QUALITY AT WORK THE QUALITY PART IME WORK IMPERATIVE · 2020. 1. 29. · AISR (2011) – Quality at...

QUALITY AT WORK – THE QUALITY PART TIME WORK IMPERATIVE

ACCOMPANYING REPORT:

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

KATE BARNETT ANN-LOUISE HORDACRE

PREPARED FOR

SAFEWORK SA

JULY 2011

AISR (2011) – Quality at work – the Quality Part Time Work Imperative: Literature Review i

CONTENTS

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................................1

1.1 WHAT ARE THE FEATURES OF QUALITY PART TIME WORK? ..................................................................................... 1

1.2 CHOICES AND TRADE-OFFS ASSOCIATED WITH PART TIME WORK ............................................................................. 2

1.3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PART TIME AND FULL TIME WORKERS IN AUSTRALIA ............................................................. 3

1.4 THE BUSINESS CASE FOR QUALITY PART TIME WORK ........................................................................................... 4

1.5 QUALITY PART TIME WORK AND LIFE CYCLE TRANSITIONS ..................................................................................... 5

2 THE SAFEWORK QUALITY PART TIME PROJECT ........................................................................................6

2.1 BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.2 PROJECT AIMS ............................................................................................................................................... 6

2.3 PROJECT TERMS OF REFERENCE ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.4 PROJECT TEAM .............................................................................................................................................. 7

3 WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ‘QUALITY’ PART TIME WORK? ...........................................................................8

3.1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 8

3.1.1 Summarising characteristics associated with quality part time work.................................................................... 9

3.1.2 Characteristics associated with poor quality part time work............................................................................... 11

3.1.3 Part Time Work Trade-offs, Penalties and Premiums .......................................................................................... 12

3.2 MOVING BETWEEN PART TIME AND FULL TIME WORK ......................................................................................... 13

3.2.1 Involuntary part time work .................................................................................................................................. 13

3.2.2 Full Time Workers who want to Work part time .................................................................................................. 14

3.2.3 Moving to part time work and changing employers ............................................................................................ 14

3.3 INDIVIDUAL FEATURES OF QUALITY PART TIME WORK .......................................................................................... 15

3.3.1 Part time work and pay parity ............................................................................................................................. 15

3.3.2 Part time work and roles, responsibilities and training ....................................................................................... 15

3.3.3 Work scheduling and regularity of hours ............................................................................................................. 16

3.3.4 Benefits and entitlements .................................................................................................................................... 16

3.3.5 Access to flexible work conditions........................................................................................................................ 17

3.3.6 Career progression ............................................................................................................................................... 17

3.3.7 Job satisfaction .................................................................................................................................................... 18

3.3.8 Impact of work on life and work life balance ....................................................................................................... 18

3.3.9 The business case for quality part time work ....................................................................................................... 18

4 PART TIME WORK AS A RESPONSE TO LIFE CYCLE STAGES ..................................................................... 20

AISR (2011) – Quality at work – the Quality Part Time Work Imperative: Literature Review ii

4.1 PART TIME WORK AND TRANSITIONS IN THE LIFE CYCLE ....................................................................................... 20

4.2 PART TIME WORK AND PARENTING .................................................................................................................. 21

4.3 PART TIME WORK AND CAREGIVING ................................................................................................................. 21

4.4 PART TIME WORK AND STUDY......................................................................................................................... 22

4.5 PART TIME WORK AND TRANSITION TO RETIREMENT ........................................................................................... 22

5 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 23

6 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 25

7 APPENDIX 1: FEATURES OF PART TIME WORK IN AUSTRALIA ................................................................. 29

7.1 DEFINING AND MEASURING PART TIME WORK ................................................................................................... 29

7.1.1 Part time work and multiple job holders.............................................................................................................. 29

7.2 PART TIME WORK: A GROWING FEATURE OF AUSTRALIAN EMPLOYMENT ................................................................ 29

7.3 PART TIME WORK, CASUAL WORK AND NON STANDARD WORK ............................................................................. 30

7.3.1 Part time work and casual work .......................................................................................................................... 30

7.3.2 Part time work and nonstandard work ................................................................................................................ 31

7.4 WHO WORKS PART TIME IN AUSTRALIA? .......................................................................................................... 31

7.4.1 Gender based changes in part time employment over time ................................................................................ 31

7.4.2 Location and part time work ................................................................................................................................ 32

7.4.3 Part time work and health and disability ............................................................................................................. 32

7.4.4 Part time work and educational qualifications .................................................................................................... 32

7.4.5 Part time work by industry and occupation ......................................................................................................... 32

7.5 MODELLING PART TIME EMPLOYMENT ............................................................................................................. 33

8 APPENDIX II: PART TIME WORK IN THE RETAIL SECTOR ......................................................................... 34

8.1 SUMMARY OF THE RETAIL INDUSTRY PROFILE .................................................................................................... 34

8.2 CRITICAL FACTORS SHAPING THE RETAIL INDUSTRY ............................................................................................. 34

Table of tables

TABLE 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY PART TIME WORK IDENTIFIED IN THE LITERATURE .......................................................... 10

TABLE 2: OPERATIONALISING QUALITY PART TIME WORK ..................................................................................................... 11

TABLE 3: RETENTION AND SECONDARY PART TIME WORK CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................ 11

AISR (2011) – Quality at work – the Quality Part Time Work Imperative: Literature Review 1

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Part time work (defined by the ABS as involving employment of less than 35 hours per week) is now a key

feature of employment in Australia having grown significantly over the past two decades. Traditionally

seen as the ‘poor cousin of full time work’, part time work has evolved and now can have the features of

a quality experience traditionally associated with full time work.

1.1 WHAT ARE THE FEATURES OF QUALITY PART TIME WORK?

Much of the literature reviewed identifies features that essentially mean quality part time work involves

the same benefits, rights and conditions (including training and professional development and a range

of leave entitlements) as comparable full time work – in other words, that a reduction in hours from

full time should not bring disadvantage or inequity. The following characteristics of quality part time

work have been identified by numerous researchers:

Pay is equivalent to comparable full time work

Promotion and career development opportunities are provided

Training and skill development opportunities, equivalent to full time conditions, are provided

Protections and entitlements equivalent to full time work are provided, in particular,

regarding contracted hours, leave, and job security.

Equivalent representation in the workplace to full time

Involves substantial hours ie at least 20-25 hours1 (as opposed to a small number of hours)

Job content has equivalent skill demands and task autonomy as full time

It is accessible for both women and men, at all levels

It is accessible at all occupational levels, including senior and management roles

There is ready movement between part time and full time, in either direction – without

having to change employers

It enables acceptable Work Life Balance

It has equivalent (to full time) job satisfaction levels

It meets the needs of both employers and employees regarding flexibility.

These features will be reflected in workplaces where quality part time work is an integral feature of

work conditions and wider workplace culture. This will be evident in a range of processes and provisions

that facilitate individual employees to negotiate their part time work conditions while supporting

employers and managers to make consistent and informed decisions regarding the use of part time work

in their organisation.

1 The number of hours worked by part time employees can also be an indicator of quality, but is not an independent

variable. Poor quality has been found to be associated most with ‘marginal’ jobs involving less than 15 hours a week.

