Competency assessment focuses on the skills and knowledge an employee should posses

for decision oriented and knowledge intensive jobs.

2. What are the two challenges to present day management thinkers?

The problem of change and adapting to change is the main concern of present day

management thinkers.

3. Define ‘training’.

Training is use of specific means to specific learning, often with the use of techniques that

can be identified and continually improved.

4. Why do manager need training?

For acquiring the required professional knowledge, skills, attitudes, habits and other

personality traits for realising their potential to the maximum possible extent.

5. Differentiate between training and development.

A functional definition of ‗training‘ for discussion in research study is the acquisition of

concepts, theories, knowledge, skill and attitudes and ‗development‘ defined as the

application of acquired knowledge, theories, skill and attitude to the job, for increasing

organisational effectiveness.

6. List any two beneficiaries of training.

Organisation

Individual training

7. State any two problems of training.

Sometime trainers think that training is the panacea for all organizational ills

which is not true.

Mismatch between objectives and needs may make the training programme

useless.

8. List any two functions of training department.

Producing training policies, plans and budgets

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Assisting managers to identify training needs

9. What are the country level benefits of training?

Cost reduction, improved methods of production, enhanced quality result in increased

exports and consequent contribution to balance of payments.

10. List the procedure for identifying problem needs.

1. Determine organisational context

2. Gap analysis is performed

3. Objectives are set

5 marks Questions

1. Define training and development in the words of Lawrence S. Kleiman and write

features of training.

Lawrence S. Kleiman defines training and development as planned learning experiences

designed to provide workers with the competencies needed to perform their current or

future jobs.

Features of Training:

Training focuses on technical, mechanical oriented operations.

Training is concerned with specific job skills and behaviour.

Training is mostly for non-managers.

Training focuses on current jobs.

Training focuses on short-term gains.

The training is job-oriented process and is vocational in nature.

Training is one-shot deal.

Training may result in enhancement of a particular job skill.

Training is the result of organisational initiative and hence motivation is extrinsic.

Training can be classified into 2 major types(a) on-the job training(b) off-the-job

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training

Training is usually imposed.

The staff members may have no clear perception of the relationship between

learning and career development.

Evaluation for training is considered to be essential.

2. Summarize the role and responsibilities of training department.

Responsibility for the training of employees has to rest firmly on the shoulders of the

manager or supervisor, since he is responsible for their performance in the ultimate

analysis and knows better than anyone else what the job entails.

The most comprehensive listing of the role and responsibilities of a training department

could be as follows:

Working with management to produce corporate plans (including manpower plans)

and business strategies

Producing training policies, plans and budgets

Providing training inputs to management development

Selecting trainees (e.g. apprentices, student trainees, graduates) Arranging appropriate

induction programmes

Carrying out job analyses

Assisting managers to identify training needs

Arranging and partly carrying out training programmes including course design

Organising further education for employees

Measuring, evaluating and following up training

Developing training staff

Liaising with educational establishments, professional associations, etc.

Providing a training advisory and information service

Controlling all training resources

Advancing the cause of training as a profession

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3. What is the importance of person analysis? What is the significance of training need

analysis?

Person analysis requires determining which employees require training and which

employees do not require training.

In view of the foregoing person analysis acquires greater importance. It helps

organisation to avoid the mistake of sending all employees to training when some of them

do not need it

It certainly helps in saving the training cost to the organisation. Person analysis also helps

managers to determine the content coverage and design of the training programme.

The person analysis is done in two phases.

First phase the performance indicators are developed and

Second phase the gaps existing in knowledge, skill, attitudes are determined

and approaches to resolve them are developed. Organisations use performance

appraisal data for person analysis.

4. List steps of training need assessment also list the content of each step.

Step One: Identify Problem Needs

Determine organisational context.

Gap analysis is performed.

Objectives are set.

Step Two: Determine Design of Needs Analysis

Method selection criteria is established.

Advantages and disadvantages of the methods are assessed.

Step Three: Collect Data

Interviews are conducted.

Questionnaires and surveys are administered.

Documents are reviewed.

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People at work are observed to find out how the work is, being done.

Step Four: Analyse Data

Qualitative analysis and

Quantitative analysis is conducted.

Solutions/recommendations are determined.

Step Five: Provide Feedback

Report is prepared.

Presentation is made to the management.

What training is needed is decided.

Step Six: Develop Action Plan

Once this formal needs assessment process is completed the information is used as

the basis for training design, development and evaluation. However, one must

continue to assess the attitudes, knowledge and skill level of participants prior to

each session. Different audiences may have different needs. This can be done both

through a basic questionnaire sent just prior to a specific training event and also

during the first five minutes of each session.

Changing the Job Itself - This is the process undertaken as the last resort this

option can be considered when training; practice, providing job aids are not

possible.

Training Needs - These are generally the needs that arise due to the lack of KSA's

that are necessary for the job to be performed effectively and their lack causes

performance deficiency.

5. Explain the different approaches of training need analysis.

There are two approaches to conducting a TNA:

a) Proactive TNA; and

b) Reactive TNA

Proactive TNA

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Organisational Analysis - Proactive TNA approach begins with strategic plans, where the

organisation's internal environment and future expectations are analysed to find a perfect

fit. These might include the organisation's structure, policies, procedures, practices, pay

structures, etc., which need to be addressed at the organisational level as a whole.

Operational Analysis - Employees need to be prepared for the dynamic changes in the

job. Hence the job analyst has to also take into account the future task requirements of the

job. This analysis is defined as identifying the KSA's required for the job to be performed

effectively in future

Person Analysis - In this information presented about the person earlier is applicable.

Reactive TNA

This begins with any discrepancy in job performance. Once the discrepancy has been

identified, it is to be considered whether it is important enough in the job to interfere to

change it. Reactive TNA also follows organisational analysis, operational analysis and

person analysis, but the distinction is that here it takes the backseat for various reasons:

When a reactive performance discrepancy is identified, it is better to work from the

discrepancy and deal with issues that are indicated in relation to the discrepancy.

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Unit: 2 Training Design and Methods

1 mark Questions

1. Why is it said that training design is a matter of experience?

It is said that training design is a matter of experience because an experienced training

designer will arrange the contents of training in an orderly and interesting manner.

