QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVE -...

QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVE

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QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVEEDU702

INTRODUCTION

• Two types research in education

• Differ in the nature data is collected

• Quantitative and Qualitative

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• Quantitative and Qualitative

• Also known as Positivist & Postpositivist

respectively

• Qualitative is sometimes called case study

Quantitative & Qualitative

• Knowledge is developed by• Knowledge is developed bycollecting numerical data onobservable behaviors

• The data is subjected toQuantitative

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• The data is subjected tonumerical analysis

Quantitative

• Knowledge is developed by• Knowledge is developed byprimarily verbal data throughintensive study of cases

• The data is subjected toanalytical analysis

Qualitative

Quantitative & Qualitative

• Quantitative focuses on populations and

samples

• Qualitative focuses on the study of cases

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• Qualitative focuses on the study of cases

Quantitative vs Qualitative

• Is one approach better than the other?

• Do they complement each other in some way?

• Do they produce conflicting findings?

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• Do they produce conflicting findings?

Answers:• Qualitative – best to discover themes and

relationship at case level (discovery)

• Quantitative – bet used to validate thosethemes and relationships in samples andpopulation (confirmatory)

Learning Styles

Interview

Qualitative•Visual

•Auditory

•Reading /

Writing

preference

•Kinesthetic

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Quantitative

Create &

Distribute Survey

•Visual

•Auditory

•Reading /

Writing

preference

•Kinesthetic

DIFFERENCES

Quantitative Qualitative

Social reality is

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Assume an objective social role

Social reality is relatively constant over time

Social reality is constructed by the participants in it

Social reality is continuously constructed in local situations

DIFFERENCES

Quantitative

View causal

Qualitative

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View causal relationship among social phenomena from a mechanistic perspective

Detached, objective from participants & setting

Causal relationship is human intention

Personally involved

DIFFERENCES

Quantitative

Study

Qualitative

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Study populations & samples

Study behavior & observable phenomenon

Study cases

Study meanings created and internal phenomenon

DIFFERENCES


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Analyze social realities into variables

Use preconceived concepts & theories to determine data to collect

Make holistic observations

Discover concepts & theories after data collected

DIFFERENCES

Quantitative

Generate

Qualitative

Generate

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Generate numerical data

Use statistical method to analyze data

Generate verbal & pictorial data

Use analytic induction to analyze data

DIFFERENCES

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Use statistical inference procedure to generalize findings

Prepare impersonal, objective report of research findings

Generalize case findings by searching for other similar cases

Prepare intepretive report that reflect researchers’construction of the data & awareness that readears will form

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

METHODOLOGIES

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•Experimental •Experimental

Methodologies

•Experimental

• Single subject

•Correlational

•Causal comparative

•Survey

•Experimental

• Single subject

•Correlational

•Causal comparative

•Survey

Experimental Research

• Attempts to influence/manipulate a variable

• Best for testing hypotheses of cause-and-effectrelationship

• In education – use to test effects of variouspractices e.g.:

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practices e.g.:▫ Teaching techniques

▫ Organization of curriculum

▫ Content

▫ Instructional programs etc

• On outcomes e.g.:▫ Academic achievement

▫ School climate etc.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

• Looking at the effect(s) of independent

variable(s) on 1 or more dependent variables

• Independent variable aka:

▫ Experimental, treatment, intervention

• Dependent variable aka:

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• Dependent variable aka:

▫ Criterion, posttest

• Involves:

▫ One group receiving the experimental treatment-

experimental group

▫ One comparison group not receiving the

treatment – control group


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ExperimentalA new reading program

test

Post

Control Regular reading program

Pre-test

Post-T

est


• Randomization a key element

▫ Random assignment of students to experimental

and control group

▫ To make the groups equivalent – differ only by

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▫ To make the groups equivalent – differ only by

chance

VALIDITY PROBLEMS• Problem in establishing suitable controls – that the

posttest result is only influence by the treatment

• Control against or elimination of extraneousvariables▫ Affect the internal validity of the experiment