Working fewer hours has been linked to reduced promotion opportunities, and to reduced opportunities to be in

supervisory roles (Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a)


One of the major barriers facing the wider application of quality part time work principles and

characteristics is attitudinal – a belief by some that working less hours equates to less commitment to the

employing organisation. Prevailing work culture has been found to inhibit the availability of part time

work at senior management levels, while leadership provided at these levels can do much to change

beliefs that measure employee commitment and productivity in terms of hours spent in the workplace. A

number of Australian researchers have identified the negative impact of work culture that values full time

work or long work hours, and devalues part time workers (Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a – citing

Burgess & Whittard 2004 and Junor 2000; Charlesworth et al 2002).

The research literature has identified a number of trends regarding the implementation of quality part

time work, namely:

Part time work is part of a broader workplace culture that values its employees, and values

work-life-balance

Part time work is part of a broader suite of flexible work and leave options

Part time work includes predictable hours and worker-sensitive scheduling and rostering and

is available in hours that don’t conflict with family and personal life

Senior management demonstrates leadership and commitment to quality part time levels, at

all levels in the organisation, and consistent responses to requests for part time work

Backfill/shadowing is provided to support quality part time work at all levels

Processes are in place to ensure all managers are informed of their responsibilities and all

employees are informed of their entitlements regarding quality part time work

Training and guidelines are provided for a) negotiating and b) managing quality part time work

Quality part time work is part of a whole of organisation approach.

1.2 CHOICES AND TRADE-OFFS ASSOCIATED WITH PART TIME WORK

Choosing to work part time is likely to involve a decision making process that takes into account the

advantages and disadvantages involved. In other words, for many workers, part time employment

involves a trade-off where a disadvantage or ‘penalty’ (like reduced income) is exchanged for a ‘premium’

like increased flexibility and work-life-family balance.

Movement between full and part time work, regardless of the direction taken, may involve changing

employers, and losing pay and other benefits in the process – this is known as downgrading. Echoing

OECD (2010) findings on Penalties and Premiums associated with part time work, downgrading has been

found to represent a trade-off for better work life balance and for meeting family related responsibilities.

One study found that occupational downgrading occurred for over a third of women in highly skilled

occupations who moved employer when changing to part time work, compared with only 8% being

downgraded when remaining with the same employer (Connolly and Gregory 2008).

This highlights another feature of quality part time work – the capacity to move between full and part

time work without incurring a long term penalty.

Not all workers can fulfil the aspiration to work part time or full time, and it is usually easier to move

from part time to full time than the reverse. Research findings show that -


o For every part time employee seeking full time hours, there are more than two full time

workers who want to move to part time work.

o Around 10% of full time male workers were found to want to work part time – a figure higher

than existing levels of male part time employment. The opposite trend applied to women with

a quarter of full time female workers wanting to work part time - lower than existing levels of

female part time employment.

o Age-based differences are also evident with aspirational part time workers more prevalent in

older age groups, despite workers aged 55 and over already having a high rate of part time

employment. (Productivity Commission 2008).

1.3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PART TIME AND FULL TIME WORKERS IN AUSTRALIA

Analysis of research findings and key data sources identifies a number of differences between full time

and part workers in Australia. In particular, the following are evident.

1. Parity of pay. On average, Australian male part time workers earn less per hour than full time

male workers while females earn similar hourly rates in both part and full time work.

However, the difference in pay parity between part and full time work can be removed or

reversed by features that include age, education level, industry of employment, occupation

and job tenure (Productivity Commission 2008).

2. Training provisions. Researchers investigating the amount of training provided to part time

women workers in Australia and in the United Kingdom (Harley & Whitehouse 2001) found a

direct association between hours worked and training provided, with fewer hours being linked

to less training. Those working the least number of hours (less than 10 per week) had the

lowest levels of training compared with other workers. Similar trends were identified in

Australia regarding access to training and work roles involving responsibility (Whittard 2003;

Productivity Commission 2008).

3. Responsibilities. Compared to full time workers, part time workers –

are much less likely to have supervisory duties;

perceive themselves as less influential in their work;

are less likely to feel that their job requires new (or even their current level of) skills; and

are less likely to believe their job is difficult (Productivity Commission 2008).

4. Work scheduling (number of days worked per week, the time of day work is undertaken, and

the regularity of work shifts) Discernible differences have been identified between full time

and part time workers in relation to how their work is scheduled. Around 20% of part time

workers and 10% of full time workers did not having a regular and fixed set of work days each

week (Productivity Commission 2008).

5. Awards and entitlements. Most awards in Australia provide for permanent part time

employees to receive pro rata benefits equating to full time work in the same job.

International agreements on part time work (e.g. the European Directive on Part Time Work


1997) are also designed to promote equity between full time and part time workers. The two

most common benefits involve paid holiday and sick leave, which are available differentially to

full and part time workers and between casual and other workers. Among casual workers, 3%

of part time employees and 10% of full time employees had access to both benefits

(Productivity Commission 2008). These benefits (paid holidays and sick leave) also vary with

different occupational and skill groups, being more common in those with jobs requiring a

higher level of skills (Productivity Commission 2008).

6. Flexibility. In Australia, casual part time workers are most likely to have flexible start and

finish times, and just as likely as full time casuals to have access to home based work.

However, part time workers are only marginally more likely than full time workers to have

access to flexible start and finish times and almost as likely to have access to home-based

work and child care provisions (Productivity Commission 2008).

7. Career Advancement and Promotion. Most researchers agree that part time workers’

opportunities for career advancement and promotion are poorer than those of full time

workers (Sandor 2011; Lyonette et al 2010; Manning and Petrongolo 2008; Whittard 2003;

Hakim 2003; Productivity Commission 2008). However, there is less agreement about the

reasons for this disparity. It could be a reflection of choices and compromises made by

individual employees as they balance work and life commitments, it could be a reflection of

individual skills and experience, or it could be reduced access to training and job related

responsibilities. It could also be the lack of more senior jobs that are available on a part time

basis (Lyonette et al 2010).

8. Job satisfaction. Researchers use job satisfaction as one indicator of quality of work. A

number of dimensions affect overall job satisfaction including pay, job security, work hours,

nature of work and flexibility. Across all of these dimensions, part time and full time workers

have been found to report similar levels of satisfaction (Productivity Commission 2008). The

only clear differences being in relation to working hours and flexibility – with part time

workers slightly more satisfied with these elements than full time workers.

9. Work-life balance. European research has found that those working fewer hours (30 hours a

week or less) rated their work, family and life balance more positively than those working

more hours, while those working 50 hours or more each week were the least satisfied with

their work life balance (Sandor 2011). Similarly, full time Australian workers regard the

amount of time they spend working as negatively affecting their time and energy for parenting

and participation in family activities (Productivity Commission 2008).

1.4 THE BUSINESS CASE FOR QUALITY PART TIME WORK

Just as part time work can represent a viable choice for individuals at different stages of the life cycle, so

too does it provide an appropriate choice for employers in response to fluctuations in the business cycle

and the wider economy. This is most evident in periods of economic downturn when employers reduce

hours, and when they create more full time jobs to meet increased demand during upswings (Sandor


2011; OECD 2010a). Among the benefits identified by researchers for business of providing for quality

part time work are the following:

enhanced recruitment and retention of experienced and skilled staff;

increased workforce morale, productivity and efficiency; and

a range of benefits associated with becoming an employer of choice (Lyonette et al 2010;

Industrial Relations Victoria 2005c).