2. What is the first step in designing any training programme?

Training need identification is the first step in designing any training programme.

3. Mention one organizational constraint in training design.

Budget is one of the organizational constraints in training design.

4. What is meant by training objectives?

Training objectives refer to all the objectives that are developed for the training

programme.

5. What is meant by objectives in the context of training design?

Objectives are statements about what is to be expected to be accomplished.

6. What are usually the focus of training?

Generally attitudes along with knowledge and skills are the focus of training.

7. What is general training methodology?

The general training methodology includes a series of lectures by trainers.

8. Whose name is associated with World Bank methodology?

Benzamin Mouthner is associated with World Bank methodology.

9. What is the special characteristic of Coverdale/ Manage Training methodology?

The special characteristic of Coverdale/ Manage Training methodology is hundred

percent participation of trainees in the training methodology.

10. List any one way to increase the effectiveness of lecture method.

Use of visual aids

11. How many members are there in Huddle method?

4 – 6 members

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12. How many members comprise of G.D.

Only 2 members

13. Mention any two types of G.D.

Conference Method

Workshop Method

14. What should be the group size in case method?

20-25 students

15. Mention any one problem faced by trainer in role play method.

Failure to establish supportive climate

2 marks Questions

1. What is meant by training design?

A training design is "a technique of arranging the course content in a logical manner, so as

to enable the trainees to learn maximum from the training course".

2. List two major categories of constraints in designing training programme.

a. Organizational/environmental constraints

b. Trainee population

3. Mention two major organizational constraints in the context of training design.

a. Technological advances

b. Legal aspects

4. State different types of training objectives.

a. Training reaction objectives

b. Learning objectives

c. Transfer of training objectives

d. Organizational outcome objectives

5. What are the major components of good objectives?

a. Desired outcome

b. Conditions

c. Standards

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6. Why outcome, conditions and standards are considered important components of

training objectives?

Outcome, conditions and standards are considered important components of training

objectives because the outcomes specify the type of behavior, the conditions state where,

how, what and when it should be used, and standards describe the criteria used to judge

the accuracy and effectiveness of the behavior.

7. Explain the concept of desired behavior.

The desired behavior needs to be clearly defined as to the specific actions desired to be

performed.

8. List three benefits of training objectives to a trainee.

a. They reduce the fear of unknown

b. They have a focus

c. They increase the likelihood of the trainee being successful in the training programme

9. List the contents of on the job training.

a. On the job training

b. Job rotation

c. Guidance and counseling

d. Syndicate groups

10. List the contents of simulation methods.

a. Role play

b. Case method

c. Management games

d. In basket exercise

11. Draw the chart of training methodologies

Training methodology

General training

methodology

World bank methodology

Coverdale/manage

methodology

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12. Why trainers adopt group discussion method?

The trainer conducts a group discussion with purpose of solving a problem, getting

feedback, sharing experiences, establishing a consensus or for exchanging ideas.

13. What is the role of trainer in group discussion method?

During the group discussion the trainer plays the role of facilitator and poses questions,

encourages involvement, manages the environment and summarises the conclusions

reached by the group. The trainer should be sensitive to group dynamics so that the

learners remain focused and should be prepared to intervene when the discussions

deteriorate. The trainer should be careful while handling discussion of controversial

topics so as to avoid hurt feelings, lasting anger and frustrated learners. There are

different types of group discussion like small group discussion, buzz method group

discussion, symposium, seminars, huddle method group discussion, etc.

14. Why case study method is useful for trainers?

It is a useful method in giving participant an opportunity to tackle difficult problems

before the trainee is personally exposed to real life frightening and confusing situations.

15. List one advantage and one disadvantage of case study method.

Advantage: This method helps in developing cooperation and interpersonal skills among

the participants.

Disadvantage: The case study method is time consuming compared to other direct

methods.

16. What is the role of chairman in conference method?

The chairman is the key and significant figure in the conference method. He is expected

to have complete control both of the speakers and of the audience and in this respect he

wields considerable power. He should plan well what the speaker should deliver and

provide adequate question time after each talk. Balancing the expectations of the audience

and allocating optimum question time demands considerable skills on the part of

chairman. Sometimes he has to be firm but the same firmness should not be wrongly

interpreted as dictatorial. The chairman has to sum-up at the end of the conference.

Relevance, coverage and brevity are the required characteristics and the chairman should

have the skill to do the same.

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17. Mention one advantage and one disadvantage of seminar method?

Advantages of Seminar Method

1) This provides learning through sharing.

2) As experts are present studying a subject in detail is facilitated.

3) As an expert guides the discussion learning is promoted.

4) A well run seminar through a detailed and systematic discussion will facilitate a

thorough investigation and careful enquiry of the subject selected.

Disadvantages

1) As these small groups have explored the problem in-depth, they find full seminar

session repetitive and boring.

2) Some of the members tend to play a passive role during syndicate sessions.

3) Often members do not come prepared and do not devote necessary time during the

syndicate sessions.

5 marks Questions

6. What is training design? Highlight important considerations to be kept in mind

when designing a training programme.

A training design is "a technique of arranging the course content in a logical manner, so

as to enable the trainees to learn maximum from the training course".

Considerations to be kept in mind when designing a training programme.

a) Cover all contents of the training programme: A training programme may not be

effective, if some of the important contents of the training programme are left

uncovered.

b) Motivating/Interesting Training Programme: A training programme should be so

designed that it motivates the participants, as they are adults and experienced

people. They want to learn purposeful, useful, interesting, new ideas from a training

programme.

c) Combination of training methods: It is always good if there is a combination of

many training methods, instead of using a single training method.

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d) Simple to complex: A training programme should be started from simple contents to

help trainees get absorbed into the training activities. If the complex training

programme content is taught in the beginning of the programme, creates

psychological fear among trainee.

e) Logical sequence of attitude/knowledge/skills: The content of the training

programme should be such that it changes attitudes of the participants to move on to

knowledge improvement and opens the way for development of the required skills

among the trainees.

f) Divide into modules: The contents of the training programme should be divided into

modules, for comprehensive learning.

g) Break-up: This emphasis that a certain amount of time is allocated for each of the

activities and modules of the training programme. The Break-up of the training

content helps trainees to enhance their learning capabilities.

