Qualitative research by Dr. Subraham Pany

DR. SUBRAHAM PANY

THE FOUNDATIONS AND PILLARS OF QUALITATIVE THINKING.

STRONG FOCUS ON DESCRIPTION

Importance of single case study

Openness

Control of method

STRONG FOCUS ON INTERPRETATION

Pre – understanding

Introspection

Researcher – Object interaction

SUBJECT FIRST

Wholeness

History

Problem Orientation

NATURAL & DAILY

ENVIRONMENT

THE RESULT SHOULD BE

UNDERSTOOD AS A PROCESS

OF GENERALISATION

Argumentative generalisation

Induction

Rules of concept

Quantification

INTRODUCTION

• Qualitative research can be defined as a research that seeks the

answer to the questions in the real world.

• It has a person centred perspective.

• Qualitative research is a form of social enquiry that focuses on

the way people interpret and make sense of their experiences

and the world in which they live.

CHARACTERISTICS & AIMS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

(A) Researcher focuses on the everyday life of people in natural settings.

(B) The data have primacy; the theoretical framework is not

predetermined but derives from the data.

(C) Qualitative research is context bound.

(D) It focuses on the views of the people involved in the research and their

perceptions, meanings and interpretations.

(E) Data collection and analysis generally proceed together and interact

with each other.

(F) It uses open ended methods.

(G) It involves respondents as active participants rather than subjects.

A TYPICAL QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

IDEAS

Research begins with rough ideas that turn slowly into research

questions.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review gradually builds up knowledge about the

research ideas.

DESIGN

The design is the plan to be followed in order to carry out the research.

It must include strategies for the selection of the samples.

DATA COLLECTIONThe data collection & organization phase is devoted to gathering the data

for the research and organizing it, so that it can be properly analysed.

These are difficult tasks, since the volume of data collected in qualitative

research can be enormous.

ANALYSIS

The analysis includes three concurrent flows of action:

Data

red

ucti

on

•which focuses,

simplifies, and

transforms raw

data into more

manageable

forms; Data

dis

pla

y

which presents the

data as organized

and compressed

assemblies of

information that

permit conclusions

to be analytically

drawn;

Co

nclu

sio

ns &

V

erif

icati

on

where the

researchers review

and finalize all their

conclusions and

make sure that they

satisfy the

requirements of

validity.

DISSEMINATIONDissemination takes the form of very well written and detailed

documents, so that other researchers can evaluate the analysis and

conclusions obtained & decide if they trust the results and want to

use them to feed their own research.

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Participant observation

(descriptive observations of verbal & non - verbal behaviour),

Interactive interviewing

(people asked to verbally describe their experiences),

Written descriptions by participants

(people asked to write descriptions of their experiences).

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

• The researcher as observer looks at places

and people in their natural settings.

• Qualitative researchers use the term ‘participant observation’, a

term originally coined by Lindemann (1924).

• Participant observation always takes place in community settings, in

locations believed to have some relevance to the research

questions.

• The researcher approaches participants in their own

environment rather than having the participants come to the

researcher.

• The researcher engaged tries to learn what life is like for an

“insider” while remaining, inevitably, an “outsider”.

• The researcher makes careful, objective notes about what he

sees, recording all accounts & observations as field notes in a

field notebook.

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION [CONT.]

Informal conversation & interaction with members of the study

population are important components and should be recorded in field

notes, in as much detail as possible.

To be an efficient participant observer one needs to

establish a rapport in the community,

have the skills of knowing the native language,

have explicit awareness of own behaviour,

have a good memory,

maintain consciously a naiveté (in order to genuinely know maximum

possible about the researched).


QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED IN THE OBSERVATION

• The ‘who’ questions - who all are in the setting, how many people are present

? what are their characteristics and roles?

• The ‘what’ questions - what is happening in the setting, what are the actions

and rules of behaviour/ what are the variations in the behaviour observed?

• The ‘where’ questions - where do interactions occur? Where are people

located in the physical space?

• The ‘when’ questions - when do conversations and interactions take place?

What is the timing of activities?

• The ‘why’ questions - why do people in the setting act the way they do? Why

are there variations in behaviour?


IN - DEPTH INTERVIEWS

• It is a ‘conversation with a purpose’ in which the interviewer aims

to obtain the perspectives, feelings and perceptions from the

participants in the research.

• The in - depth interview is a technique designed to elicit a vivid picture

of the participant’s perspective on the research topic.