1.5 QUALITY PART TIME WORK AND LIFE CYCLE TRANSITIONS

Part time work is a critical mechanism for balancing work and non work activities at different stages of

the life cycle. Sometimes life events, such as sickness or disability, or other factors that inhibit full time

participation in paid work, mean that part time employment provides the most viable means of

remaining in the labour force. Quality part time work is critical to the following transition points -

full time study

having a family

moving into retirement

caregiving responsibilities

sickness or disability.

Quality part time work provides a critical mechanism for smoothly managing major transitions across

the life cycle. It can mean the difference between working and not working, and for successfully

balancing work and other key life responsibilities. This illustrates the importance from a policy

perspective, of locating part time work within a life course framework as well as within labour market

policy.


2 THE SAFEWORK QUALITY PART TIME PROJECT

2.1 BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT

The Quality Part-Time Work Project has been initiated by the SafeWork SA WorkLife Balance

Strategy in response to the important role that part-time work plays in South Australia and to focus

attention on the dimensions and importance of quality part-time work in the context of work-life

balance objectives.

In May 2010, SafeWork SA commenced a related project investigating part-time work in the South

Australian retail sector. The focus of this project is to expand the status of part-time work to ’quality

part-time work‘ with the aim of improving the quality of life of all South Australians through

maintenance of a healthy work-life balance. A statistical analysis of part-time work in the South

Australian retail sector and a preliminary literature review was undertaken to consider what

determines ’quality part-time work’.

2.2 PROJECT AIMS

The Project aims to develop and inform current and future quality part-time work opportunities by:

I. Undertaking a cross-industry investigation of support strategies, identifying cutting edge

initiatives and/or problem solving opportunities to enable the provision of quality part-

time work in order to implement quality part-time work in South Australia.

II. Producing a research report that provides an educational tool for employers and

employees to encourage them to examine how best the quality of the part-time work

experience can be improved.

III. Providing a deeper understanding of the role of quality part-time work.

The project focuses on four sectors which are:

Health and Community Services;

Education;

Resources; and

Retail.

2.3 PROJECT TERMS OF REFERENCE

The following terms of reference guide the project:

1. Use current Australian data to provide a statistical overview of part-time work in South Australia.


2. Review Australian and International research on issues impacting on the provision of quality

part-time work.

3. Analyse the retail sector in South Australia to consider what structural requirements are needed to enable equitable access to the provision of quality part-time work.

This report addresses the second Term of Reference. It is based on a review of international and

Australian research of part time work and explores the key features of quality part time work. It is

designed to increase understanding of what is meant by quality part time work. The indicators of quality

part time work elicited from the research review inform the statistical overview that addresses the

Project’s first Term of Reference. Both the literature review and the statistical overview will be presented

as accompanying reports to a main report that synthesises the findings from both.

2.4 PROJECT TEAM

The Project is being undertaken by the Australian Institute for Social Research, on behalf of Safework SA

and its Work Life Balance Advisory Committee and as part of Safework SA’s Work Life Balance Strategy.

The Project is being managed by –

Ms Michelle Hogan, Manager, Work Life Balance Strategy, Safework SA

Ms Sarah Andrews, Senior Policy Officer, Work Life Balance Strategy, Safework SA

Ms Jaspreet Kaur, A/Assistant Project Officer, Work Life Balance Strategy, Safework SA

Ms Carolyn Porter, Assistant Project Officer, Work Life Balance Strategy, Safework SA

The AISR Project Team members are:

Dr Kate Barnett, Deputy Executive Director

Dr Ann-Louise Hordacre, Senior Research Fellow

Dr Rasika Ranasinghe, Senior Research Associate.


3 WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ‘QUALITY’ PART TIME WORK?

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Part time work is now a key feature of employment in Australia having grown significantly over the past

two decades (see APPENDIX 1: Features of Part Time Work in Australia, for a detailed picture of this

pattern of growth, and how it is associated with particular occupations and industries, and different

groups of people). Traditionally seen as the ‘poor cousin of full time work’, part time work has evolved

and now can have the features of a quality experience traditionally associated with full time work.

In Australia, part time work is defined by the ABS as involving employment of less than 35 hours per

week. This recognised benchmark is used throughout this report except where otherwise stated2. As we

will discuss, there is significant diversity in part time workers, particularly in terms of gender and age, but

also in relation to different stages of the life course - for example, parenting, studying and phasing to

retirement.

There are many dimensions to working part time that add to its diversity and which determine whether

or not the experience is positive. These relate to conditions and working arrangements and, more

subjectively, to whether individual choices have brought the outcomes sought. Whether or not part time

work has been voluntarily sought also affects the quality of the experience.

Issues of choice and equity are important in quality part time employment. People seeking to balance

work and life, at different life cycle stages, may or may not have a degree of choice in the decisions they

make. As a rule, low skilled workers have less capacity for choice while those whose skills are in demand

have more scope for negotiation and choice regarding the type of work they undertake and the hours

they work. Reduced choice is associated with poorer quality of employment and greater inequity. Part

time workers are more likely to work in low skilled occupations compared with full time workers

(Productivity Commission 2008). However, not all part time occupations involve low levels of skill.

In an analysis of part time work, the OECD (2010a) describes the trade-offs that shape people’s decision-

making regarding part time work. These are described in terms of ‘penalties’ and ‘premiums’. Penalties in

OECD countries can relate to reduced wages, training, promotion, job security and union membership

while Premiums can relate to greater control over working time, flexible working hours and better work

life balance. The OECD has found some evidence that Penalties may be compensated by Premiums - for

example, short term sacrifice of access to training may have a negative long term impact on career

progression. In Section 3.1.3, the different Penalties and Premiums are explored in more detail.

Determining what is meant by ‘quality part time work’ requires a broader understanding of the concept

of quality work, regardless of the hours involved. The research literature has identified a number of

characteristics, both objective and subjective, that are associated with quality employment, and these

tend to fall into clusters that are discussed in Section 3.1.1.

… a quality part time job can be understood as a ‘good’ or ‘decent’ job … comparable to a full-time job,

apart from reduced hours, in its conditions, opportunities and benefits (Charlesworth & Whittenbury

2007: 36).

2 Noting that the OECD standard definition is less than 30 hours per week


What then do we mean by a ‘good job’? Many of the definitions highlight the interrelationship between

work and health and well being. For example –

The objective must be to ensure that … work … is a source of wellbeing, personal growth, fulfilment,

autonomy and meaning – in other words, that the jobs available in today’s labour market should offer

‘Good Work’. A significant weight of evidence supports the argument that job quality, employee health,

and an employee’s ability to perform productively at work, are closely linked (Constable et al 2009: 3).

This definition presents the business case for quality work as well as its benefits for workers and is

discussed further in Section 3.3.9. Another way of describing quality work is as a balancing mechanism –

meeting the needs of employers and employees, while enabling work and life responsibilities to be as

harmonious as possible. This is discussed in more detail in Section 3.3.8.

There is not a great deal of research on quality part time work and most of the existing literature derives

from research in Australia, the United States of America and Europe, and more recently, the United

Kingdom. Much of the literature reviewed identifies features that essentially mean quality part time

work involves the same benefits, rights and conditions as comparable full time work – in other words,

that a reduction in hours from full time should not bring disadvantage or inequity.

The common base for all ‘quality’ part-time jobs will be that they provide the same (pro-rata) terms and

conditions, as well as training and development opportunities, as a comparable full-time job (Lyonette

et al 2010: 10)

… secure, worthwhile work which reflects the skills, training and expertise of workers, and offers

equivalent opportunities for job satisfaction and career development to jobs undertaken on a full time

basis (NSW Government 2009 – Quality Part Time Work Roundtable).

