Qualitative and Mixed Research Methods - RTU e-studiju · PDF file ·...
Transcript of Qualitative and Mixed Research Methods - RTU e-studiju · PDF file ·...
Qualitative and Mixed
Research Methods
Elias A. Hadzilias, Dr. Eng. NTUA
October 2011
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Agenda
Course information
Epistemological perspectives
Qualitative research strategies
Research design elements
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Learning outcomes
Demonstrate knowledge of the theoretical foundations of qualitative and mixed methods research
Develop a practical application of qualitative theory to research and evaluation
Understand qualitative approaches to research and implications of each approach in respect to research design methodologies
Apply the methods and concepts of qualitative research
Synthesize information from different sources and present it in an organised and meaningful report
Design and evaluate a qualitative research project
Formulate your own research agenda your doctoral studies
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Evaluation
The RTU doctoral students will be evaluated on the basis of an individual course project of 2000 words that has the following requirements: identify a specific phenomenon to be studied
conduct a brief literature review
articulate a rationale for the use of qualitative methodology
select a qualitative tradition to study the identified phenomenon
create research questions and suggest data collection and data analysis methods.
Students are not required to conduct data collection and/or analysis. They should only recommend suitable methods.
This individual course project will be sent electronically to the lecturer in a Word (doc/docx) or Acrobat Reader (pdf) format at [email protected] by Monday 21/11/2011 18:00 GMT.
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Systems, Research, Applied vs Basic
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What is a system?
What is a system?
A system is a group of connected entities and activities which interact for a common purpose. e.g. the car is a system in which all the components operate together to provide transportation.
Easy answer – the story behind how something happens (e.g. why the house gets warmer when you turn on the thermostat)
Hard answer – What isn’t a system? Where does one end and another begin?
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Open and closed systems
Closed – if you understand the parts you understand the system; probably not a critical human element
Open – the system is greater than the sum of the parts; critical human elements; interaction with the environment; difficult to draw a line where the system ends and other systems or environments begin
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System characteristics
A Goal or Objective
Input
Process
Control
Feedback/Monitor
Output
Environment
Boundary
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What determines the complexity of a system?
Number of elements
Interrelationship of elements
Interrelationship of system with other systems
Interrelationship of system with environment
Completeness of system knowledge
Completeness of environmental knowledge
Multiplicity and impact of perspectives
Extent of human element
Reality as perception
Unpredictability
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A mechanical system
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A manufacturing system
Manufacturing Process
Input of Raw Materials
Output of Finished Products
Environment
Other Systems
Control by Management
Control Signals
Control Signals
Feedback Signals
Feedback Signals
System Boundary
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A socio-technical system
A system where humans and machines exist / work together, for instance in a production process.
Information systems in organisations are typically such systems
Developing such systems requires consideration to the needs of both machines and the humans.
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A management system
Procedures
People
Facilities Software
Tools
Materials
Equipment
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Entropy and information
Entropy ≈ a measurement of disorder
Information ≈ a measurement of order
There is always a difference in entropy between a system and its environment, since system means some kind of order.
Energy is required to maintain a system (the second law of thermodynamics)
Who provides that energy?
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The strategy to see systems
“Divide et impera" represents the idea of splitting a large system into manageable components.
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The cognitive process
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Sequential Thinking
Spatial Thinking
Text Requirements
Modelling Support
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What is research
Dictionary:
Scholarly or scientific investigation or inquiry.
Close, careful study.
To study (something) thoroughly so as to present in a detailed, accurate manner
Re-Search
Diligent inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; laborious or continued search after truth; as, researches of human wisdom.
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Nature of research
Systematic – plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate
Logical – examine procedures to evaluate conclusions
Empirical – decisions are based on data (observation)
Reductive – general relationships are established from data
Replicable – actions are recorded
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Basic vs. applied research
Basic research – type of research that may have limited direct application but in which the researcher has careful control of the conditions
Applied research – type of research that has direct value to practitioners but in which the researcher has limited control over the research setting
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Applied research
Applied research is concerned, first and foremost, with the usefulness and application of knowledge.
Its primary focus is on the production of knowledge that is practical and has immediate application to pressing problems of concern to society at large or to specific public or private research clients.
It is research that is designed to engage with people, organisations and interests and is aimed to inform human services, public policy, and other local, national, and international decision makers.
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Applied research approach (Ackoff, 1962)
1. Formulating the problem
2. Constructing the model
3. Testing the model
4. Deriving a solution from the model
5. Testing and controlling the solution
6. Implementing the solution
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Qualitative research basics
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What is qualitative research?
Denzin and Lincoln (1994) define qualitative research:
Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals' lives.