7. Explain the concept of budgeting for training. List various costs of training and

explain development cost, direct cost and participant cost.

The HRD department presents the budgeting process that charges the others for the

services it provides.HR department is required to justify their existence and efficiency in

an organization. While providing cost estimates the HR Departments need to understand

that they are comparing with the limited resources made available to them and need to be

as accurate as possible in the budgeting process.

Once the length of the training programme has been estimated, it is also necessary to

estimate the time that will be taken to develop the training for delivery. The more

accurate the estimate the more accurate will be the costing.

The types of costs involved in training:

a. Development cost

b. Direct cost

c. Indirect cost

d. Overhead cost

e. Participant compensation

f. Evaluation cost

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Development costs - All costs related to the development of a programme are included

here, along with the cost of front-end training needs analysis, 6f analysis and tracking

results. The cost of all programmes and materials, designs, computer aided programming

are all included here. These costs can be reduced if it is planned well for over a year to

prevent overly high costs.

Direct costs - These are the costs directly attributable to the delivery of the training

programme. The facilities like travel, materials to be used in training, food and beverages,

equipment, trainer compensation, rentals, etc.

Participant Compensation - While employees are participating in a training programme,

their salaries and benefits should also be included as cost of training.

Another approach to this is to include only the cost of replacing those employees who are

in the training programme. In a lot of cases there is no participant compensation involved

because no organisational cost was incurred when the employees were in the training

programme.

8. Briefly summarize the components of good objective and the concept of writing

down objectives in training design.

A good objective generally has the following components.

a) Desired outcome - The desired outcome of a training programme should be clearly

worded.

b) Conditions - Providing the conditions also makes the objectives more clear and

unambiguous. The description of the conditions under which the behaviour is to be

performed is also to be made known during the training.

c) Standards - The standards are represented by accuracy, quality and speed. It is the

criteria that signify the acceptable outcomes of a training programme.

The following are the steps in writing objectives:

I. Write the ―desired behavior‖. The ―desired behavior‖ needs to be clearly defined

as to the specific actions desired to be performed.

II. Add the conditions under which the behavior must occur i.e. where, how and

what tools should be used in order to achieve the desired behavior.

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III. It needs to be made clear the standards that are set for success that will be used to

determine the effectiveness of the desired behavior.

Then, the training objective written needs to be tested. Anyone can be asked to read it and

explain exactly what they understand that a trainee needs to accomplish, under what

conditions and the indicators that are given for successful accomplishment.

9. Argue in favor and against of development of training objectives.

Some arguments in its favour include:

1. Waste valuable time –

The argument in its favour is that the resources available are often scarce and the time

taken in developing training objectives takes away time that may be required for other

important endeavour.

From one angle, this argument may be true; but the objectives guide the development

of training and also impact result in reduction in time taken to develop the training

programme.

2. Inhibit flexibility –

It is often said that defining training objectives inhibit the flexibility of the trainer to

react to the needs of the trainee.

The other view presented there is that a comprehensive training needs analysis is

designed to determine the trainee needs and the objectives specifically focus on those

needs. It guides the trainer's ideas and progress of the training programme in the right

direction.

3. Unrealistic for management and other soft skills training –

Some specialists are of the opinion that management or soft skills training cannot

have concrete objectives.

But the argument put forth against this is that whatever the training that needs to be

achieved, the output has to be put forth in the form of training objectives

4. Not practical in today's workplace –

Some specialists argue that the objectives have outlived practical use in today's

workplace.

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Others argue that even though this may be true at the organisational level, the aim of

having objectives to guide the training programme remains valid at individual and

team/group level which will in the long run help in achieving organisational goals.

10. Discuss the importance of training

Training objectives provide a clear picture of the activities being undertaken during

the training programme, which reduces the anxiety of not knowing what to expect at

each level of the programme.

The objectives also help focus attention on the relevant aspects of the training

programme, attention being the first important aspect in a learning process.

Learning objectives increase the possibility of learning relevant information. From the

learning perspective, it becomes important for the trainee to be aware of his/her

expected performance and to be able to refer to them throughout the programme. This

information will help the trainee focus better and organise and learn the new

information.

The Training Designer - The learning objectives guide the designer of the training.

They directly translate the training needs into training outputs. The contents and

methods can be tested for their consistency and effectiveness. It also helps in

development of better training plans, provide a clear goal to be achieved the designer

of the programme can design the course effectively.

The Trainer –The objective allow the trainer:

a. To determine the performance of the trainees

b. Make appropriate recommendations for improvement.

c. Freedom to train the way they want, to keep on the right track.

Training Evaluator - Evaluation of training is very easy when objectives are present.

When objectives are not present, there is no way an evaluator can assess the

effectiveness of the training. Good objectives when developed simply necessitate the

evaluator to assess whether the outcome/standards have been reached.

11. What are the limitations of lecture method? What steps should be taken to increase

the effectiveness of lecture method?

Limitations/Disadvantages

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1. This is the most criticised method in a research conducted among directors of training, showing that the lecture was

perceived to be among the least effective training methods.

2. The audience's role is passive and audience feedback is limited.

3. Efficient learning demands concentration on the part of the learner.

Steps should be taken to increase the effectiveness of lecture method

a) Lecture method can be improved by encouraging the audience to take notes.

b) Use of visual aids largely improves the effectiveness of lecture.

c) Prints can be illustrated by making good use of stories and anecdotes.

d) The review and regular summarising heighten the effectiveness of the lecture method.

e) Another way to improve traditional method is to reduce how much time you spend on

them.

f) The trainer can ask questions frequently during a lecture to enhance the learner

involvement. By this the lecture becomes more interactive and retention is higher.

12. Define group discussion method. What are the advantages and disadvantages of

group discussion method?

The Group Discussion is defined as "the process of reaction and counter reaction between

two pr more than two persons on a common subject with the objective of achieving some

specific conclusion or results".

The trainer conducts a group discussion with purpose of solving a problem, getting

feedback, sharing experiences, establishing a consensus or for exchanging ideas.

During the group discussion the trainer plays the role of facilitator and poses questions,

encourages involvement, manages the environment and summarises the conclusions

reached by the group. The trainer should be sensitive to group dynamics so that the

learners remain focused and should be prepared to intervene when the discussions

deteriorate. The trainer should be careful while handling discussion of controversial

topics so as to avoid hurt feelings, lasting anger and frustrated learners. There are

different types of group discussion like small group discussion, buzz method group

discussion, symposium, seminars, huddle method group discussion, etc.