3.1.1 SUMMARISING CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH QUALITY PART TIME WORK

There are a number of dimensions of quality work that are repeatedly identified in the research

literature. Table 1 summarises those factors that have been identified by multiple research studies,

against the key sources that have identified them.

These variables have been grouped them into three dimensions that differentiate quality part time work

from other forms of part time employment–

Work Conditions, including pay and job security;

Access and Equity, including access across occupational levels and the capacity to move

between full and part time work; and

Outcomes, including work life balance and job satisfaction, and meeting the needs of both

employer and employee.


Table 1: Characteristics of quality part time work identified in the literature

Quality part time work characteristic Literature Sources

Work Conditions associated with quality part time work

Pay is equivalent to comparable full time work OECD 2010a; Lyonette et al 2010; Charlesworth 2009; Morgan 2009, 2005; Bardoel et al 2007; Chalmers et al 2005; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a, 2005c; Charlesworth et al 2002; Tilly 1996

Job security OECD 2010a; Bardoel et al 2007; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005c; Chalmers et al 2005; Charlesworth et al 2002; Tilly 1996

Provides promotion & career development opportunities

OECD 2010a; Lyonette et al 2010; NSW Government 2009; Charlesworth 2009; Morgan 2009, 2005; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a, 2005c; Charlesworth et al 2002; Tilly 1996

Provides equivalent training and skill development opportunities

OECD 2010a; Lyonette et al 2010; NSW Government 2009; Charlesworth 2009; Morgan 2009, 2005; Bardoel et al 2007; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a, 2005c; Chalmers et al 2005; Tilly 1996

Equivalent protections and entitlements as full time workers regarding contracted hours, leave, job security and discrimination

Chalmers et al 2005; Charlesworth 2009; Morgan 2009, 2005; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a, 2005c; Charlesworth et al 2002; Tilly 1996

Equivalent representation in the workplace to full time

OECD 2010a; Charlesworth 2009; NSW Government 2009; Morgan 2009, 2005; Bardoel et al 2007; Chalmers et al 2005

Involves substantial hours ie at least 20-25 hours

3

Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a citing Hakim 2002 & Tam 1999; Charlesworth et al 2002

Job content has equivalent skill demands and task autonomy as full time

OECD 2010a; Lyonette et al 2010; Charlesworth 2009; NSW Government 2009; Morgan 2009, 2005; Bardoel et al 2007; Chalmers et al 2005

Access and equity features associated with quality part time work

Is accessible for both women and men, at all levels

OECD 2010a; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005c; Charlesworth et al 2002

Is accessible at all occupational levels, including senior and management roles

Morgan 2009, 2005; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a, 2005b; Charlesworth et al 2002

Ready movement between part time and full time, in either direction – without having to change employers

Lyonette et al 2010; NSW Government 2009; Charlesworth 2009; Morgan 2009, 2005; Bardoel et al 2007; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a, 2005c; Chalmers et al 2005; Charlesworth et al 2002

Outcomes associated with quality part time work

Enables acceptable Work Life Balance OECD 2010a; Lyonette et al 2010

Equivalent (to full time) job satisfaction levels OECD 2010a; NSW Government 2009

Meets needs of both employers and employees Lyonette et al 2010

The research literature also yields a number of characteristics associated with the operationalisation of

quality part time work – for example, predictable hours and management being informed of the policies

in place to support part time work. Many of the criteria are subjective and therefore, difficult to measure

– such as those associated with workplace culture. However, they have important practical value and are

summarised in Table 2.

3 The number of hours worked by part time employees can also be an indicator of quality, but is not an independent

variable. Poor quality has been found to be associated most with ‘marginal’ jobs involving less than 15 hours a week.

Working fewer hours has been linked to reduced promotion opportunities, and to reduced opportunities to be in

supervisory roles (Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a)


Table 2: Operationalising quality part time work

Quality part time work characteristic Literature Sources

Part time work is part of a broader workplace culture that values its employees, and values work-life-balance

Lyonette et al 2010; Morgan 2009, 2005; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a, 2005b, 2005c

Part time work is part of a broader suite of flexible work and leave options

Industrial Relations Victoria 2005b

Part time work includes predictable hours and worker-sensitive scheduling and rostering and is available in hours that don’t conflict with family and personal life

Charlesworth 2009; NSW Government 2009; Bardoel et al 2007; Chalmers et al 2005; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005b, 2005c

Senior management demonstrates leadership and commitment to quality part time levels, at all levels in the organisation, and consistent responses to requests for part time work


Backfill/shadowing is provided to support quality part time work at all levels


Processes are in place to ensure all managers are informed of their responsibilities and all employees are informed of their entitlements regarding quality part time work

NSW Government 2009; Industrial Relations Victoria 2005b

Training and guidelines are provided for a) negotiating and b) managing quality part time work


Quality part time work is part of a whole of organisation approach Industrial Relations Victoria 2005b

The characteristics summarised in Table 2 highlight the importance of quality part time work as an

integral feature of work conditions and wider workplace culture. This is evident in a range of processes

and provisions that facilitate individual employees to negotiate their part time work conditions while

supporting employers and managers to make consistent and informed decisions regarding the use of part

time work in their organisation -

… assessing the content of jobs and the way work is organised is critical in improving the quality of part

time work (NSW Government 2009: 4).

3.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH POOR QUALITY PART TIME WORK

Much can be understood about quality part time work by also understanding what is involved in its

opposite. Earlier research by Tilly (1996) distinguished between ‘retention part time workers’ and

‘secondary part time workers’ in order to demonstrate the differences encompassed within part time

work. Table 3 summarises these differences.

Table 3: Retention and Secondary part time work characteristics

Retention (quality) part time work Secondary part time work

Designed to attract and retain valued workers who prefer to work part time

Work with little prospect of career progression

Located in primary labour markets Located in secondary labour markets

Worker has skills which are valued, and receive training Worker has low skill levels and receives minimal or no training

Worker receives the same ‘pro rata’ salary and benefits as full time workers

Worker receives lower hourly pay and reduced or no benefits

Workers are employed in positions that have security Workers are employed in high turnover positions

Worker has a degree of mobility opportunities and are usually connected to middle level job ladders

Worker has no opportunities for advancement and are not connected to internal job ladders


In their review of the literature, Industrial Relations Victoria (2005a) extended Tilly’s findings and

concluded that the following characteristics negatively impact the quality of part time work:

Most part time jobs are casual, particularly for men.

Many part time workers are seeking more hours (although it is easier to move from part time to

full time than it is for full time workers to obtain less hours)

Hourly wages may be lower than full time equivalent.

Traditional work culture devalues part time workers.

Part time work is gender-segmented.

Many part time workers have limited access to training.

Work intensification and a focus on results rather than hours worked often impacts negatively on

part time workers.

It can be difficult to move between full time and part time work.

Similarly, the Productivity Commission (2008) found these differences in the quality of part time work

compared with full time work. Part time work -

involves less responsibility;

is less challenging;

Is less likely to be recognised for promotion;

is more likely to involve irregular work days; and

is less likely to provide access to entitlements, such as paid holiday and sick leave.

However, these penalties can be trade-offs for the following benefits -

Part time employees are marginally more likely to be given home based work and flexible start and

finish times.

They are slightly less likely to report that their jobs have a negative impact on their parenting, or

on the quality or quantity of their family time.