• During in - depth interviews, the person being interviewed is

considered the expert and the interviewer is considered the student.

• The researcher’s interviewing techniques are motivated by the desire

to learn everything the participant can share about the research

topic.

• Researchers engage with participants by posing

questions in a neutral manner, listening attentively

to participant’s responses, and asking follow - up questions and

probes based on those responses.

• They do not lead participants according to any preconceived

notions, nor do they encourage participants to provide particular

answers by expressing approval or disapproval of what they say.

• In - depth interviews are usually conducted face - to - face and

involve one interviewer and one participant.

IN - DEPTH INTERVIEWS [CONT.]

KEY INFORMANT (KI) INTERVIEWS

• Key informant interviews are in - depth interviews of 10 to 20 people

selected for their first - hand knowledge about a topic of interest.

• Interviews are loosely structured around issues to be discussed.

• KI interviews resemble a conversation among acquaintances, allowing

a free flow of ideas and information.

• Interviewers frame questions spontaneously, probe for information and

takes notes, which are elaborated on later.

• Key to a KI is selection of the key informant.

• The KI should be articulate, willing to participate, trustworthy

and should have other personal attributes conducive of

conducting detailed interviews.

• The KI is known as key because of his/her unique position by

virtue of which he/she can impart a useful piece of

information.

• This method is useful in all phases of development activities

identification, planning, implementation and evaluation.

KEY INFORMANT (KI) INTERVIEWS [CONT.]

Specifically, it is useful in the following situations :

(a)When there is a need to understand motivation, behaviour, and

perspectives of our clientele and health partners.

For example, in - depth interviews of program planners and managers, service

providers, host government officials, and beneficiaries concerning their attitudes and

behaviours about a health program activity can help explain its successes and

shortcomings.

(b)When the main purpose is to generate recommendations, key

informants can help formulate recommendations that can improve a

program’s performance.

(c) Key informant interviews can help frame the issues before the survey is

undertaken.

KEY INFORMANT (KI) INTERVIEWS [CONT.]

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS (FGD)

• FGD helps researchers learn the social norms of a community or

subgroup, as well as the range of perspectives that exist within that

community or subgroup.

• Focus groups seek to illuminate group opinion.

• This method is especially well suited for

socio - behavioural research that will be

used to develop and measure health services

that meet the needs of a given population.

An FGD requires the following :

(a) 6 - 12 participants who are willing to talk about the issue under

discussion.

(b) They should be as homogenous as possible.

(c) A moderator conducts the discussion but doesn't lead it.

(d) There is a recorder who notes down the proceedings and draws the

sociogram.

(e) There should be a predetermined FGD guide.

(f) Recording equipment with a backup should be present.

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS (FGD) [CONT.]

BENEFITS OF FGD:

• A principal advantage of focus groups is that they yield a large

amount of information over a relatively short period of time.

• They are also effective for accessing a broad range of views on

a specific topic, as opposed to achieving group consensus.

DISADVANTAGES OF FGD:

• Focus groups are not the best method for acquiring information on

highly personal or socially sensitive topics;

(One - on - one interviews are better - suited for such topics.)


Focus groups are commonly used

in the following areas :

(a)Exploratory studies in health issues.

(b)Testing ideas about acceptances of

a new program.

(c)Solving specific program problems.

(d)Evaluating health programs.


SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF AN FGD

INCLUDE:

• Preparation,

• Conduct of the session and

• Decisions regarding number and

duration of the sessions.


PREPARATION

(a) Recruitment of participants : Participants should be homogenous with respect to

the socio - economic group, sex, age and status.

(b) Physical arrangements : Neutral, well lit and a quiet place are very essential for

the participants to be able to discuss freely.

Semi-circular sitting arrangement: so that each participant is in view of other.

(c) FGD guide:

It is a written list of the topics that need to be discussed in the group and

consists of a series of open ended questions.

It should cover the most necessary issues & avoid unnecessary ones.

Topics should be arranged in a logical sequence and a thorough familiarisation

with the topics is a must for the moderator.


CONDUCT OF THE SESSION :

• Moderating a focus group discussion is an art.

• The moderator must be vigilant about covering all the material

in the focus group guide, while also ensuring that the entire

group participates and that a wide range of perspectives has

been solicited and expressed.

• The role requires you to be fully engaged in the discussion,

yet refrain from participating too much in it.

• The moderator must know how and when to interject and

intervene, yet not interfere.