Advantages of Group Discussion Method

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A group discussion is usually effective in engaging learners and encouraging

participation. Peer learning is one of the most direct benefits resulting from the discussion

method. Group discussions centre around problems, questions, ideas or issues presented

to the group for consideration and verbal exploration.

Disadvantages of Group Discussion Method

1) Behavioural problems like hurting feelings, jarring personal conflict/etc. may

happen in group discussion, if the trainer has not handled the situation and

environment properly. Sometimes the discussion may be so lengthy that meaningful

results may not be achieved.

2) In some cases the trainees get off the track or one trainee dominates the discussion,

then the other trainees feel that the discussion was a waste of time.

3) One of the obvious disadvantages of group discussion is when many trainees may

like to contribute at the same time or when trainees are verbose.

13. Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of case study method.

Advantages of Case Study Method

1) Pooling of the knowledge and experiences of the group of people analysing the

case is possible.

2) This method helps in developing cooperation and interpersonal skills among the

participants.

3) It facilitates analytical skills and communication of the skills of the participants;

4) As the case study method throws open different approaches, alternatives and

solutions to a problem the participant is given a variety of solutions.

5) Others' point of view is made known in the discussion and one starts appreciating

other's point of view paving way for possible behavioural and attitudinal changes.

6) This method facilitates synthesis of several conceptual principles resulting in a

plan of action.

7) In addition to developing analytical and problem-solving skills may facilitate the

development of teamwork, communication and presentation skills especially when

the trainees are asked to report their findings to the group.

Disadvantages

Case study method does have certain disadvantages:

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1) The case studies sometimes lack realism and immediate relevance to the

organisational settings.

2) The case study method is time consuming compared to other direct methods.

3) Some case studies may be difficult for trainees to comprehend and imagine the

situation as it happened when presented in written form.

14. Write a short note on role play method.

In role-play method active participation is achieved and this facilitates learning. In the

cone of experience that highlights instructional alternatives, contrived experience are

categorized as the clues to Direct Purposeful Experience. Thus, in the absence of real

situations, certain artificial situations may have to be created to suit the instructional

needs so that the trainees would be feeling that they are experiencing life-like situations.

This contrived artificial situation in educational parlance is called simulation.

A simulation is a product that results when the appearance or effect of something else has

been created by controlling the task-irrelevant items and by adding the replaced or

represented items.

Role-plays, which are sometimes called skill practices, provide trainees with the

opportunity to apply new skills in a safe environment. Role-play sometimes involves the

trainees acting the part of other people so that they can practice newly acquired skills. A

"real life" situation is improvised and acted out in front of the group which then they

discusses the implication of the performances for the situation under consideration.

The role-play method is advantageous only in the following training situations.

1) To examine a problem in human relationship.

2) To seek out possible solutions to an emotion-laden problem.

3) To provide a group with insight into attitudes that differs sharply from their own.

4) To practice new skills.

Problems in conducting Role-play

As this method relies heavily on simulation of ‗real life' situations, full understanding of

the situation by the trainer and very good perception by the trainee are sine qua non for

the success of this method. Problems crop-up either with the trainer or with the trainee.

15. What are the main advantages of role-play method?

1) This method creates active participation, live demonstration of problem situation

in nonthreatening atmosphere for trainees.

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2) Participants' awareness about the effect of feelings, emotions, etc. are increased by

use of this method.

3) This method reduces the resistance of the participants.

4) By practicing the desired skill, imitation of the desirable behaviours, this method

helps the trainees in their learning.

5) This method is flexible.

6) This method can add variety, drama and fun to a formal training programme.

7) The role-players are sometimes able to explain cultural difference simply and

clearly.

8) It is fun to work with; it is lively and interesting.

9) It helps improve the learners' capacity to analyze information, demonstrate,

describe and explain.

10) By playing roles opposite those played in real life, the learner is able to experience

the other side of the issues involved.

11) A role-play helps the learner understand his own personality and communication

skills, and the effect of his attitude and arguments. It also helps him to learn to

face criticism and to take credit.

16. What is role play method? What are the guidelines for effective role-play?

Role-plays, which are sometimes called skill practices, provide trainees with the

opportunity to apply new skills in a safe environment. Role-play sometimes involves the

trainees acting the part of other people so that they can practice newly acquired skills. A

"real life" situation is improvised and acted out in front of the group which then they

discusses the implication of the performances for the situation under consideration.

Guidelines for effective role-play

1) Establish a casual and relaxed environment

2) Address any concerns before the role-play begins

3) Use real-world situations.

4) Explain the value of role-plays

5) Clearly demonstrate expected outcomes

6) Provide detailed instructions or directions

7) Inform learners on how to provide effective feedback

8) Break people into small groups rather than one larger group, because people will

generally feel more comfortable in smaller groups. Three people per group will enable

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two to participate in the role-play while one person observes and then provides

feedback.

9) Allow learners to play all parts in the role-play

10) Monitor each group, intervene when necessary and provide feedback.

11) Debrief the whole group and address any concerns.

17. Write short note on conference method.

The conference method is usually a highly structure device for conveying a message or a

messages on a large scale. Often to an audience of several hundred people4 delegates

with common interest from a wide cross section of the society attend the same seeking an

opportunity to hear the views and comments of authorities in areas covered. Literally

conference means consultation. This being so the delegates should be able to get answers

to questions on topics covered.5

The chairman is the key and significant figure in the conference method. He is expected

to have complete control both of the speakers and of the audience and in this respect he

wields considerable power. He should plan well what the speaker should deliver and

provide adequate question time after each talk. Balancing the expectations of the audience

and allocating optimum question time demands considerable skills on the part of

chairman. Sometimes he has to be firm but the same firmness should not be wrongly

interpreted as dictatorial. The chairman has to sum-up at the end of the conference.

Relevance, coverage and brevity are the required characteristics and the chairman should

have the skill to do the same.

Advantages of Conference Method

1) Members usually discuss the topics of high relevance and common interest to

them.

2) The attendance to the conference js usually voluntary.

3) This conference method is suitable for acquiring conceptual knowledge and helps

in clarifying doubts.