International research has found that part time workers generally have lower paid, and less skilled work

than full time workers (Sandor 2011, citing Connolly and Gregory 2008; Manning and Petrongolo 2007;

McDonald Bradley and Brown 2009).The Australian situation is different to many OECD countries, where

member countries have a poverty rate among part time workers twice that of full time workers. This is

closely related to job instability among part time workers (OECD 2010a).

3.1.3 PART TIME WORK TRADE-OFFS, PENALTIES AND PREMIUMS

The Productivity Commission’s analysis highlights the fact that choosing to work part time may well

involve a decision making process that takes into account the advantages and disadvantages involved. In

other words, for many workers, part time employment involves a trade-off where a disadvantage like

reduced income is exchanged for increased flexibility and work-family balance. This of course, assumes

that choice is involved – and that is patently not the case for many part time workers.

The OECD’s review also discusses this trade-off and identifies a number of Penalties experienced by part

time workers in OECD countries, including the following:


Lower hourly wages, resulting in the average part time worker facing a poverty rate that is more

than twice that of full time workers. However, this Penalty is smaller in countries (like Australia)

where part time work is more widespread.

Differences in working conditions with a high concentration of part time workers on temporary

contracts, and with this varying across occupations.

Reduced access to training and promotion opportunities. However, in the countries studied, part

time work was associated with employment in smaller size firms and with workers with lower

education levels. Lower levels of training opportunity were also more pronounced in countries with

lower than average levels of training (OECD 2010a).

Because Australia is one OECD country where part time work is more widespread, and where levels of

training are more widely provided, this needs to be taken into account in relation to the Penalties

identified by the OECD. The degree to which Penalties and Premiums determine the quality of the part

time work experience is also determined by the degree of choice involved (voluntary or involuntary part

time work), on whether or not part time work was negotiated with an existing employer or required

moving jobs, and the ease of movement between part time work and full time work opportunities. These

issues are explored in Section 3.2.

3.2 MOVING BETWEEN PART TIME AND FULL TIME WORK

Australian research (Drago et al 2004) has identified particular difficulties in moving from part time to full

time work for women (compared with men), and those employed in professional or management roles.

Involuntary part time employment is associated with women as well as the mature and younger male

cohorts (see Section 3.2.1). Those who work full time but want to reduce their hours are defined as

‘aspirational’ part time workers (see Section 3.2.2), however -

… such movements are not always seamless and involve more than simply reducing the hours of work

with the existing employer (Productivity Commission 2008: xxii).

3.2.1 INVOLUNTARY PART TIME WORK

Involuntary part time employment is a ‘precarious’ form of employment that may represent for some

workers a transition to unemployment. During 2006, 3.4% of involuntary part time workers became

unemployed each month, four times the proportion (0.8%) of voluntary part time workers and eight

times the proportion (0.4%) of full time employed workers (Productivity Commission 2008).

Associated with the involuntary part time employed are those who may be trapped on the periphery of

the workforce.… *and+ … the challenge is to ensure that some workers are not trapped in such jobs. In

this regard there does appear to be a significant share of part time workers who want full time work,

but find it difficult to move to full time employment even in the current situation of a strong national

labour market. There may also be part time workers who are unable to find jobs that better utilise their

skills as these require a full time commitment, which is a more subtle form of underemployment

(Productivity Commission 2008: 204).

Involuntary part time employment has increased over the past thirty years, particularly during the

economic recessions of the early 1980s and early 1990s, and during the economic slowdown of 2001.


Both women and men have experienced similar increases to their share of involuntary part time

employment (Productivity Commission 2008).

The Productivity Commission’s research also identified a very high rate of involuntary part time work,

persisting for many years, among the small number of Indigenous respondents studied. Because the

numbers were too small for in-depth analysis, the Commission recommended that further research be

undertaken on this issue (Productivity Commission 2008: 207).

3.2.2 FULL TIME WORKERS WHO WANT TO WORK PART TIME

The number of ‘aspirational’ part time workers (full time workers who want to work part time) exceeds

the number of part time workers who want to work full time. For every part time employee seeking full

time hours, there are more than two full time workers who want to move to part time work.

There is … a substantial pool of full time workers who want to work part time. These workers tend to be

concentrated in the older age groups. The existence of this group indicates that there may be less part

time jobs desired by people who want to work. Not only may the size of this group actually exceed the

part time workers who want to work more hours, but people who desire less hours typically take longer

to achieve their objective than people who want to increase their work hours (Productivity Commission

2008: 204).

There are interesting gender-based differences in aspirational part time workers. Around 10% of full time

male workers were found to want to work part time – a figure higher than existing levels of male part

time employment. The opposite trend applied to women with a quarter of full time female workers

wanting to work part time - lower than existing levels of female part time employment (Productivity

Commission 2008).

Age-based differences are also evident with aspirational part time workers more prevalent in older age

groups, despite workers aged 55 and over already having a high rate of part time employment. Full time

working women aged 35 to 64 years are most likely to seek to work part time – as child care

responsibilities diminish or as they approach retirement (Productivity Commission 2008).

In summary, there appears to be a large pool of full time workers who would prefer to work part time.

This group of aspirational part time workers is substantially larger than the part time workers who

would prefer to work full time. As such, if more people could achieve their desired hours of work, it is

likely that the rate of part time work would increase (Productivity Commission 2008: 150).

Finally, it is important to see involuntary part time work as a fluid rather than fixed state as the labour

market is dynamic, and nearly half of involuntary part time workers move out of this form of employment

within three months (Productivity Commission 2008).

3.2.3 MOVING TO PART TIME WORK AND CHANGING EMPLOYERS

Movement between full and part time work, regardless of the direction taken, may involve changing

employers, and losing pay and other benefits in the process. Echoing OECD (2010) findings on Penalties

and Premiums associated with part time work, downgrading has been found to represent a trade-off for

better work life balance and for meeting family related responsibilities. One study identified that

occupational downgrading occurred for over a third of women in highly skilled occupations who moved


employer when changing to part time work, compared with only 8% being downgraded when remaining

with the same employer (Connolly and Gregory 2008).

Longitudinal research in the United Kingdom found the likelihood of downgrading declined over time for

mothers who returned to work full time (Lyonette et al 2010). Another British study identified that some

women choose to work at lower levels due to the intensity of demands at full time senior levels of work,

and because of an absence of effective work life balance policies and practices in their workplace (Grant

et al 2005).

From a policy perspective, at issue is whether the clear choice made in trade-off decisions has longer

term, unexpected effects. Some researchers have identified long term effects with lower earnings for

women over ten years (Connolly and Gregory 2008) and an associated loss of confidence in abilities and

skills that can trap women in lower level part time jobs (Grant et al 2005). This highlights another feature

of quality part time work – the capacity to move between full and part time work without incurring a

long term penalty.

3.3 INDIVIDUAL FEATURES OF QUALITY PART TIME WORK

This section explores in more detail information from the research regarding the most commonly

identified characteristics of quality part time work referred to in Section 3.1.1.

3.3.1 PART TIME WORK AND PAY PARITY

On average, Australian male part time workers earn less per hour than full time male workers while

females earn similar hourly rates in both part and full time work. In 2006, ABS data show that part time

workers received some 93% of the hourly wage of full time workers, mainly due to the gap between the

average hourly rate of male part time and full time workers (approximately 88%). In contrast, female part

time and full time workers received almost the same wage rate in 2006 (some 99% of the full time rate)

(Productivity Commission 2008).

