Qualitative Methods of Business Research: Research...
Transcript of Qualitative Methods of Business Research: Research...
Dr. Maria RumyantsevaSt. Petersburg State University – Graduate School of Management
MIB ProgramSt.Petersburg – 2 November 2009
Qualitative Methods of Business Research:
Research Design, Methods, and Style
Class 1
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 2 -
Course OutlineSchedule
Class # Date Time Topic1. 2
November13:00 –16:15
IntroductionTheoretical and philosophical background of qualitative research
2. 3 November
14:45 –18:00
1. Research designResearch question, sampling, methods, validity and reliability
3. 5 November
9:00 –12:15
2. MethodologiesQualitative methods: Case studies, participant observation and action research, interviews, archival data analysis
4. 6 November
13:00 –16:15
2. MethodologiesAdjacent quantitative methods: Survey, scalingOther adjacent methods: Social network analysis, experimental methods
5. 16 November
13:00 –16:15
3. Research Style Basic rules of academic writing: Composition and formPresentation of papers (1,2,3)
6. 17 November
14:45 –18:00
3. Research Style Basic rules of academic writing: Misused and Latin wordsPresentation of papers (4,5,6)
7. 20November
13:00 –18:00
SummaryPresentation of papers (7,8,9,10,11,12)
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 3 -
Course OutlinePaper Presentations
Research is a craft,
and as such,
it is best taught by doing
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 4 -
Course OutlinePaper Presentations – Method Papers
# Focus Paper Details
1. Theory Sutton, R.I. and B.M. Straw (1995). “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(3), 371-384.
2. Methodology Edmondson, A.C. and S.E. McManus (2007). ”Methodological Fit in Management Field Research.” Academy of Management Review, 32(4): 1155- 1179.
3. Qualitative research Morgan, G. and L. Smircich (1980). “The Case for Qualitative Research.” Academy of Management Review, 5(4): 491-500.
4. Quantitative –qualitative research
Shah, S.K. and K.G. Corley (2006). “Building Better Theory By Bridging The Quantitative–Qualitative Divide.” Journal of Management Studies, 43(8): 1821-1835.
5. Single case studyresearch
Siggelkow, N. (2007). “Persuasion With Case Studies.” Academy of Management Journal, 50(1): 20-24.
6. Multiple case studyresearch
Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989). “Building Theories From Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review, 14(4): 532-550.
7. Theory-building Snow, C.C. and J.B. Thomas (1994). “Field Research Methods in Strategic Management: Contributions to Theory-Building and Testing.” Journal of Management Studies, 31(4): 457-480.
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 5 -
Course OutlinePaper Presentations – Exemplary Papers
# Focus Paper details8. Qualitative study
(single case study)Vaughan, D. (1990). “Autonomy, Interdependence, and Social Control: NASA and The Space Shuttle Challenger.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 35: 225-257.
9. Conceptual study Grant, R.M. (1996). “Toward a Knowledge-Based Theory of the Firm.” Strategic Management Journal, 17: 109-122.
10. Experimental research
Meloy, M.G., Fusso, L.E. and E.G. Miller (2006). “Monetary Incentives and Mood.” Journal of Marketing Research, 43: 267–275.
11. Quantitative research
Levitt, S. and S. Venkatesh (2000). “An Economic Analysis of a Drug-Selling Gang's Finances.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(3): 755–89.
12. Participant observation
Bourgois, P. and J. Schonberg (2007). “Intimate Apartheid: Ethnic Dimensions of Habitus Among Homeless Heroin Injectors.” Ethnography, 8(1): 7-32.