4) The members are enthusiasts in that particular subject and they are brought

together to share their expertise and to plan.

Disadvantages

1) The attendance is often unpredictable.

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2) The method is very expensive, as arrangements have to be made for the venue,

accommodation and catering, etc.

3) Finding a skilful chairman to conduct the proceedings effectively is very difficult.

Making Conference Method Effective

1) The objective of the conference must be clearly defined and well understood. •

2) Expert speakers should be carefully selected after going through their background.

3) Early planning of the programme and wide publicity is desirable.

18. Explain the concept of T-Group training

Sensitivity training is otherwise called as T-Group Training. In 1947 in Bethel Maine,

U.S.A., a training laboratory was conducted with the main objective of serving as a

change agent.

T-Groups in India are mainly conducted by Indian Society for Applied Behaviour

Sciences. Variety of skills like self-awareness, interpersonal relations, teamwork, group

and organisational processes, inter-group conflict resolution, etc.

T-Group training is designed to help each individual realise his own potential for growth

more fully and to increase his ability to work effectively with others in a variety of

situations.

1) Sensitivity training alternatively called as T-Group (Training), D-Group

(Development) L-Group (Learning) or Laboratory training is an experience based

learning - learn by experience sharing particularly those generated by the group.

2) Sensitivity training is a process-oriented training.

3) A trainer of the faculty has no formal role in the group in T-Group training. He

works with the participants as one of them.

4) Sensitivity training is carried out in a laboratory where participants simulate

conditions for effective functioning of the group in an unstructured manner. The

group is not defined, the leadership is not offered by the trainer and the behaviour

is not prescribed. All of them are evolved through a natural process by the group.

5) Sensitivity training is a participant centred learning.

6) A major goal of sensitivity training is to contribute towards the personal growth

of the participants through the increased self-awareness and inter-personal

competence.

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19. Explain the concept of out bound learning method.

Under this method open-air exercises are usually carried out in teams at a place away

from the usual working environment The trainees are made to play some games or do

trekking, etc. A facilitator observes the trainees' behaviour and gives them feedback about

how this learning can be applied in the work situation back home. As the trainee is

internalising the learning through experiential mode, he learns from observing others,

learns from the feedback and internalises the application of the learning and applies the

same in work situations.

This method offers practice in management. It can offer training in facing challenging or

problematic situations. This method also helps in leadership and teamwork lessons. It can

also provide training in self-analysis.

As the training is conducted in the outdoor the physical challenges to the trainee may be

tough, which may not receive his acceptance and hence its relevance may not be that well

appreciated.

There are organisations like "Pegasus" near Bangalore, which provides such specialised

outbound training. It is worthwhile to note that corporate organisations like Canara Bank

had successfully conducted such outbound training for inculcating achievement

motivation amongst their employees. The author has successfully designed and delivered

an outbound training programme, called "Walkathon", profitably combining treasure hunt

and marathon walking.

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Unit: 3 Learning and Training Process

1 mark Questions

1. What is learning?

Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or skill produced by experience.

2. What is feedback?

Feedback is any information that people receive about the consequences of their

behaviour.

3. Explain the meaning of doing in the concept of Kolb’s learning cycle.

Doing means getting a baseline of understanding in a realistic setting.

4. Explain the meaning of reflecting in the concept of Kolb’s learning cycle.

Reflecting means thinking about what you see and experience.

5. Explain the meaning of conceptualizing in the concept of Kolb’s learning cycle.

Conceptualizing means thinking about things logically, processing ideas internally and

finding links and patterns.

6. Explain the meaning of experimenting in the concept of Kolb’s learning cycle.

Experimenting means trying things out to see what happens.

7. List any one element of programme design.

Programme title

8. Who is responsible for a good training?

The programme director

9. Why the designing of the training programme is essential?

The designing of the training programme is essential because it decides effectiveness.

10. What is meant by training implementation?

In the implementation stage the programme design is put into practice.

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2 marks Questions

1. List any four principles of learning.

a. Every human being is capable of learning.

b. Learning is an active and dynamic process.

c. Learning followed by immediate application enhances the learning.

d. Individuals learn better when they learn at their own pace.

2. State the components of learning process.

The learning process has the following components:

1) Drive

2) Cue stimuli

3) Generalisation

4) Discrimination

5) Reinforcement

6) Retention

7) Extinction

3. List different stages of learning as propounded by D.A. Kolb.

OR

Draw Kolb’s learning cycle.

Kolb‘s learning cycle:

4. State any two learning principles.

a. Feedback

b. Production of the response

DO

Reflect

Conceptualize

Experiment

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5. What function is served by feedback?

1. It provides data about a person's style of behaviour and its effect on others.

2. The feedback acts as a motivator to the worker. When workers see their own

achievements, they have reason to be interested in their work and have a sense of

satisfaction about their achievements.

3. The feedback helps the trainee to have a better awareness and increases his sensitivity.

6. Mention two advantages of giving feedback.

1. Provides verifiable data about behavior.

2. Encourages collecting data from several sources.

7. Mention two advantages of receiving feedback.

1. Helps in processing behavioural data.

2. Increases self-awareness.

8. State any two principles of successful feedback systems in training.

1. Simplicity: The simplicity also contributes to economy.

2. In-built mechanism for self-evaluation.

3. Should be both qualitative and quantitative.

4. Should be a part of the regular reporting system about training.

5. Should facilitate the performance improvement.

2 marks Questions

1. List the stages of training process.

1) Pre-planning

2) Planning

3) Implementation

4) Evaluation

2. Why the designing of a training programme is very important?

The designing of a training programme is important to impart and enhance the learning of

the trainees.

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3. Draw the diagram of design and development factors given by A.H. Anderson.

4. Explain administrative arrangement stage of training implementation.

This stage starts with making and communicating the details of the programme and ends

with recording the details after completion.

5. Explain carrying out the training stage of training implementation.

This is the central aspect of delivering the programme.

6. What are the various factors on which implementation stage depend?

1) The training needs,

2) The design of the programme,

3) Training policy and

4) Training plan.

7. What is training plan?

The training plan for an organisation looks at the training function for a year ahead and it

sets priority and boundaries. Based on needs analysis the training plan decides what type

of training is required and who are the people involved. It also addresses areas like

resources needed, when and where the training is to be conducted and what are the most

pressing areas where results are expected.