However, the difference in pay parity between part and full time work can be removed or reversed by

features that include age, education level, industry of employment, occupation and job tenure -

…simple comparison of the wages of part time work with full time work indicates a small wage penalty

associated with part time employment. This difference appears to be eliminated, or even reversed,

when the differing characteristics of part time workers and the differing occupational/industrial and

skill mix of part and full time work are taken into account (Productivity Commission 2008: 204).

3.3.2 PART TIME WORK AND ROLES, RESPONSIBILITIES AND TRAINING

In the European Union, part time workers are less likely to have work roles involving complex tasks,

problem solving or planning responsibilities, or to receive training from their employers (Sandor 2011;

Lyonette et al 2010; Fagan & Burchell 2002).

Researchers investigating the amount of training provided to part time women workers in Australia and

in the United Kingdom (Harley & Whitehouse 2001) found a direct association between hours worked


and training provided, with fewer hours being linked to less training. Those working the least number of

hours (less than 10 per week) had the lowest levels of training compared with other workers.

Similar trends were identified in Australia regarding access to training and work roles involving

responsibility (Whittard 2003; Productivity Commission 2008). In addition, compared to full time workers,

part time workers –

were much less likely to have supervisory duties;

perceived themselves as less influential in their work;

were less likely to feel that their job required new (or even their current level of) skills; and

were less likely to believe their job was difficult.

3.3.3 WORK SCHEDULING AND REGULARITY OF HOURS

Work scheduling addresses the number of days worked per week, the time of day work is undertaken,

and the regularity of work shifts. When part time work represents a choice in order to meet non-work

responsibilities or to address the demands of particular life cycle stages, then work scheduling has a

critical bearing on the fulfilment of those choices.

Discernible differences have been identified between full time and part time workers in relation to how

their work is scheduled. Around 20% of part time workers and 10% of full time workers did not having a

regular and fixed set of work days each week (Productivity Commission 2008). Casuality of the work did

not explain the difference, as casual and permanent part time workers reported a similar proportion of

irregular working days. Nor could it be explained by comparing full and part time work scheduling, as

most part time workers followed the traditional work scheduling associated with full time work. Nor were

part time workers with family or education commitments more likely than other part time workers to

work a standard set of days (Productivity Commission 2008).

However, a slightly higher proportion of part time workers compared with full time workers were

working on weekends, and there was an association between casual work and working nights, regardless

of whether full time or part time employment was involved (Productivity Commission 2008).

3.3.4 BENEFITS AND ENTITLEMENTS

In Australia work benefits are enshrined in legislation and awards, and most awards provide for

permanent part time employees to receive pro rata benefits equating to full time work in the same job.

International agreements on part time work (e.g. the European Directive on Part Time Work 1997 and ILO

Convention Clause156 and Recommendation 182 on Part Time Work 1994) are also designed to promote

equity between full time and part time workers. The Lisbon Strategy 2000 included in the objectives of

the European Employment Strategy the promotion of quality of work (Sandor 2011).

These policy interventions are likely to have increased the desirability of part time work as a valid choice,

enshrining the right of part time workers to the same (pro rata) pay and working conditions as full time

workers. Policy has also been reinforced by an increasing awareness of the importance of work life

balance.

However, access to benefits is impacted by different working arrangements particularly those affecting

casual as opposed to ongoing work. Therefore, as more part time (than full time) workers are engaged in

casual employment, overall access to benefits for the part time workforce will be lower (Productivity


Commission 2008).The two most common benefits involve paid holiday and sick leave, which are

available differentially to full and part time workers and between casual and other workers. Among

casual workers, 3% of part time employees and 10% of full time employees had access to both benefits

(Productivity Commission 2008). Section 7.3 provides more information about casual employment.

These benefits (paid holidays and sick leave) also vary with different occupational and skill groups, being

more common in those with jobs requiring a higher level of skills (as determined by Australian Standard

Classification of Occupations). Full time workers at higher skill levels were more likely to have access to

home based work, child care provisions and flexible work times than other full time workers. However

these benefits were common at the middle skill levels among part time workers. Comparison between

full time and part time workers also varied with different occupational groups (Productivity Commission

2008).

3.3.5 ACCESS TO FLEXIBLE WORK CONDITIONS

In Australia, casual part time workers are most likely to have flexible start and finish times, and just as

likely as full time casuals to have access to home based work.

However, part time workers are only marginally more likely than full time workers to have access to

flexible start and finish times and almost as likely to have access to home-based work and child care

provisions (Productivity Commission 2008).

3.3.6 CAREER PROGRESSION

Most researchers agree that part time workers’ opportunities for career advancement and promotion are

poorer than those of full time workers (Sandor 2011; Lyonette et al 2010; Manning and Petrongolo 2008;

Whittard 2003; Hakim 2003; Productivity Commission 2008). However, there is less agreement about the

reasons for this disparity. It could be a reflection of choices and compromises made by individual

employees as they balance work and life commitments, it could be a reflection of individual skills and

experience, or it could be reduced access to training and job related responsibilities. It could also be the

lack of more senior jobs that are available on a part time basis (Lyonette et al 2010).

The United Kingdom’s Women and Work Commission (2006) found that that many highly qualified

women seeking part time work were under-employed in lower level jobs that did not fully utilise their

skills while the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (2009)

identified that only a quarter of European firms have part time workers in highly skilled positions. Other

research from the United Kingdom has identified significant difficulties faced by women in moving from

part time to full time work once their children have become less dependent on their care (Connolly and

Gregory 2008).

International researchers have associated reduced promotion prospects for part time workers with non-

standard employment where career progression is less available (McGovern 2004). One study found that

temporary full time workers were more likely than regular part time or temporary part time workers to

be promoted, and this was particularly the case for women who were more likely to be in non-standard

jobs (Zeytinoglu & Cooke 2008).


3.3.7 JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction can be difficult to measure due to the diversity in individual expectations of work. Taking

into account this subjectivity, researchers use job satisfaction as one indicator of quality of work. A

number of dimensions affect overall job satisfaction including pay, job security, work hours, nature of

work and flexibility. Across all of these dimensions, part time and full time workers have been found to

report similar levels of satisfaction (Productivity Commission 2008). The only clear differences being in

relation to working hours and flexibility – with part time workers slightly more satisfied with these

elements than full time workers. European research has yielded similar findings, with part time and full

time workers expressing similar levels of satisfaction with their conditions of work (Sandor 2011).

Job satisfaction has been found to vary by age, although not by gender, with younger part time workers

reporting lower satisfaction with job security compared with older part time workers (Productivity

Commission 2008). In the older cohort, part time workers were more satisfied with work hours – possibly

reflecting changing life stage priorities. Satisfaction levels were also affected by contract type, and by

occupation and skill group:

Casual part time workers were less satisfied with work hours.

Casual workers (both full and part time) were less satisfied with the nature of work.

Contract workers were much more satisfied with their pay than permanent workers.

Highly skilled part time workers were more satisfied with their pay than their full time

equivalents, and more satisfied with their work hours in contrast to those in lower skill levels.

3.3.8 IMPACT OF WORK ON LIFE AND WORK LIFE BALANCE

European research has found that those working fewer hours (30 hours a week or less) rated their work,

family and life balance more positively than those working more hours, while those working 50 hours or

more each week were the least satisfied with their work life balance (Sandor 2011). Similarly, full time

Australian workers regard the amount of time they spend working as negatively affecting their time and

energy for parenting and participation in family activities (Productivity Commission 2008). However, the

same research found that work-related stress was only marginally lower for part time employees.