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 6 -
Course OutlineIndividual Evaluation
Basis for current evaluation – Class participation and contributions– Group assignment and presentation
Basis for final evaluation – Research proposal
Grading policy 60% - Research proposal 20% - Course participation and contributions20% - Presentation
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 7 -
Course OutlineIndividual Evaluation – Research Proposal
26th EGOS Colloquium: Lisboa, Portugal, July 1–3, 2010
Deadline for submission of short papers to sub-themes: January 10, 2010
46 sub-themes Further information: www.egosnet.org
Submission of Research Proposals:
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 8 -
Course NavigatorClass 1 | Introduction
Research Design1
Introduction
Summary
Research Methodologies
Research Style
2
3
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 9 -
Course NavigatorClass 1 | Introduction
Research Design1
Introduction
Summary
Research Methodologies
Research Style
2
3
Philosophy of Research
Instrumental Notions
Ethics in Research
B
C
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Induction and Deduction Methods
Falsifiability Trade-offs in Theory
Building
D
Qualitative Research DefinitionA
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 10 -
IntroductionQualitative Research
What is qualitative research?
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 11 -
IntroductionQualitative Research and Methods
Qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them
Focus
Investigate the why and how, not just what, where, whenQuestions
Small and focused sample, rather than large and random sampleSample
Definition of Qualitative Research
Source: Based on Denzin, (1994).
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 12 -
IntroductionQualitative vs. Quantitative Research
How do qualitative methods differ from quantitative?
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 13 -
IntroductionQualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Exploratory
Inductive in nature
Theory building - used to explain new phenomenon or puzzling quantitative results
Qualitative Methods
Confirmatory
Deductive in nature
Theory testing - used to test hypotheses
Quantitative Methods
The strength of qualitative research lies in establishing content validity -do measures measure what a researcher thinks they measure?
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 14 -
IntroductionInduction vs. Deduction Methods
Two Methods of Reasoning
Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning
From the more general to the more specific
“Top-down" approach
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Deduction (Quantitative)
ObservationFinding
Theory FindingObservation
Theory
Induction (Qualitative) From specific observations to
broader generalisations and theories “Bottom up" approach
Deductive reasoning is more narrow in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses
Most social research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 15 -
IntroductionInduction: Example of Gravitation Law
In the inductive logic, all observations that seem to validate the theory, do not prove its truth
One counter-example can prove the theory is false
OR
If A implies B Then not B implies
not A
Newton’s law of gravitation was considered true for over 170 years
All observations seemed to validate his equation Eventually, telescopes became powerful enough to see a
slight discrepancy in the orbit of Mercury It was the General Relativity theory developed by Einstein that
first explained this discrepancy One counter-example (Mercury’s orbit) was sufficient to prove
that there was something wrong with Newton’s theory So far, Einstein’s theory of General Relativity has been
supported by all observations But Einstein’s theory now has the same status as Newton’s
theory of gravitation prior to Mercury’s case: It is highly credible and validated with all knowledge
available, but it is not proven It is only the best we have at this point in time
Source: www.wikipedia.org
SummaryInductive Logic
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 16 -
Research MethodologiesFalsifiability (1)
- 16 -
A hypothesis, proposition, or theory is scientific if it is falsifiable.
Adapted from Karl Popper
Source: www.wikipedia.org
Example: “All men are mortal” - unfalsifiable“All men are immortal” - falsifiable – e.g. one dead man
Unfalsifiable theory can not be proved as true or false
Not all statements that are falsifiable in principle are falsifiable in practice
Unfalsifiable statements are important for science, they exist in scientific theories as unfalsifiable consequences
Example: “All men are mortal” is a consequence of the falsifiable theory that “every man dies before he reaches the age of 200 years“
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 17 -
Research MethodologiesFalsifiability (2)
- 17 -
Source: www.wikipedia.org
Metaphysical research program – Popper’s definition for the abstract unfalsifiable ideas
Example: Ancient abstract idea of the existence of atoms led to corresponding falsifiable modern theories
Statements are senseless if they cannot be verified or falsified
Positivism
Popper’s falsifiability is merely a special case of the more general notion of criticisability
Falsifiability
Falsification is one of the most effective methods by which theories can be criticized
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 18 -
IntroductionFalsifiability Question
How important is falsifiability criterion for quantitative methods?
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 19 -
Research MethodologiesTheory Building Involves Trade-Offs
Is usually accurate and generalisable, but often overly complex
- 19 -
Source: Weick, (1979).