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Another definition
Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary field. It crosses the humanities and the social and physical sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the same time. It is multiparadigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach. They are committed to the naturalistic perspective and to the interpretative understanding of human experience. At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped by multiple ethical and political positions.
Nelson et al (1992, p.4)
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…and another definition
Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting.
Creswell (1998, p.15)
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Quantitative research definition
Quantitative research is concerned with identifying relationships between variables, and generalising those results to the world at large.
e.g. Winglets and carbon emissions?
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How quan and qual see the world…
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Qualitative research tools
Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of
a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal
experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational,
historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine
and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives.
Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping
always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.
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The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur
Bricoleur
A ‘Jack of all trades or kind of professional DIY person’
Produces a bricolage, that is a pieced together, close-knit set of practices that provide solutions to a problem in a concrete situation
The solution which is a result of the bricoleurs method is an emergent construction that changes and takes new forms as different tools, methods and techniques are added to the puzzle.
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The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur uses the tools of his methodological trade.
The choice of research practices depends upon the questions that are asked, and the questions depend on their context, what is available in the context, and what the researcher can do in that setting.
The Bricoleur is performing a large number of diverse tasks ranging from interviewing to observing, to interpreting personal and historical documents, to intensive self-reflection and introspection.
The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur
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The bricoleur understands that research is an interactive process shaped by his own personal history, biography, gender, social class, race, and ethnicity and those of the people in the setting.
The product of the bricoleur’s labour is a bricolage, a complex, dense, reflexive, collage-like creation that represents the researchers images, understanding and interpretations of the world or phenomenon under analysis.
The bricolage will connect the parts to the whole, stressing the meaningful relationships that operate in the situations and social worlds studied.
The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur
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Qualitative research attributes
Less use of positivist or postpositivist perspectives
Acceptance of postmodern sensibilities
Capturing the individual’s point of view
Examining the constraints of everyday life
Securing rich descriptions
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General characteristics of qualitative research
Bogdan and Biklen (1998) describe five general features of qualitative research:
The natural setting is a direct source and key element
Collection is in the form of words or pictures
Researchers are concerned with how things occur
Construction of a picture while data is being collected vs. knowing what to expect
Special interest in the participants’ thoughts
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Qualitative vs. quantitative paradigms: understanding the difference
What can be known?
The ontological question
What is the relationship of the knower to that which can
be known?
The epistemological question
What are the ways of finding out knowledge?
How do we know the world or gain knowledge of it?
The methodological question
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What can be known? (the ontological question)
Quantitative
There exists a single reality independent of any observer’s interest in it
Reality operates according to natural laws, many of which take cause-effect form
Qualitative
There are multiple socially
constructed realities
Realities are ungoverned
by any natural laws
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What is the relationship of the knower to the known? (the epistemological question)
Quantitative
Objectivist
The observer is detached and excludes any values from influencing the phenomena
Qualitative
Subjectivist
Interactive - researcher and the researched are connected
Findings are a creation of the research process
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How do we know the world or gain knowledge of it? (the methodological question)
Quantitative
Interventionist
Confounding influences are controlled to be able to converge on truth
Based on observation and measurement
Priori hypotheses
Deductive (general to particular)
Qualitative
Hermeneutic
A continuing dialectic of iteration, analysis, critique, reiteration…
Leads to joint construction of a case, phenomena and/or theory
Inductive (particular to general)
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Quantitative Knowledge
Key Approach:
survey & experiment
Explanation
Prediction and control
Generalisation
Qualitative Knowledge
Key Approach:
interview & observation
Description
Sense making
Particularisation
Contextual
How do we know the world or gain knowledge of it? (the methodological question)
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Epistemological perspectives
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Epistemological perspectives
Table 1: Comparison among epistemological perspectives. From Koro-Ljungberg & Douglas (2008)
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Phenomenology
Phenomenology seeks to provide a description of the key elements of a phenomenon.
New meaning can be obtained by laying bare the essential aspects of a particular experience and describing what are the common, key elements that make up that experience.
Therefore, in phenomenology researchers ask for a description of the phenomenon that is readily apparent to conscious minds. They do not attempt to describe how individuals arrived at a particular meaning for the experience.
Van Manen noted that phenomenology always involves retrospective reflection on an experience. “ A person cannot reflect on lived experience while living through the experience. For example, if one tries to reflect on one’s anger while being angry, one finds that the anger has already changed or dissipated ” (1990, p. 90).
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Bracketing in phenomenology
The term “bracketing” is used to describe the attempt to set aside the meanings brought by both the researcher and the participants, in order to identify the true essence of the experience.