The Australian Work and Life Index (AWALI) is a national survey of work-life balance that is applied over

time. It shows that work-life strain has increased for –

people working long hours (48+ each week) – which is more likely to be men than women

women more than for men, mainly because of worsening strain for mothers.

Working less hours, that is part time, assists in achieving this balance. Findings from the AWALI Index

found little difference in work-life strain between men and women working full time. However, women

working part time are more likely to experience this strain than are men working part time – possibly du

to non-work responsibilities (Skinner & Pisaniello 2010; Pocock, Skinner & Pisaniello 2010).

3.3.9 THE BUSINESS CASE FOR QUALITY PART TIME WORK

Just as part time work can represent a viable choice for individuals at different stages of the life cycle, so

too does it provide an appropriate choice for employers in response to fluctuations in the business cycle

and the wider economy. This is most evident in periods of economic downturn when employers reduce


hours, and when they create more full time jobs to meet increased demand during upswings (Sandor

2011; OECD 2010a).

Viewed from the perspective of providing ‘good jobs’ there are wider benefits that include increased

labour productivity, healthier workforces, greater workforce stability, reduced sickness and absenteeism,

safer workplaces, and more engaged employees (Constable et al 2009). In their analysis of European

workforce data and job quality across different countries, the United Kingdom Work Foundation

concluded that countries with higher overall job quality were characterised by well established, publicly

funded programs of workplace reform. Northern European countries like Finland and Sweden

exemplified such countries. Many of the reform programs promote job quality as good business, linking -

… concern about the quality of working life to wider concerns about organisational performance,

productivity and innovation …. (Constable et al 2009: 14).

The Victorian Quality Part Time Work Project identified a strong business case for quality part time

employment, citing enhanced recruitment and retention of experienced and skilled staff, increased

workforce morale, productivity and efficiency and a range of benefits associated with becoming an

employer of choice (Industrial Relations Victoria 2005c). Lyonette et al‘s review of the literature on

quality part time work also identified a business case, arguing that the needs of both employer and

employee need to be met in negotiating work roles and conditions on a part time basis, and in designing

work conditions which meet the flexibility needs of both employer and employee (2010).

However, despite the depth of research evidence identifying positive associations between worker

health, well being, and organisational productivity, challenges persist in translating this knowledge into

practice at the workplace level.

While there is compelling evidence that work is good for health in the vast majority of cases, we still

lack the capacity at workplace level to translate what we know from epidemiological and other research

into simple, consistent and business-friendly actions to improve job quality, work organisation, health

promotion and other drivers of positive health at work. As is so often the case, our analysis of the

problem is impeccable but our track-record of delivery and execution at firm level is, at best, patchy

(Bevan 2010: 3-4).

In their overview of research to identify what constitutes a ‘good job’, Constable et al (2009) concluded

there is a need to ensure that all businesses, including those that are smaller in size, are persuaded of the

business benefits of quality employment conditions, and are provided with the practical support they

need to apply the learnings that now exist in a comprehensive evidence base.

There are two major challenges for policy makers, researchers and practitioners. The first is to make a

more compelling and accessible case for Good Jobs to businesses, especially among small and medium

sized enterprises (SMEs), which are often hard to reach and offer less training than their larger

counterparts, and also to organisations in sectors where low skill demand is widespread and which are

therefore less likely to be offering Good Jobs. The second challenge is to provide these employers with

practical support to improve job quality in a way that cuts with the grain of business expectations. The

role for policy makers is not to accumulate more evidence about the benefits of Good Jobs … this

evidence is already plentiful. Rather, it is to gather evidence that will persuade, support or incentivise

employers to translate their tacit understanding of these ideas and benefits into tangible changes to

work organisation and job design at workplace level (Constable et al 2009: 6-7).


4 PART TIME WORK AS A RESPONSE TO LIFE CYCLE STAGES

4.1 PART TIME WORK AND TRANSITIONS IN THE L IFE CYCLE

Part time work is a critical mechanism for balancing work and non work activities at different stages of

the life cycle. In particular, full time study, having a family, and moving into retirement emerge as key

points where part time rather than full time employment is a choice. Sometimes life events, such as

sickness or disability, or other factors that inhibit full time participation in paid work, mean that part time

employment provides the most viable means of remaining in the labour force. This is the case in Australia

and in other OECD countries.

Part time work was found to play an important role in providing flexibility for individuals to combine

work with non-work activities at significant stages of their life. Specifically, full time study, raising a

family and preparing for retirement were found to be significant life cycle events that impact on an

individual’s likelihood of working part time. Further analysis of the likelihood of an individual

transitioning into and out of part time work at particular stages of their life cycle may provide a better

understanding of who works part time and why. This would require the development of an extended

longitudinal data base (Productivity Commission 2008: 206).

Quality part time work provides a critical mechanism for smoothly managing major transitions across

the life cycle. It can mean the difference between working and not working, and for successfully

balancing work and other key life responsibilities.

The degree to which this understanding is reflected in policy and in working conditions is variable. One

study of working time options over a lifetime concluded that most European countries have yet to

implement policies around social protection and tax systems that reflect a life course perspective. As a

result, gender and age discrimination persists in the use of different working time arrangements (Sandor

2011, citing Eurofound 2006).

Assessments of the quality of part time jobs should reflect the differing motivations and interests of

many of those who undertake part time employment. Some groups of part time workers obtain their

education and training elsewhere off the job, such as younger part time workers combining work and

tertiary education. Other part time workers, such as older workers, transiting to retirement can be

expected to have limited interest in ongoing training and career paths (Productivity Commission 2008:

203).

Men and women show clear gender based differences in reasons for choosing part time work. Women

cite childcare, a preference for part time work and study as principal motivators for engaging in part time

work. Whereas men choose part time work due to study, a preference for part time or the inability to

find full time work (Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a; Productivity Commission 2008).

The preference for part time work can be shaped by non work aspects of life, in particular, a wish for

work life balance, and as the sections which follow illustrate, this tends to also be associated with age

groups and transitioning to different phases of life. This illustrates the importance from a policy

perspective, of locating part time work within a life course framework as well as within labour market

policy.


4.2 PART TIME WORK AND PARENTING

In the majority of OECD countries, part time work is the key means of achieving flexibility in work hours

and in balancing family and work responsibilities, particularly for working mothers. At the same time this

flexibility can assist employers to adjust to market fluctuations (ILO 2003).

However, it is important to view the benefits arising from reducing hours against the working conditions

associated with them in distinguishing quality part time work from other forms of part time employment.

Reduced hours of paid work through part-time employment can be an important aid in balancing caring

responsibilities and paid work. It can allow workers to take more time for caring while still retaining

attachment to the world of work…. Some people go on to conclude that part-time work is therefore by

definition a ‘family friendly’ measure. However … it is necessary to look beyond the number of hours to

the other conditions of the job if we are to reach a full assessment of family friendliness. In short it is

necessary to look at the quality of part-time work (Campbell & Charlesworth 2004: 47).

Women’s participation in part time work, viewed across population cohorts, increases significantly over

the child rearing years, particularly between the ages of 30 and 44, after which time it decreases.

(Lyonette et al 2010). This usually reflects a choice that gives parenting priority over full time work.