5 marks Questions

1. Draw the block diagram of learning process. Briefly describe the elements of

learning process.

Elements of Learning Process

The learning process has various elements like the training/teaching organisation which

comprises the trainer/teacher, the learner and technology of training /learning.

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These training elements can be treated as a system or a sub-system.

Training/Teaching Organisation

This can be otherwise called as endosystem. It has its own culture and dynamics. Its main

function is to maximise the motivation of learning by creating conducive culture and

climate. Various aspects like organisation culture, non-threatening climate etc.,

encourages self-learning and participation of the learner. Learning to be effective should

be making the learner to achieve something challenging.

Trainer/Teacher

Trainer/Teacher is certainly an important element in the learning process. He can be

called as influence system. The impact created by him through his behaviour, values and

competence supersedes the impact created by other elements. To a greater extent his

influence over the trainee decides the effectiveness of the learning.

2. What actions are required from the trainer and the trained for an effective

feedback?

From the trainer's angle –

1) The feedback should be descriptive and not judgemental. Evaluative feedback does

not help a person in making him autonomous in taking decision about what he

would like to do.

2) The trainer should be focused on the behavioural data than on the person himself.

3) The feedback is to be specific and data based.

4) The feedback should be suggestive to the trainee than prescriptive.

5) The feedback should attempt at reinforcing new behaviour.

6) The feedback should be given with an intention to help the trainee.

7) The feedback should be well timed. It should not only be immediate but also at the

time when the trainee is in a position to receive the feedback.

From the trainee's angle –

1) The trainee should receive and own the feedback. Then only he can act upon it.

2) The trainee should analyse the feedback and reflect on it than rationalising his

behaviour.

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3) The trainee should have accurately perceived the feedback or the feedback will have

no effect.

4) Results indicate the accuracy of the feedback. The accuracy of the feedback can be

improved by factors like credibility of the trainer, the trust in relationship between

the trainer and trainee, etc.

5) The trainer should give feedback in such a way that the trainee takes it in non-

threatening way, so that the trainee acts upon it.

3. Write brief essay on element of a programme or course and draw the diagram of

stages of designing a structure.

Elements of Programme Design

1. Programme title

2. Programme objectives

3. Contents of the programme

4. Duration of the programme

5. Topics of each session with session objectives

6. Duration of each session

7. Name of the lead faculty for each session

8. Names of the guest speakers.

9. Date, time, duration of inaugural session

10. Date, time and duration of the valedictory session

11. Name of the chief guest for leading the inaugural and valedictory session

12. Date, time, duration, place and things to be carried by the participants for the field

visit/study visit

13. Methods of training to be adopted during the programme

14. Training materials/audiovisual aids if any required for the training programme.

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4. Mention key factors in designing and development of a programme.

The effectiveness of the programme is directly proportional to its design. The following are

the important considerations to be; borne in mind .while designing a training programme.

1) Should contain and cover all the programme contents effectively.

2) Should facilitate adult learning.

3) Should be interesting and motivating.

4) Should use of different training methods.

5) Should move from simple concepts to complex matters.

6) Should be logical and sequential.

7) Should be divided into modules.

8) Should provide concepts, practical, assignments, field visits, experiential learning, etc.

5. How do learner and trainer play a key role in designing and development of a

training programme.

The following are the key factors in designing and development of a training programme:

1) The learner

2) The facilitator or the trainer

3) The learning environment

Review the training objectives

Determine appropriate learning activities

Assess training times

Construct the time table

Brief the trainers

Organise the preparation of material and equipment

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4) Learning characteristics

5) Training resources and training policies

The learner

The learner occupies the centre stage. The pitch of the programme is to be tuned to the

learner. This is to be achieved when the programme is designed. For achieving this — the

learners' background, age, past experience, prior learning and educational level of the

learners — are all important. While designing the programme we may start with an

inventory and discussion of learning, style. This will facilitate the trainer tohave a feel of

selecting the method of training. This may facilitate adult learning method like

experiential problem-solving approach to learning.

The facilitator or the trainer

Whatever the learner wants to learn, it is facilitated by the trainer. This means the trainer

should have something significant to pass on besides acceptable personality and effective

communication. The level of trainer's skill, knowledge and ease with which he could

adopt himself to the different methods of training play a critical role.

6. Describe the significance of application of different learning characteristics in

designing and development of a training programme.

The learning characteristics like motivation, individual difference, scale of

learning/interference while learning, transfer of learning to the real work area, etc. play a

significant role in their application to the design of training.

Learning

characteristics Application

Motivation

The contents/methods, of the design must be interesting; boredom

and tedium kills off training. Variety, scope for variation and the

learner's needs must be evident in any programme.

Knowledge of results A 'feedback' loop is necessary and must be in-built to any scheme.

Reward

This can be linked to motivation and feedback with finite tasks

having stated objectives and time constraints to complete; hence

there is a 'reward' or achievement etc. of successful completion.

Trial-error To be avoided.

Discovery insight

Strong case for using this in decision-making or comprehensive

type of learning situations. It requires a lot of pre-planning by the

manager/tutor.

Doing Activity also stimulates motivation and interest. Some skills must

be done rather than 'instructed.'

Scale of learning The complexity of the subject matter will determine 'whole' or

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'part' inputs, with the more complex aspects necessitating more of

a piecemeal type of approach.

Individual differences

The pace, style, approach, content, examples and even the methods

of design and development will be affected by the 'audience'.

Differences in personality, intelligence, perception, beliefs, etc.

need to be legislated for - although it would be difficult to meet all

such needs in a group programme.

Period of learning

Breaks (natural and otherwise) need to be thought about -

particularly for new entrants who can be overwhelmed in a new

environment by the sheer volume of new things to learn.

Structured learning

A sense of belonging and 'hanging together' makes for ease of

learning, so common themes/concepts/ideas etc. need to run

through the design stage.

Interference Again a good knowledge of the audience with its own peculiarities

can reduce such communications difficulties.

Transfer to work The closer the design/development is to the everyday reality, the

easier is the transfer of learning to 'real' work.

7. Mention important consideration while designing the training programme and

explain scaling from simple concepts to complex concepts, complete coverage and

logical sequence.