Theory Can be Assessed Along Three Dimensions:
Simplicity - ease of understanding and application Accuracy - conformity to the truth Generalisability - extension to other domains
Any single method of data collection results in trade-offs in the theory’s simplicity, generalisability and accuracy
Might be simple and generalisable, but lacks accuracy
Qualitative research Quantitative research
The solution is to build theory By alternating among methods By alternating among sets of data that provide one or more of dimensions By incorporating complementary research conducted by others
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 20 -
Research MethodologiesExample: Linking Qualitative and Quantitative Data
- 20 -
Source: Weick, (1979).
Example One Qualitative (continuous, integrated collection
of both Quantitative kinds of data)
Quantitative wave 1 wave 2 wave 3
Qualitative continuous fieldwork
Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative(exploration) (questionnaire) (deepen, test findings)
Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative(survey) (fieldwork) (experiment,
confirmation)
Example Two
Example Three
Example Four
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 21 -
Research MethodologiesExample: Induction in Physical and Social Sciences
- 21 -
In physical sciences three laws can explain 99 percent of behaviour, whereas in finance (and management) 99 laws can explain
at best three percent of behaviour.
Adapted from: Andrew Lo (MIT, Sloan School of Management)
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 22 -
Course NavigatorClass 1 | Introduction
Research Design1
Introduction
Summary
Research Methodologies
Research Style
2
3
Philosophy of Research
Instrumental Notions
Ethics in Research
B
C
The Logic of Qualitative Research
Epistemology and Methodology
Positivism Postpositivism Critical Realism Subjective-Objective
Debate Criteria of Good Theory Scientific Revolutions History of Social Studies
D
Qualitative Research DefinitionA
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 23 -
IntroductionThe Logic of Qualitative Research
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
The Qualitative Researcher’s Logic: The best way to understand any phenomenon is to view it in its context
All quantifications are limited in nature and look only at one small portion of a reality that cannot be split without losing the importance of the whole phenomenon
Frequently, the best way to understand phenomenon is to become immersed in it
Rather than approaching measurement with the idea of constructing a fixed instrument or set of questions, the researcher allows questions to emerge and change as (s)he becomes familiar with the phenomenon
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 24 -
IntroductionPhilosophy of Research – Epistemology and Methodology
Two Approaches to Knowledge
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Epistemology
The philosophy of knowledge or of how we come to know the world
From Greek word epistêmê –knowledge
Methodology
The practice - is also concerned with how we come to know
Focused on the specific ways - the methods - that we can use to try to understand our world better
Epistemology and methodology are closely related
Qualitative and quantitative researchers usually operate under different epistemological assumptions and use different methodologies
Qualitative - Quantitative Debate is Philosophical
The choice of epistemological approach defines the choice of methods
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 25 -
IntroductionPhilosophy and Approaches to Qualitative Research
Positivism
Approach
Objectivism
Subjectivism
Philosophy
Postpositivism
Critical Realism
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 26 -
IntroductionPhilosophy of Research – Positivism (1)
Positivism Positivism is a philosophy that holds that the only authentic knowledge is based
on actual sense experience The purpose of science is to focus on what can be observed and measured Metaphysical (from Greek μετά (beyond) and φυσικά (physical)) speculation
is avoided
The key scientific method of positivism – empiricism - states that knowledge arises from experience Experiment is the main approach to discern natural laws through direct
observation All hypotheses and theories must be tested based on observations of the
natural world, rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Science is considered to be empirical in nature
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 27 -
IntroductionPhilosophy of Research – Positivism (2)
Universalism - processes can be reduced to physiological, physical, or chemical events
Neglect of human behaviour While it predicts behaviour of groups in terms of probability, it fails to explain
the behaviour of each individual Underestimates the role of observer who could unintentionally bias or distort
the event
Social reality produced by positivism is artificially conservative
Criticism of Positivism
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 28 -
IntroductionPhilosophy of Research – Postpositivism (1)
Postpositivism Postpositivism/Postempiricism is a philosophy and a model of scientific inquiry,
that attempts to reconcile the main criticisms made of positivism Human knowledge is not based on unchallengeable foundations, rather it is
conjectural There are real grounds for asserting beliefs These grounds can be modified or withdrawn in the light of further
investigation
Objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon It is what multiple individuals are trying to achieve when they criticise each
other's work Perfect objectivity can never be achieved, but it can be approached
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 29 -
IntroductionPhilosophy of Research – Postpositivism (2)
Postpositivism and Methodology Because all measurements are fallible, the postpositivism emphasizes the
importance of multiple measures and observations
Each observation may possess errors Triangulation should be used across multiple sources to achieve a more
truthful reflection of reality
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Theories that survive such intense scrutiny are similar to species that survive in the evolutionary struggle of variation, selection, and retention
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 30 -
IntroductionPhilosophy of Research – Critical Realism
Critical Realism Critical realism - there is a reality independent of researcher’s thinking about
it, that science can study All observations are fallible and have errors All theories are revisable
Critical realism is critical of human ability to know reality with certainty
The goal of science is to find the truth about reality
This goal can never be achieved
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 31 -
IntroductionSubjective – Objective Debate within Social Science
Basic Assumptions of the Subjective - Objective Debate
Source: Morgan and Smircich, (1980).