However, analysis of UK labour force data reveals lower levels of part time work by women from

culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, compared with women born in the United Kingdom

(Lyonette et al 2010, citing Grant et al 2005).

The OECD (2010) reported that the high rate of female participation in part time work was not explained

by high child care costs, citing countries like Australia where child care costs are relatively affordable, and

where there are very high rates of part time employment. Other international research has established a

strong and positive link between the fertility and part time employment rates, indicating that part time

work enables women to combine paid work with care of their children (Sandor 2011, citing Buddelmeyer,

Mourre & Ward 2008).

Men’s engagement in work part time is often involuntary and due to the inability to find full time work.

Where choice is involved, men are most likely to be working part time for study reasons. In contrast to

women, men are unlikely to cite parenting responsibilities as a main reason for part time work. This

finding is supported by an OECD study which found men did not use part time work to balance work and

parenting responsibilities (2010).

4.3 PART TIME WORK AND CAREGIVING

In 2003, more than a third of carers spent 40 or more hours each week providing care and a further 18%

spent between 20 and 39 hours (Productivity Commission 2008). Due to the number of hours primary

carers (other than parents) spend each week providing care, participation in paid work can be dependent

on access to part time hours. Not surprisingly, while carers are less likely to be in paid employment

overall, those who are working are more likely to be in part time work compared to non-carers

(Productivity Commission 2008).


4.4 PART TIME WORK AND STUDY

In most countries, young people choose part time work to supplement their income while completing

education. Once this is achieved, they usually seek full time employment (Sandor 2011; Lyonette et al

2010). As discussed in Section 7.4, full time students comprised around one-fifth of all part time

employment in 2003 (Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a).

4.5 PART TIME WORK AND TRANSITION TO RETIREMENT

Research findings in both Australia and other OECD countries, highlight a distinct trend for part time work

to increase prior to retirement (Lyonette et al 2010). In addition, older people may prefer part time work

because of health problems (see Section 7.4.3) or because of a desire for better work life balance.

Therefore, as the population ages the demand for part time work within this cohort can be expected to

increase.

In Australia, transition to retirement schemes, together with policy directions designed to encourage

mature age participation in paid work, provide incentives to work part time. However, depending on how

they are structured, superannuation rules may act as incentives or disincentives and should be factored

in to the decisions and choices made by older workers about the degree and nature of their engagement

with paid work. In other countries, the choice can be affected by disincentives in the form of pension

rights being calculated on the last five years of the working career, or regulations that require older

workers to reduce their working hours with less than a proportional sacrifice of their wages (Sandor

2011).

The Productivity Commission’s analysis of a special supplement to the HILDA survey examined retirement

intentions and strategies being used to transition to retirement. Slightly more than 40% of those who

moved from full time to part time work in order to transition to retirement indicated that they would not

be working if their only option was full time employment (Productivity Commission 2008).


5 CONCLUSIONS

Part time work can provide a mechanism for people at different life stages to combine, even balance,

work with other activities that matter to them – for example, raising a family, caring for family members,

studying or further skill development. It can make the difference between workforce participation for

those with health or disability issues who are unable to work full time. It is therefore critical that policy

directions concerning quality part time work are located within a life course framework as well as within

labour market policy, with a view to enhancing access to all Australians to better balance their work and

non-work lives at different stages of the life cycle.

The findings from research yield a number of features of quality part time work and these form a core set

of indicators about which there is significant agreement. However, it is also important to acknowledge

the diversity of the part time workforce, with individuals having varying reasons for seeking less than full

time hours. If part time work is voluntary, it is likely that individuals have exercised choice because of

their skills and/or experience. For those without this choice, especially if their skills require development

or their health limits their choices, it is less likely that they will have access to quality part time work. This

is the group requiring a range of specific support and policy interventions -

…quality of work is particularly significant for people with less power in the workplace (NSW

Government 2009: 4).

One of the major barriers facing the wider application of quality part time work principles and

characteristics is attitudinal – a belief by some that working less hours equates to less commitment to the

employing organisation. Prevailing work culture has been found to inhibit the availability of part time

work at senior management levels, while leadership provided at these levels can do much to change

beliefs that measure employee commitment and productivity in terms of hours spent in the workplace.

A number of Australian researchers have identified the negative impact of work culture that values full

time work or long work hours, and devalues part time workers (Industrial Relations Victoria 2005a –

citing Burgess & Whittard 2004 and Junor 2000; Charlesworth et al 2002).

Organisational value systems defined part time work negatively in relation to commitment and career

….*and+ resulted in a culture of ‘competitive presenteeism’ …. Commitment was symbolised in terms of

hours sacrificed to the organisation …. *creating+ a clawing back of time from the private spheres. Hence

part time professionals were seen to be less committed workers and therefore of less value to the

organisation. Women in management were aware that part time working conveyed a lack of

seriousness about a career (Jenkins 2004: 327).

One of the themes of discussion at the NSW Quality Part Time Work Roundtable (2009) concerned the

need to raise the credibility and status of part time work in workplaces, and in the process, to

reconceptualise how work is viewed, challenging the notion that the full time worker is the ideal worker.

In part, this was seen to require support at senior levels of organisations as well as part time workplace

champions and role models.

To this end, a key recommendation arising from the review of the directions set by the Women and Work

Commission in the UK (Women and Work Commission 2009) was that a UK-wide Quality Part Time Work

Change Initiative be established in order to achieve the culture change needed to make part time work

acceptable at senior management levels.


For the workforce as a whole, quality part time (and full time) work must be seen as inherently linked to

national productivity and to the broader quality of life of Australian workers.

The focus here is on the nature and quality of workplace relationships and the extent to which the

quality of working life is seen as both an industrial and a political priority. Important factors include the

balance of power between capital and labour … the commitment to creating quality employment for all,

and the extent to which a focus on the quality of working life at enterprise level translates into a

national political conversation about the quality of work – often as part of a wider politics of the quality

of life (Constable et al 2009: 14).


6 REFERENCES

ABS (2011) Labour Force Australia, Catalogue 6291.55.003 and Catalogue 6202.0

ABS (2009) Employment arrangements, retirement and superannuation, State Tables, April to July 2007

Allan C, Bamber G & Timo N (2002) Flexible working in retail: a study of young workers, Griffith University

Queensland, Accessed at www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/10072/1557/1/20980.pdf

Bardoel E, Morgan L & Santos C (2007) ‘”Quality” part-time work in Australian organisations: implications for

HRD’, Human Resource Development International, 10, 3: 281-299

Bevan S (2010) The business case for employees health and wellbeing, The Work Foundation, London –

www.theworkfoundation.com

Booth A and van Ours J (2005) Hours of work and gender identity: does part-time work make the family

happier? Discussion Paper # 501, Centre for Economic Policy Research, Australian National University,

Canberra

Broschak J, Davis-Blake A & Block E (2008) ‘Nonstandard, Not Substandard. The Relationship among work

arrangements, work attitudes, and job performance’, Work and Occupations, 35, (1) 3-43 –

http://wox.sagepub.com/content/35/1/3

Buddelmeyer H, Mourre G & Ward M (2008) ‘Why do Europeans work part time? A cross country panel

analysis, Research in Labor Economics, 28, 81-139

Buddelmeyer H, Wooden M & Ghantous S (2006) Transitions from casual employment in Australia Project

09/05, Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, Report prepared for the

Australian Government Department of Employment and Workplace Relations

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