1) Interesting programme flow and design

2) Scaling from simple concepts to complex concepts

3) Complete coverage

4) Logical sequence

5) Modular design

6) Combination of different training methods

7) Break-up of the course content

8) Avoiding festivals and national holidays

Scaling from simple concepts to complex concepts

The course should be so designed that it starts with simple course content and scales up to

complex course content. This also helps in sustaining the interest of the trainees.

Complete coverage

The programme design should ensure complete coverage of the content of the

programme. No important concept should be left uncovered as this may defeat the very

purpose of the programme.

Logical sequence

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The programme flow should be designed in such a way that the topics covered are inter-

related and the sequential connection is maintained. The programme should start with

imparting knowledge, development of skill and end in changing the attitude of the trainee

towards job.

6) Write an essay on training policy.

The training policy is the training link between the training function and the Human

Resource Planning. The training policy to be effective, it should (i) be precise and

accurate; (ii) be proactive; (iii) facilitate selling of training to non-believers. The training

policy may include statement indicating top management commitment to the value of

training obligation of the organisation to provide training priorities before the training

function and the staff involved in training.

Definition Training and link to development

Purpose of Policy 1. Increase organisational efficiency through skills/knowledge etc.

2. Develop individual capacities.

Specific Objectives

1. To meet job requirements and agreed standards of performance.

2. To provide vocational skills hence ensuring eligibility for

transfer/ promotion.

3. To carry out induction/socialisation/ orientation.

4. To carry out initial training for new staff.

5. To train staff who are promoted/transferred. .

6. To ensure appraisal and counselling systems are maintained.

Responsibilities Of managers (staff/line).

Central, divisional and local role of group training services.

Further education Open University, examination leave, etc.

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Unit: 4 Trainer’s Skills and Evolution of Training

1 mark Questions

1. What do body movements and gestures communicate?

Message

2. State an important form of non verbal communication in training?

Eye contact

3. What comprises verbal communication?

Verbal communication includes paraphrasing, summarizing, questioning, facilitating,

giving and receiving feedback.

4. What is the critical success factor for trainer?

Trainer‘s communication ability.

5. Mention one occasion when use of non-verbal communication is appropriate for

trainer.

During teleconferences when the spotlight is on others.

6. Differentiate between hearing and listening.

Hearing is with the ears where as listening with mind.

7. State one feature of listening.

Listening is a conscious positive act that requires will power and concentration.

8. What is empathizing?

It means to help you realizing and understanding the other person‘s point of view.

9. Why a trainer should ask questions?

This encourages a talker and shows that you are listening; it helps to develop points

further.

10. What is the rationale for evaluation of training?

This is done to ensure that people, processes, products or services, stay 'on-track'.

35

2 marks Questions

1. Under what circumstances the non-verbal communication skill of a trainer is used?

During all verbal communication, as well as quiet training times.

During teleconferences when the spotlight is on others.

2. List three main categories of trainer communication skills.

Verbal language

Listening skills

Motivating participants

3. What is meant by non verbal communication?

Non-verbal communication includes observable behavior that conveys meaning without

the use of spoken or written words.

4. What is the significance of eye contact in training?

Eye contact is important because it can capture attention, convey meaning and

appreciation imparts information and understanding, express emotions, provide guidance,

enhance attentiveness and can be used effectively by the trainer to control and enhance

the participation of the trainees.

5. Which emotions are conveyed effectively through facial expressions?

Emotions such as surprise, shock, anger, joy, sadness and displeasure are conveyed

effectively through facial expression.

6. Write four training techniques and their description.

Technique Description

Ice breakers Games to get learner members know each

other

Leadership games Exercises to teach different style of

leadership.

7. State two important objectives of evaluation of training.

To determine the degree of success in achieving the programme objective.

To draw a SWOT analysis of the training process.

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8. Why is it said that one of prime responsibilities of the trainer is to go all out to

motivate the trainee?

It is said that one of prime responsibilities of the trainer is to go all out to motivate the

trainee because motivating participants enables and enhance the communication and

facilitation process.

9. Why is it said that one of the greatest tools available in the armoury of the trainer?

It enables the trainees to learn to make them participate. The ability to ask probing

questions forcing the trainees to open their miner and stay focused on the topic under

discussion is one of the greatest assets of the trainer. This technique is also one of the

yardsticks to find out whether the learning has taken place or not.

10. How can a trainer use silence and pauses to his advantage?

By deliberately pausing after the trainer makes an important point, the trainer helps the

trainees to sense the importance of the point made and provide them with time to reflect

on the point and absorb the same. Adding a brief period of silence before introducing an

important point is another technique, the trainer can use to attract the attention of trainees.

Such a silence arouses the curiosity of the trainees and captures their attentions. This skill

of introducing pauses and silence when incorporated it enhances the effectiveness of the

delivery.

5 marks Questions

1. State any ten competencies required for trainer.

The trainer should have the ability to motivate the trainees and to hold their interest.

The trainer should have the capacity to communicate and present ideas and

information in a meaningful way.

The trainer should possess sound knowledge in the subject matter or area in which

people are being trained.

The trainer should have capacity to understand the organisational needs and work

strategically.

The trainer should be capable of exhibiting human relations and leadership skills.

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The trainer should be able to control the group of trainees and should be able to

manage the training situations.

The trainer should have effective and empathetic listening skills."

The trainer should exhibit enthusiasm/confidence and sensitivity to the feelings of the

trainees.

The trainer should have time management skills to make effective use of time.

The trainer should have high level of tolerance to ambiguity.

2. Write a short on the listening skills.

Listening is different from hearing. Hearing is with the ears whereas listening is with the

mind. The trainer should have effective listening capability. The speaker can speak at the

rate of 100=200 words whereas the listener brain can process words faster than the rate at

which the words are spoken. Hence there is brain idle time. The trainer should use such

idle time to identify the trainee's objective search for other clues of meaning and

reviewing. Listening is a conscious positive act that requires will power and

concentration. For the trainer to have effective listening capabilities the following simple

rules may help:

The trainer should recognise that the trainee has something to say and needs to talk it

out.

The trainer should genuinely show interest in what the trainee has to say.

To achieve the above the trainer should stop all the other works that he is doing and

concentrate on what the trainee has to say.