Subjectivist Approaches Objectivist Approachesto Social Science to Social Science
Core Ontological Assumptions
Reality as a projection of human imagination
Reality as a social construction
Reality as a realm of symbolic discourse
Reality as a contextual field of information
Reality as a concrete process
Reality as a concrete structure
Assumptions about Human Nature
Man as pure spirit, consciousness, being
Man as a social constructor, the symbol creator
Man as an actor, the symbol user
Man as an information processor
Man as anadaptor
Man as a responder
Basic Epistemological Stance
To obtain phenomenological insight, revelation
To understand how social reality is created
To understand patterns of symbolic discourse
To map contexts
To study systems, process, change
To construct a positivist science
Some Metaphors
Transcendental Accomplishment, text
Theater, culture
Cybernetic Organism Machine
Research Methods
Exploration ofpure subjectivity
Hermeneutics (interpretation theory)
Symbolic analysis
Contextual analysis of Gestalten
Historical analysis
Lab experiment, survey
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 32 -
IntroductionCriteria of Good Theory (1)
Source: Adapted from Kuhn, (1977).
Empirically adequate with experimentation and observationAccurate
Internally consistent, but also externally consistent with other theoriesConsistent
A theory's consequences should extend beyond that which it was initially designed to explain
Broad Scope
The simplest explanationSimple
A theory should disclose new phenomena or new relationships among phenomenaFruitful
Generalisable
1
2
3
4
Independent of philosophical position and approach criteria of good research remain the same
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 33 -
IntroductionCriteria of Good Theory (2)
Source: Adapted from Kuhn, (1977).
For any theory or research project the question of relevance or
WHY? Should be asked first
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 34 -
IntroductionScientific Revolutions
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Source: Kuhn, (1962).
Science does not progress via a linear accumulation of new knowledge, but undergoes periodic revolutions or "paradigm shifts“, in which both philosophy and practice within a particular field are abruptly transformed
Science is Broken Up Into Three Distinct Stages of Development:
Prescience - lacks a central paradigm, comes first Development of New
Paradigm
Frequent Anomalies
Crisis of Normal Science
Scientific Revolution
Pre-paradigm Phase
Normal Science
Revolutionary science - as anomalous results build up, science reaches a crisis, at which point a new paradigm is accepted. New paradigm subsumes old results along with anomalous results into one framework
Normal science - scientists attempt to enlarge the central paradigm by "puzzle-solving"
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 35 -
IntroductionHistory of Social Studies
Timeline of Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Development in Social Studies Qualitative research is one of the first forms of social studies
Quantitative revolution - qualitative methodologies diminish in importance - their reach is limited to anthropology and sociology, with substitute terms used for other fields e.g. ethnography, fieldwork, participant observation and Chicago School sociology
Qualitative research regains recognition and is widely applied in various disciplines, including application for business purposes
Heavy criticism of quantitative methods leads to development of new methods of qualitative research that address perceived problems of reliability and imprecise modes of data analysis
Broad acceptance of qualitative research in academia as valid scientific methodology, e.g. by journal publishers and editors
1950 1960
1970
1980 1990
20002009
Source: www.wikipedia.org
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 36 -
Course NavigatorClass 1 | Introduction
Research Design1
Introduction
Summary
Research Methodologies
Research Style
2
3
Philosophy of Research
Instrumental Notions
Ethics in Research
B
C
Structure of Research Research Question Types of Relationships Hypotheses Unit of Analysis Errors in Reasoning
D
Qualitative Research DefinitionA
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 37 -
IntroductionStructure of Research
Traditional Research Structure Can be Compared to the Shape of Hourglass
Research question Research method Hypotheses Unit of analysis Observation Data analysis Conclusions Generalisation
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 38 -
IntroductionMajor Types of Research Questions
Descriptive Questions
Example: A public opinion poll that seeks to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions
Describe what is going on or what exists
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Example: A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say they would vote for a particular political party - relationship between gender and voting preference