Thus, its goal is to identify the true essence of the experience, unfiltered by either the researcher or the person experiencing the phenomenon.
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Constructivism
Constructivism examines the meanings individuals create to describe the world around them.
Meaning occurs as a result of the individual’s interaction with the world and the particular biases of that individual.
Therefore, what is known does not simply mirror the real world; rather, the meanings ascribed to the real world are created by individuals as they experience it.
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Social constructionism
Similar to constructivism, and sometimes considered a subset of it, this perspective describes meanings as being socially constructed, as opposed to the individual construction of meaning in constructivism.
“…the focus here is not on the meaning-making activity of the individual mind but on the collective generation of meaning as shaped by the conventions of language and other social processes”
Meaning is created in a social context, through interactions between individuals.
Meaning reflects a shared sense of the world.
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Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism focuses on how people act towards the world around them, based on the meanings that are socially constructed, but interpreted by the individual.
This perspective focuses on obtaining understanding by placing oneself in the place of the individual.
The focus is on understanding the interactions between people and the world, based on the meanings given to the world by that individual.
In contrast to social constructionism, symbolic interactionism is very much uncritical. The researcher accepts the meanings put into place by the culture and explores their implications.
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Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics is primarily concerned with the analysis and interpretation of texts.
Interpretation proceeds through the hermeneutic circle, which can be used to describe the relationship between the text as a whole and its individual parts, between the object and the interpreter, and between the interpreter and the interpreter’s background
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The role of epistemological perspectives
Why epistemological perspectives are important?
To ensure that research designs are consistent with the assumed view of reality and to make the epistemological perspective explicit in the reporting of the research so that readers will understand the context in which the research was conducted.
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Example: industrial design teams operation
From a phenomenological perspective, the interest would center on the experience of being a part of a design team. The focus would be on describing what happens in a team and generating a description that captures the essence of how the team operates. The key question to ask would be: what are the essential elements of the experience of working in a design team?
From a social constructionist perspective, the interest would be on knowing how the design team creates a shared understanding of their activities, roles, or understanding of the design process. The researcher would want to ask the question: what are those understandings, and how did they develop?
From a critical perspective, the interest is with the power relationships in the design team. The researcher would be asking questions regarding how those power relationships were developed (formally or informally), how they influence the working of the group, and what effect they have on those seen not to be in power.
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Research strategies
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What is a research strategy?
A bundle of skills, assumptions, and practices that the researcher employs as he or she moves from paradigm to the empirical world.
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Research strategies according to Creswell (2007)
Narrative
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Ethnography
Case study
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Research strategies according to Meriam (2007)
Basic interpretive
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Case study
Ethnography
Narrative analysis
Critical research
Postmodern research
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Research strategies according to Denzin and Lincoln (2005)
Case study
Ethnography/participant observation/performance ethnography
Phenomenology/ethnomethodology
Grounded theory
Life history
Historical method
Action and applied research
Clinical research
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In this course
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Case study
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Ethnography
Ethnography is a description and interpretation of the cultural behaviour of a group. By culture is meant the behaviours, language, and social practices that define the unique aspects of that group. While one might typically think of a culture as referring to ethnicity or religion, any group (such as an institution or organisation), can be considered to have its own culture. Observation of a culture can be used to understand the meaning of the behaviour that occurs within that group.
Ethnography involves in-depth immersion by the researcher in the culture being studied. The researcher is often called a “participant-observer” in that the researcher becomes, as much as possible, a member of the group while at the same time collecting data. Data collection techniques involve interviews, collection of documents and other artifacts, and observations. Ethnographers often record their observations in a field notebook, where they can also record their personal thoughts and impressions. Analysis of the data involves both creating a description of the group’s behaviour as well as analysis of what that behaviour means.
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A strict definition of ethnography…
The behaviour of the group is understood by understanding the culturally shared meanings within the group
The study is conducted to understand meanings from the perspective of the people in the group
The group is studied in its natural setting
The design evolves during the study, rather than being pre-defined
A variety of data collection techniques are used within a single study
Data collection occurs over a long period of time
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Reading
Cognitive Chrono-Ethnography: A Method for Studying Behavioral Selections in Daily Activities
(Read INTRODUCTION in page 1)
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Phenomenology
As an epistemological perspective, phenomenology seeks to identify the single, invariant essence of the lived experience.
Phenomenology as a research strategy involves a set of methods and analysis techniques that are used to identify that essence.
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Procedural steps in phenomenology (Creswell, 2007)
1. An understanding of the philosophy of phenomenology, including the concept of bracketing, is needed.
2. Research questions are developed that are focused on having the participants describe their experiences.
3. Interviews are conducted with 5-25 participants who have experienced the phenomenon being investigated. The questions asked focus on how they have experienced the phenomenon and what contexts affect their experiences.