FACILITATING GROUP DISCUSSION:

• Open with a general comment and wait for

a response.

• Invite a wide range of commentary.

• Use silence to your advantage.

• Limit your own participation once the

discussion begins.

• Covering the material in the guide.

• Encouraging maximum participation.


THE NUMBER AND DURATION OF SESSIONS :

• A typical FGD should not last for more than an hour and a

half.

• The number of sessions should be decided based on the

nature of the project need, resources and whether the

information coming is redundant or not.

• 2 to 3 FGD’s are considered enough for each population

subgroup.


SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• In qualitative research, only a sample of a population is selected for

any given study.

• The study’s research objectives and the characteristics of the study

population (size and diversity) will determine which and how many

people to select.

• Qualitative research uses non -

probability sampling methods.

• Selection of the respondents is

usually flexible and evolves as the

study progresses.

• There are many approaches for selecting samples

in qualitative research, the most commonly used

is the purposive sampling.

• The sample size in qualitative research is

relatively small but consists of ‘information rich’

cases.

• Usually sampling goes on till saturation is

achieved, that is until no new information is

generated and informational redundancy occurs.

SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH [CONT.]

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Qualitative analysis deals in words and is guided by fewer universal

rules and standardized procedures, rather than statistical analysis.

• In qualitative research, the researcher captures the thoughts and

experiences of individual people, and every set of qualitative data

collected is distinct.

• In qualitative evaluation, data collection & data analysis are not

temporally discrete stages : as soon as the first pieces of data are

collected, the evaluator begins the process of making sense of the

information.

STEPS TO ANALYSE THE DATA OF A QUALITATIVE STUDY :

1. Description of sample population :

Qualitative data is derived from small samples, more information

is needed to place the data in their context,

E.G.,

Who were the KI?,

What were the factors that made them qualify as such?

Who all took part in the FGD’s?

How representative were the participants of the population /

group they represented?

Who all were observed etc.

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH [CONT.]

2. Data reduction (ordering and coding of data) :

• Data reduction refers to the process of selecting, focusing,

simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data that appear

in written up field notes or transcriptions.

• Not only do the data need to be condensed for the sake of

manageability, they also have to be transformed so they can be

made intelligible in terms of the issues being researched.

• Coding of data should be as per topics of discussion guide or

check list of observation or semi structured interviews.

3. Data display :

• Data display goes a step beyond data reduction to provide

“an organized, compressed assembly of information that

permits conclusion drawing.

• Data displays, whether in word or diagrammatic form, allow

the analyst to extrapolate from the data enough to begin to

discern systematic patterns and interrelationships.

• By displaying data in form of a chart (matrix), a figure (flow

chart) or other graphic forms, one is already analysing the

data.

4. Conclusion drawing and verification :

Conclusion means what the analysed data means and

to assess the implications for the research issue at

hand.

Verification is integrally linked to conclusion drawing;

it involves revisiting the data as many times as

necessary to cross - check or verify the emergent

conclusions.

The meanings emerging from the data have to be

tested for their plausibility, their sturdiness, their

validity.

SOFTWARE PACKAGES FOR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

• Software packages that can be used to aid analysis of qualitative data

have been developed in recent years.

• Most of these packages were reviewed by Weitzman and Miles (1995),

who grouped them into six types :

• WORD PROCESSORS,

• WORD RETRIEVERS,

• TEXT BASE MANAGERS,

• CODE - AND - RETRIEVE PROGRAMS,

• CODE - BASED THEORY BUILDERS, AND

• CONCEPTUAL NETWORK BUILDERS.

Limitations with software's used in qualitative research.

• First, the software cannot determine meaningful

categories for coding and analysis or define salient

themes or factors.

• Second, it takes time and resources to become adept in

utilizing a given software package and learning its

peculiarities.

SOFTWARE PACKAGES FOR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS [CONT.]

REFERENCES

• TEXT BOOK OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND COMMUNITY MEDICINE – RAJVIR

BHALWAR, AFMC PUNE.

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY – AN INTRODUCTION; PROF. DR. HORA

TJITRA, ZHEJIANG UNIVERSITY.

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS: A DATA COLLECTOR’S FIELD GUIDE; FAMILY

HEALTH INTERNATIONAL

• A CONCISE INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS IN

INFORMATION SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGIES - DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATICS

ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF COIMBRA.

Qualitative research by Dr. Subraham Pany

Health & Medicine

Transcript of Qualitative research by Dr. Subraham Pany