Example: A public opinion poll that tries to determine whether a political advertising campaign changed voter preferences -whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters (effect)
Look at the relationships between two or more variables
Determine whether one or more variables causes or affects one or more outcome variables
Relational Questions Causal Questions
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 39 -
IntroductionMajor Types of Research Questions
Where do you see the largest part of management research?
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 40 -
IntroductionTypes of Relationships (1)
Example: A city’s ice cream sales and the number of ice stands
The relationship where two variables perform in a synchronised manner
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Correlation does not imply causation
The relationship between an event (the cause) and a second event (the effect), where the second event is a direct consequence of the first
The misleading correlation between two variables is produced through the operation of a third causal variable
Example: A city's ice cream sales and the rate of drownings in city’s swimming pools
Example: Ice cream sales and hot weather
Correlation Causal Relationship Spurious Relationship
Relational Questions Causal Questions
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 41 -
IntroductionFreakonomics: Example of Spurious Relationship
Crime and Abortion in the US
Abortion1973 – Roe v. Wade case - abortion made legal in the US Typical child who went unborn was 50 percent more likely than average to live in poverty, 60
percent more likely to grow with one parent Predictors of criminal future: Poverty, single parent household, teenage mother, low
maternal educationSource: Donohue and Levitt, (2001).
Common Crime-Drop Explanations # of Citations Innovative policing strategies 52 Increased reliance on prisons 47 Changes in crack and other drug markets 33 Aging of the population 32 Tougher gun control laws 28 All other explanations 34
United States – rapid decline of crime rate in the 1990s
Causal (independent) variable
Correlation factors
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 42 -
IntroductionFreakonomics: Example of Spurious Relationship
How could this spurious relationship be tested?
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 43 -
IntroductionTypes of Relationships (2)
Patterns of Relationships
Sources: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Values on one variable are unconnected to values on the otherNo relationship
High values on one variable are associated with high values on the other / low values on one are associated with low values on the other
Positive relationship
Implies that high values on one variable are associated with low values on the other
Negative (inverse) relationship
E.g. curvilinear relationshipOther relationships
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 44 -
IntroductionExample of Curvilinear Relationship
Income vs. Propensity to Intoxication
Sources: www.economist.com
A recent study has shown that consumption of cigarettes, alcohol, and drugs in the UK is dominated by poor and very rich
Immobility of British society – a father’s income determines that of a son more than in any other rich country (OECD report, 2008)
Positions in life fixed at the top and bottom
Reasons:
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 45 -
IntroductionTime Horizon
Cross-Sectional StudyTakes place at a single point in time, captures a 'slice' or cross-section of whatever is observed or measured
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Takes place over time, there are at least two and often more waves of measurement involved Repeated measures – could be both qualitative and quantitative, involve two or
more measurements (usually less than 20) Time series – quantitative waves of measurement over time (requires at least 20
observations)
Longitudinal Study
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 46 -
IntroductionHypotheses
When are Hypotheses Needed? A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for an observable phenomenon, it
describes what is expected to happen in the study
Hypotheses can be tested
Not all studies require hypotheses
Exploratory (inductive) studies do not require formal hypotheses as they explore the field in order to develop hypotheses that can be tested in future research
Hypothetical (deductive) studies use alternative hypothesis that serves as prediction and supposed to be supported by the study and null hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 47 -
IntroductionUnit of Analysis
Patterns of Relationships The unit of analysis is the major entity that is being analysed in the study
It is the 'what' or 'whom' that is being studied