By showing some sign like nodding the head or by giving some verbal cues the trainer

should encourage the continuation of communication of the trainee.

Appropriate feedback is to be given from time to time.

The trainer should refrain from making judgements.

The trainer should recognise the trainees feelings, be it, anger or enthusiasm,

disappointment or elation.

3. What is the use of verbal skills for a trainer? List some ways to motivate the

trainees.

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One of prime responsibilities of the trainer is to go all out to motivate the trainees as it-

enables and enhances the communication and facilitation process. The trainer can adopt

some of the following suggested ways to motivate the trainees.

Giving feedback.

Looking for positive signs like part of the answer to the question asked or being on

the right track while answering, etc.

Encouraging the trainees to stretch beyond their limits during process of their

learning.

Giving some rewards or prizes to encourage competition.

4. Explain the importance of humour in training. Write some strategies in this regard.

This is the rarest skill amongst the trainers. If well used, humour can go a long way

towards making training session interesting for learners. Especially in sessions after lunch

this comes very handy as the audience loosens up a bit after a laugh. Humour is.good way

to help reduce stress in the training environment. To help the trainer in making his session

offbeat, jokes, syndicated cartoon strips, television comedy programmes, etc. can be very

profitably used. These; make the session humorous.

Humour includes jokes, tricks, stunts, funny stories that are used for slight loosening up

and entertainment as well as for learning. Humour helps to create a released informal and

energised learning: climate. Using humour is an art. There are two types of humour that

can be used in a training session - a) Planned humour; and b) Spontaneous humour.

Planned humour involves pre-determining a time during session when humour such as

joke or funny incident will be used. Planned humour can be practiced and refined in

advance to ensure evoking the expected response from the trainees. Spontaneous humour

is unplanned and arises during delivery. It is often the result of something that happens

tduring the session such as a comment by the participant,, which a quick-witted trainer

converts into humour. These will foster a relaxed learning climate.

5. List important Do’s and Don’ts for a trainer?

Do’s

Speak clearly.

Make eye contact.

39

Get learners involved.

Use learners' names.

Keep interest up through changing your tone of voice.

Get and give constant feedback.

Be enthusiastic. If this is tough, take acting lessons.

Be prepared.

Use specific questions to determine if learning is taking place.

Observe breakout groups. They miss you when you don't and may do something else.

Be alert for those needing a little extra help - and give it to them. Move around.

Accommodate each individual to the greatest extent possible.

Use equipment and aids as if you've been doing this all your life - even if it's the first

title.

Set and observe time periods.

The only acceptable time change is to end early.

Dress appropriately

Don'ts

Mumble.

Waste words ("you know," "uh")

Read from notes.

Take part in private conversations during sessions.

Talk to visual aids. Lecture or preach, ignore questions.

Pace up and down.

Turn your back to the audience while speaking.

Stand in front of visual aids

Forget to make eye contact.

Forget that there are people on both sides and in back of the room.

40

Chew gum or food during a session.

Give people busy-work in order to fill up the allotted time.

Stay in one position for long period (including being glued to the podium).

Put your hands in your pockets or behind you, or use them excessively.

Wear distracting attire

6. Why training needs to be evaluated?

Evaluation data takes many forms and is highly valuable in that it can be used to:

Provide feedback on whether the training or development activity is effective in

achieving its aims.

Indicate the extent to which trainees apply what they have learned back in the

workplace (transfer of training), an issue which many organisations find they have

problems with.

Provide information on how to increase the effectiveness of current or later

development activities.

Demonstrate the overall value and worth of development activities.

Anderson and Ball (1978) proposed the following major needs for evaluation:

To contribute to decisions about programme installation.

To contribute to decisions about programme continuation, expansion or certification.

To contribute to decisions about programme modification.

To obtain evidence to really support a programme.

To contribute to the understanding of basic psychological, social and other processes.

7. List training evaluation criteria and explain the budget criteria.

The criteria for evaluation depends on the programme, the organisation and the

objectives, resources needed, cost of conducted programme and the results expected out

of it. However, some of the general considerations are to be taken into account while

evaluating a programme. The following general criteria may be used for evaluating a

training programme.

41

Significance: the extent, to which the training, if successfully carried out, will make an

Original and important contribution.

Approach: the extent to which the conceptual framework, design, methods and analysis

are properly developed, well integrated, and appropriate to the aims of the training

including the following:

i) plan for use of controls

ii) sample size justification

iii) power functions where appropriate

iv) analysis techniques

Feasibility: the likelihood that the proposed work can be accomplished through the

training by the organisers and the, adequacy of plans for the recruitment and retention of

human resources where applicable.

Data: the appropriate, use of data, time heeded for collection and analysis, etc.

Personnel: the following will be used to evaluate trainers.

8. What are the different types of evaluation instrument? Explain any one of them.

Data gathering device administered at different stages of training is called an evaluation

instrument. Though there are a lot of verities, common categories are as follows:

1. Questionnaire or survey

2. Interview

3. Test (either written test or performance test)

4. Focus groups

5. Observation of participants

6. Performance records

1. Questionnaire/Survey

Questionnaire is the most common form of programme evaluation. The questionnaire

contains five basic types of questions.

1. Open-ended

2. Checklist

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3. Two way

4. Multiple choice

5. Ranking scales

However, the success of the questionnaire lies in designing a very robust

questionnaire, which is comprehensive at the same time easy to answer. Surveys also

use the questionnaire extensively. The questionnaire has lot of advantages like

efficiency of cost, increased honesty due to anonymity, confidentiality, optional

variety and the respondents' conscience. It also suffers from certain limitations like

inaccuracy of data, not very encouraging return rate, etc.

Surveys are large-scale data collection efforts: Survey skills included selected

individuals as a sample for the project who are representative of the larger population

for which the results may; be generalised. Designing an effective questionnaire

centres on creating a valid, reliable instrument. How questions are worded and

sequenced has an impact on the usability of these resultant data. As with pointers

offered for developing effective observation and interview guides, developing a

questionnaire is an art and a science that can benefit from input from many

individuals. It is important to have a number of experts critique a draft questionnaire,

as well as have a small representative sample actually complete the instrument prior

to its being sent to the larger sample. These latter steps can help ensure that valid

questions are developed, resulting is usable data.