4. The data are analysed, typically by first dividing the transcripts into specific statements, clustering the statements based on psychological concepts, and then bringing these clusters together to create a general description of the experience.
5. The final description of the experience provides an understanding of the underlying, invariant structure that is common for all instances of the experience.
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Readings
The constitutive behaviour of granular soils under repeated dynamic loading (Leuven Arenberg Doctoral School Science, Engineering & Technology)
Phenomenology, a Framework for Participatory Design (Read PHENOMENOLOGY, PARTICIPATION & INTERACTION pages 1-2)
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Grounded theory
Theory generation from the ground up (data)
Theory that explores social processes – how people interact, take action, engage in response to a particular phenomenon
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Ground theory attributes
Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. As analysis occurs, missing elements are identified, which become targets for further data collection.
Data analysis proceeds through the constant comparative method, in which interview statements are coded, categorised and grouped to develop a theory.
Data collection proceeds until the categories are “saturated”, that is, until no new information is obtained with further data collection.
The theory developed is not necessarily high level theory. It is often what Creswell calls a “substantive-level theory”, which applies to the specific setting or context in which the data was collected.
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Reading
Incorporating Discount Usability in Extreme Programming
Read RESEARCH METHOD and THE INTERVIEWS in page 5.
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Case study
A case study is characterised by in-depth study of a bounded system.
The boundaries of the case may be defined in terms of time, space or participants. For example, a case may be a classroom, a particular event or an organisation. Within this broad definition of a case study, there are many possible approaches that can be taken, depending on the overall purpose of the study.
The intrinsic case study has as its focus an in-depth understanding of that particular case. The case is not chosen because it is representative of a more general phenomenon, but simply because it is interesting in and of itself.
The instrumental case study is chosen to provide insight into a more general phenomenon. The instrumental case may be chosen because it is representative of that phenomenon, or because it is unusual and provides a useful contrast to the typical case.
The collective case study involves study of several cases that, taken together, provide insight into the general phenomenon.
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Case study characteristics
The case has boundaries. Even if the boundaries are not obvious, the researcher needs to define boundaries to limit the case.
The case is a particular example of something.
In analysis the researcher attempts to maintain the case as a single unit. At the same time however, there is often a focus on particular aspects of the case.
A variety of data types and data collection methods are used.
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Another case study classification
In exploratory case studies, fieldwork, and data collection may be undertaken prior to definition of the research questions and hypotheses.
Explanatory cases are suitable for doing causal studies. In very complex and multivariate cases, the analysis can make use of pattern-matching techniques.
Descriptive cases require that the investigator begin with a descriptive theory, or face the possibility that problems will occur during the project. Descriptive theory must cover the depth and scope of the case under study.
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Reading
A combined methodology for transportation planning assessment. Application to a case study
Read the ABSTRACT (page 1) and the CONCLUSIONS (pages 13-14)
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Research design elements
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The elements
Research topic and questions
Rationale and significance
Epistemological perspective
Conceptualisation
Literature review
Data collection methods
Analysis methods
Reporting method
Logistics and timeline
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The qualitative research process
Identify the Research Question
Review the Literature
Write Report
Specify a Purpose and/or Question
Collect Data
Analyse & Interpret Data
Elias Hadzilias – SCD 2010 IESEG School of Management 71 Dr. Elias A. Hadzilias – RTU Wednesday 19/10/2011 71
The qualitative research process: the reality…
Identify the Research Question
Review the Literature
Write Report
Specify the Purpose and/or
Question Collect Data
Analyse & Interpret Data
Elias Hadzilias – SCD 2010 IESEG School of Management 72 Dr. Elias A. Hadzilias – RTU Wednesday 19/10/2011 72
Class activity
What is the problem definition and the research questions in your doctoral study?
Which epistemological perspective have you chosen and which research design?
Have you thought of the various design elements of your study? How do they fit in the categories identified (3.1.1-3.1.9)?
Elias Hadzilias – SCD 2010 IESEG School of Management 73 Dr. Elias A. Hadzilias – RTU Wednesday 19/10/2011 73
The qualitative research landscape
A Portrait
Individual Cultural Group
A Case
A Concept or Phenomenon
A Theory
(A Biography) An Ethnography
A Case Study
A Phenomenology
A Grounded Theory
Elias Hadzilias – SCD 2010 IESEG School of Management 74 Dr. Elias A. Hadzilias – RTU Wednesday 19/10/2011 74
Paldies!
Cпасибo!
Thank you!
Σας ευχαριστώ! (Sas efharistό)
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