• Extraneous varibale

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• Extraneous varibale▫ Any variable other than the treatment variable that,

if not controlled, can affect the experimentaloutcome

• Internal validity▫ The extent to which extraneous variables have been

controlled by the researcher so that any observedeffect can be attributed solely to the treatmentvariable

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

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• Influence of other events• Influence of other eventsHistory

• Physical & psychological • Physical & psychological changesMaturation changes

• Test – wise• Test – wiseTesting

• Tend to be biased in marking• Tend to be biased in markingthe posttestInstrumentation


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• When using the same pre and • When using the same pre and post test

Statistical Regression

• No random selection• No random selectionDifferential SelectionSelection

• Drop out, missed test, absent• Drop out, missed test, absentExperimental Mortality

• Difference in age• Difference in ageSelection Maturation Interaction


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• Control group seek access to • Control group seek access to treatment

Experimental Treatment Diffusion

• Control group work to perfom • Control group work to perfom better – John Henry Effect

Compensatory Rivalry by Control Group better – John Henry EffectControl Group

• CG given something equal• CG given something equalCompensatory Equalization of Treatments

• CG become discouraged, • CG become discouraged, affect post test

Resentful Demoralizartion of CG

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

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• One shot case study

• One group pre-post test

• Time-seriesSingle Group

• Randomized pre-post test control group design

• Randomized posttest only control group

True Experimental • Randomized posttest only control groupExperimental

• Static-group

• Nonequivalent control-group

Quasi-Experimental

• Two factor

• Three factorFactorial

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH• Purpose – to discover relationships between

variables through correlational statistic

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• Relationship between • Relationship between anxiety & self-esteem

Explanatoryanxiety & self-esteem

• Between intelligence & academic achievement

Explanatory

• SPM results and college • SPM results and college CGPA

• Level of education and potential income

Prediction

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH• Relationship can be postive or negative

• Relationship is presented in a scattergram

(scatter plot)

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CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

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Positive Correlation

NegativeCorrelation

Absence of Correlation

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH• The more education people have, the greater

the income

▫ Positive or negative relationship?

• As people get older, they often lose their

memory

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memory

▫ Positive or negative relationship?

• Can we say:

▫ Education causes higher income?

▫ Aging causes memory loss?

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

•NO• Correlation is not equal to causation

• All we can say is that there’s is a relationship

between these two variables

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between these two variables

• Although we think the relationship is causal, we

cannot assume without conducting experiment

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE• The study of cause-and-effect relationship

• To explain educational phenomenons

• Attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for

pre-existing differences in groups of individuals

• Also called ‘ex post facto’ (Latin – after the fact)

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• Also called ‘ex post facto’ (Latin – after the fact)

• Both the effect and the alleged cause have already

occurred and must be studied in retrospect

• The basic causal-comparative approach involves

starting with an effect and seeking possible causes

• Another approach starts with cause and

investigates its effects on some variable

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE

• The presumed cause – independent variables

• The presumed effect – dependent variables

• Example:▫ Introduction of KPI on teachers’ morale

▫ Introduction of KPI– independent variables

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▫ Introduction of KPI– independent variables

▫ Teachers’ morale – dependent variables

• Or▫ Teachers’ morale – independent variable

▫ Absenteeism – dependent variable

• Different from experimental, causalcomparative does not manipulate variables(sex, ethnicity etc)

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE• IV: presumed cause

▫ Groups formed on the basis of how much TV they

watch, and compared on academic achievement

(GPA).

• DV: presumed effect

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• DV: presumed effect

▫ Groups formed on the basis of gender, and

compared on strength of career aspirations.

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE• IV: presumed effect

▫ Groups formed on the basis of whether they

dropped out of high school, and compared on

lack of mentoring relationship.

• DV: presumed cause

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• DV: presumed cause

▫ Groups formed on the basis of difficulty in

learning to read, and compared on time parent

spent reading to child.