Units of analysis in social science research include: Individuals Groups Geographical units (e.g. town, census tract, state) Social interactions (e.g. dyadic relations, divorces, arrests) Artefacts (e.g. books, photos, newspapers)
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 48 -
IntroductionErrors in Reasoning
Errors Based on Mistaken Assumptions Ecological fallacy occurs when conclusions about individuals are based only on
analyses of group data
Exception fallacy is a reverse of the ecological fallacy – it occurs when a group conclusion is reached on the basis of exceptional cases
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 49 -
Course NavigatorClass 1 | Introduction
Research Design1
Introduction
Summary
Research Methodologies
Research Style
2
3
Philosophy of Research
Instrumental Notions
Ethics in Research
B
C
Treatment of Research Participants
Scientific Misconduct
D
Qualitative Research DefinitionA
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 50 -
IntroductionEthics in Research – Treatment of Research Participants
Basic Rules Principle of voluntary participation requires that people not be coerced into
participating in research
This includes requirement of informed consent - prospective research participants must be fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in research and must give their consent to participate
Confidentiality – participants are assured that identifying information will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study
Anonymity – stricter standard – participant will remain anonymous throughout the study – potentially even to the researchers themselves. While the anonymity standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy, it is sometimes difficult to accomplish, especially in situations where participants have to be measured at multiple time points (e.g. pre-post study)
Source: www.socialresearchmethods.net
Protect against human experimentation at all costs
Allow anyone who is willing to be experimented onDilemma
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 51 -
IntroductionEthics in Research – Scientific Misconduct
Three Types of Research Misconduct
Source: U.S. National Science Foundation
Making up of results and recording or reporting them (e.g. only reporting positive outcomes and not adverse outcomes)Fabrication
Manipulation of research data and processes in order to change data/results or prevent a certain result
Reverse engineering – testing data, then formulating hypotheses
Falsification
Appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit
Citation plagiarism – wilful or negligent failure to appropriately credit other or prior discoverers. Also known as "citation amnesia“ or "disregard syndrome“. Arguably, this is the most common type of scientific misconduct
Plagiarism
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 52 -
Course NavigatorClass 1 | Introduction
Research Design1
Introduction
Summary
Research Methodologies
Research Style
2
3
Philosophy of Research
Instrumental Notions
Ethics in Research
B
C
D
Qualitative Research DefinitionA
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 53 -
IntroductionSummary (1)
Qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them
Qualitative methods are usually used for theory building – they are exploratory and inductive in nature
Quantitative methods are usually used for theory testing – they are confirmatory and deductive in nature
Theory can be assessed along three dimensions: Simplicity Accuracy Generalisability
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 54 -
IntroductionSummary (2)
Positivism is a philosophy that holds that the only authentic knowledge is based on actual sense experience Positivism neglects human behaviour as it predicts behaviour of groups in
terms of probability and fails to explain the behaviour of each individual
Postpositivism/Postempiricism attempts to reconcile the main criticisms made of positivism Objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social
phenomenon Postpositivism emphasizes the importance of multiple measures and
observations
Critical realism is critical of human ability to know reality with certainty
Science does not progress via a linear accumulation of new knowledge, but undergoes periodic revolutions or "paradigm shifts“, in which both philosophy and practice within a particular field are abruptly transformed
Research Design, Methods, and StyleClass I – Introduction - 55 -
IntroductionSummary (3)
Ecological fallacy occurs when conclusions about individuals are based only on analyses of group data, exception fallacy occurs when a group conclusion is reached on the basis of exceptional cases
Ethical research is based on principles of: Voluntary participation Informed consent Confidentiality/anonymity
Research misconduct encompasses: Fabrication – making up of results Falsification – manipulation/reengineering of research data Plagiarism – appropriation of another person’s ideas or results without
giving a fair credit