‘Qualitative content analysis’, coding and computer-assisted

data analysis

Dr Alice MahSocial Research Methods

Outline

Introduction‘Qualitative content analysis’Grounded theory and codingComputer-aided qualitative data analysisPrinciples and techniques of data codingAdvantages and limitations to computer-

aided qualitative data analysis Conclusion

Introduction

What do you do once you have collected your qualitative data (field notes, interview transcripts, documents, photos, etc.)?

There are various methods of analysing qualitative data:grounded theorysemiotic analysisconversation analysisnarrative analysisdiscourse analysis,

Some of these methods are very specialized and linked to particular epistemologies (and we will discuss two, discourse and narrative analysis, next week). BUT..

‘Qualitative content analysis’ (Seale 2004)Seale (2004, p. 300) argues that most qualitative data analysis

shares a ‘very common activity of looking for interesting things in data’, what he terms ‘qualitative content analysis’ or ‘interpretive analysis’.

The ‘common activity’ generally involves searching for key themes, as well as some form of coding (or categorizing, labelling, or indexing).

We will discuss this ‘common activity’ through the example of grounded theory, linked to the development of systematic qualitative coding (of themes, categories, etc)

GROUNDED THEORY AND CODING

Grounded Theory: origins

Introduced by Glaser and Strauss (The Discovery of Grounded Theory, 1967):

Opposed to the testing of old theories (anti-Grand Theory and anti-positivist)

Exploratory, constant comparative methodOften used in qualitative and ethnographic studiesGenerates theory inductively through analysis of

empirical dataLimited role for pre-existing theoryTends to generate middle-range theory

Grounded Theory:

“[It] is not really a specific method or technique. Rather, it is a style of doing qualitative analysis that includes a number of distinct features, such as the theoretical sampling, and certain methodological guidelines, such as the making of constant comparisons and the use of coding paradigm, to ensure conceptual development and density” (Strauss 1987: 5)

Theory generalisation: the method of constant comparison

Theoretical sampling data collection is controlled by the emerging theory

Stages of analysisI. Coding into categories

comparison of coded incidents ideas about properties of categories

II. Integration of categories and their properties interaction of properties interaction of different categories

III. Theoretical saturation no new properties or categories appear and no new interactions

occurIV. Writing the (substantive) theory

chapter headings – categories and interactions section headings – properties illustrative examples – coded data

*see Seale 1999, pp. 96-97

Key termsPhenomena – central ideas in the data represented as

conceptsConcepts – the building blocks of theory (conceptual labels

placed on discrete happenings, events, and other instances of phenomena)

Categories –a classification of concepts (more abstract than concepts, ie. concepts that stand for phenomena)

Properties – characteristics of a categories, the delineation of which defines and gives it meaning

Subcategories – concepts that pertain to a category, giving it further clarification and specification

Memos – the researcher’s record of analysis, thoughts, interpretations, questions, and directions of further data collection

(Strauss and Corbin 1998, pp. 101, 110)

Coding data: Strauss and Corbin 1998

Further development of the grounded theory approach in the 1970-90s.

Coding: the process of analyzing data Inductive and iterative process Strauss and Corbin: three ways of coding data:

i. Open codingii. Axial codingiii. Selective coding

Open coding

“The process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data…”

“naming and categorising phenomena through close examination of data” broader or more comprehensive and more abstract labels insightful labels“borrowed” concepts “in vivo” codes (catchy terms)(see Strauss & Corbin 1998, p. 115, and ‘Open Coding’,

chapter 44 in Seale 2004)

Further elaboration of Open Coding (through constant comparison):

Axial Coding“microanalysis” of a single category, exploring its

conditions, contexts, action/interaction and consequences

Selective Codingemergence of theoryselection of a single ‘core category’ (all other

categories have a subsidiary role)

Modes of coding

Helpful to think about two different modes of coding (Kelle 2000, p. 295):

1.referential, as signposts to certain text passages (open, inductive and interpretive)

2.factual (more deductive and related to classic content analysis)

Criticisms of Grounded TheoryInductive vs. deductive?

presence of theory before data collection and testing theory in the course of research (e.g. research question, researcher’s training, etc)

Data dependencyHigh risk of superficial strategiesCritique from postmodernism

the narrow analytic strategy – heavy reliance on coding standardized and mechanistic procedures fragmented and decontextualized data single, exclusive interpretation of data (researcher’s control

over data and analysis)non-reflexive approach (relational nature of the qualitative

research is not acknowledged)

Beyond grounded theory: coding as a ‘common activity’ Grounded theory has been very helpful and

influential re: the development of systematic qualitative coding and analysis

BUT the principles and techniques of coding can be applied more generally to the ‘common activity’ of ‘qualitative content analysis’ or ‘interpretive analysis’, without maintaining the theoretical limitations of classic grounded theory

ie. coding ≠ (is not equal to) grounded theory

COMPUTER-AIDED QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Computer-aided qualitative data analysis and grounded theory

Computer-aided qualitative data analysis is often connected to the grounded theory approach (Strauss and Corbin):

Theoretical foundationPrinciple of codingComparison techniques

BUT computer software for qualitative data can also be used with other forms of qualitative analysis

Computer-aided analysis and grounded theory share many of the same advantages and limitations

Computer-aided qualitative data analysisComputer software for qualitative data

analysis (Nvivo, ATLAS/ti, ETHNOGRAPH, NUD*ist)

software packages: ‘tools to mechanize tasks of ordering and archiving texts… for “data administration” and archiving rather than tools for “data analysis”’ (Kelle 2000: 285)

Kelle, U (2000), Computer-assisted analysis: coding and indexing, in M. Bauer and G. Gaskell (eds) Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound. London: Sage, pp. 282-298.

Searching for text in NVivo (Gibbs in Seale 2004, pp. 306-311)Much of qualitative analysis consists of “looking for things in

the text”Coding and analytic ideas (creating nodes in Nvivo, with

hierarchies reflecting concepts and categories)Checking completeness: searching for “negative cases” that

don’t fit the pattern or theory we think we have discoveredMetaphors: use of imagery as rhetorical device (often

‘standard’ metaphors, eg. ‘passing away’, ‘getting hitched’)Accounts: narratives where people try to account for, justify,

excuse, legitimate and so on their actions or their situation.

Advantages of computer-aided qualitative data analysisEfficient, save time, assist the management of

larger samples, good for research teamsCan make the research process more

systematic and explicit, which makes it seem more valid or trustworthy

Can enhance the researcher’s creativity, by allowing more time to experiment and play with the data

(Kelle 2000, pp. 293-294)

Limitations of computer-aided qualitative data analysisCan become overwhelmed by larger samples and the

wider volume of data that the software can technically manage.

Larger samples and more software tools/functions does not necessarily make the research more valid.

Could potentially alienate researchers from their data and impose methodological approaches (ie. grounded theory) which overemphasise coding and neglect other forms of textual analysis.

Conclusion

‘Qualitative content analysis’ (or: coding, or: thematic analysis, or: interpretive analysis) is a way of describing the ‘common activity’ of analysing qualitative data

Qualitative data analysis may be done with or without the assistance of qualitative computer software (e.g. Nvivo)

Computer aided qualitative data analysis shares many advantages and disadvantages with grounded theory.

BUT these software packages are primary tools to assist with qualitative research and can also help facilitate different forms and methods of qualitative analysis.

Seminars this week

Download Nvivo to laptopsWatch Nvivo tutorials and review help files.‘Getting up and started with NVivo’http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oelXFnJ-7Ms

Bring documents for analysisDo readings for discussion and ‘manual’

coding exercise