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE

When to use:

1. When it is unethical to manipulate anindependent variable (e.g. diet)

2. When the independent variable CANNOT be

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2. When the independent variable CANNOT bemanipulated (e.g. sex, ethnicity, etc.)

3. When the independent variable not beenchanged due to ignorance or negligence (e.g.teaching methods)

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE

• Examples:▫ A researcher measured the mathematical

reasoning ability of young children who hadenrolled in Montessori schools and compared thescores with a group of similar children who had

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scores with a group of similar children who hadnot been to Montessori schools.

▫ A researcher measured the frequency ofstudents’ misbehavior at schools which usecorporal punishment and compared that toschools which did not use corporal punishment.

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE• How do you analyze:

▫ t tests, ANOVA, ANCOVA when two or more groups

are being compared.

▫ Regression analysis when there are multiple

independent variables.

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independent variables.

▫ MANOVA, and multivariate regression, when

there are multiple dependent variables.

▫ Path analysis and structural equation modeling

when the theoretical causal paths are being

investigated.

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE• Which of the following questions would lend

themselves well to causal-comparative research?1. How many students were enrolled in PSYC101 this

semester?2. Which subject do high school students like least?3. How do elementary school teachers teach phonics?4. Are two-year-old girls more aggressive than two-

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4. Are two-year-old girls more aggressive than two-year-old boys?

5. How might Jimmy Thomas be helped to read?6. Is teacher enthusiasm related to student success in

academic classes?7. What is the best way to teach arithmetic?8. Do female students perform better in literature

classes than male students?9. Does sleep (amount of time) affect academic

performance of students at college

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE• Example ( Green & Jaquess)

▫ The effect of part-time employment on high

school students’ academic achievement

▫ Sample – 44 high school juniors, employed and

not employed (have already occurred, you do not

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not employed (have already occurred, you do not

make them work – unethical)

SURVEY RESEARCH

• Also known as Descriptive Research

• Purpose – to describe the natural or man-made

phenomena

▫ The form, actions, changes over time,

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▫ The form, actions, changes over time,

similarities with other phenomena

• In education – it involves making careful

description of educational phenomena

• Concerned primarily with determining “what

is”

SURVEY RESEARCH• Examples:

▫ How many teachers in the state of Selangor hold

favourable attitudes toward ETeMS?

▫ How do adolescent spend their time?

▫ What have been the reactions of school

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▫ What have been the reactions of school

administrators to innovations in teaching physical

science?

SURVEY RESEARCH

Types of survey:

• Cross-sectional

• Longitudinal

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SURVEY RESEARCH• Cross - sectional

▫ Data are obtained at one point in time but

groups of different ages, or different stages of

development

• Example:

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• Example:

▫ How students’ attitude towards art change from

Year 5 to Form 3?

▫ Samples are selected from each grade

▫ Administer a questionnaire to all of them on the

same date or within narrow range of dates

SURVEY RESEARCH• Longitudinal▫ Collecting data from a sample at different points

in time in order to study changes and continuityin the sample’s characteristics

• Example:

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• Example:▫ The development of art appreciation among

primary school children

• Types:▫ Trend

▫ Cohort

▫ Panel

▫ Cross sectional

SURVEY RESEARCH

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• Describe change by selecting a different sample at each data collection point of same population which may change

• Attitudes of principal towards cluster schools in Malaysia

• 2010 – one sample, 2011- another sample

Trend• 2010 – one sample, 2011- another sample

• Describe change by selecting a different sample at each data collection from population which remains the same

Cohort Studies

SURVEY RESEARCH

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• Using the same sample atdifferent point of data collection

• Follow individuals over time tonote changes

• Teaching effectives of ED725Panel • Teaching effectives of ED725graduate of 2012

• Data collected on same group in2013, 2015

Panel

SURVEY RESEARCH

• Measurement types

▫ Questionnaire

▫ Classroom observation checklist

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▫ Classroom observation checklist

▫ Standardized achievement tests

▫ Attitudes scales

▫ Interviews

SURVEY RESEARCH

• Statistics in survey research

▫ Measures of central tendency

� Mean

� Median

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� Median

� Mode

▫ Measures of variability

� Standard deviation

� Variance

� Range

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• General Features (may not be in all types)

▫ The natural setting is the direct source of data

and the researcher is the key instrument

▫ Qualitative data are collected in the form of

words or pictures rather than numbers

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words or pictures rather than numbers

▫ Qualitative researchers are concerned with

process as well as product

▫ Qualitative researchers tend to analyze their

data inductively

▫ How people make sense of their lives is a major

concern to qualitative research

QUALITATIVE – MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS

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Natural inquiry

Inductive analysis

Holistic perspective

Qualitative data

Personal contact and insight

QUALITATIVE – MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS

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Dynamic

Unique case orientation

Context sensivity

Emphatic neutrality

Design flexibility

QUALITATIVE – STEPS

1. Identification of the phenomenon

2. Identification of the participants

3. Generation of hypotheses

4. Data collection

5. Data analysis

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5. Data analysis

6. Interpretations and conclusions

QUALITATIVE – APPROACHES

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NARRATIVE RESEARCH

PHENOMENOLOGYGROUNDED

THEORYRESEARCH THEORY

CASE STUDIES ETHNOGRAPHIC HISTORICAL

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NARRATIVE

•Study life experiences ofpeoplepeople

•As told to the researcher

•The participant recallsone or more specialevents (epiphany)

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PHENOMENOLOGY

• Reactions to or perceptions of a particularphenomenon

• e.g. what is like to teach science in ruralschoolschool

• Data – through in-depth interview

• Seek to identify, understand & describecommonalities of perceptions &interpretations

• Malay students in Chinese schools

• Data collected are clustered into themes

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GROUNDED THEORY

•Intention is to generate theory indata from participants who haveexperienced the processexperienced the process

•Generalizations are developed fromthe data

•Use of constant comparative method

•Data collected through one-on-oneinterview, focus group, observations

PROCESS OF GROUNDED THEORY

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Data collected & analyzed

Theory suggested

More data collected

Theory revised

More data collected

Theory further developed,

clarified

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CASE STUDIES

•Objects of research are called cases

•A case – a particular instance of aphenomenon

•Phenomenon:•Phenomenon:

•Programs

•Curricula

•Roles

•Events

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CASE STUDIES

•Widespread in education

•Purpose:•Purpose:

•To produced detaileddescription of a phenomenon

•To develop explanation of it

•To evaluate it

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CASE STUDIES

•Example

•Dona Kagan examined theeffects of a staff developmenteffects of a staff developmentprogram on the professional livesof 4 elementary school teachers

•Audio-taped 90 minute interview

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ETHNOGRAPHY

• First hand, intensive study of the features of agiven culture and the patterns in those features

• If reader can understand the culture by readingan ethnographic research, then it is a goodresearchresearch

• Originally developed by anthropologist

• Data collected through, observation, interviewand documents

• Participant observation – be part of the cultureand make observation

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ETHNOGRAPHY

• Examples:

• The Orang Asli school

• Racial interactions in urban school• Racial interactions in urban school

• Bullying in secondary school

• Power in the dorm

• Teachers teaching style

• Practicum trainees

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HISTORICAL RESEARCH

•Systematic process of datacollection to answer questionsabout a phenomenon for theabout a phenomenon for thepurpose of gaining a betterunderstanding of presentinstitutions, practices, trends,and issues in education

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HISTORICAL RESEARCH

•Examples:

•The changes in the status ofteachers in the public eyesteachers in the public eyesfrom 1900 – 2000

•Pondok schools

•Art curriculum over the years

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HISTORICAL RESEARCH

• Purpose:

• To make aware of past failures & success

• To learn from the past to improve thepresent / futurepresent / future

• To assist making prediction

• To test hypotheses concerningrelationships or trends

• To understand present educationalpolicies and practices more fully

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HISTORICAL RESEARCH

•Sources

•Documents

•Numerical records•Numerical records

•Oral statements

•Relics

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