The market for Welsh language mobile applications - a

developers’ perspective

Abstract

The introduction of the smartphone and mobile applications (apps) has significantly enhanced the opportunities for minority language provision on mobile phones. Despite their potential role in supporting and revitalising minority languages, minority language app markets remain practically unstudied.

Minority language app markets face obvious challenges due to their small absolute size (in terms of consumers, developers and apps) and their small relative size compared to the majority language app market. This paper examines the Apple (UK) App Store market for a specific minority language, Cymraeg (the Welsh language), providing a deeper understanding of the market from a developer’s perspective.

Data gathering was conducted using two methods; a census of apps and structured interviews. The census identified 439 Welsh language apps which were analysed to identify emergent characteristics and potentially significant factors in the market, which informed the subsequent interviews. Interviews were conducted with three highly active app development companies, representing about 2% of the developers and 9% of the apps identified in the census. An interview was also conducted with the Welsh Language Unit of the Welsh Government.

This paper weaves together the observations and data from the census with the qualitative responses from the interviews, to present a rich picture of the Welsh language app market in the Apple (UK) App Store. The paper concludes by suggesting ways in which the Welsh language app market could potentially be made more vital and sustainable.

While this paper focusses on the Welsh language app market, it provides a deeper understanding of minority language app markets more generally.

Keywords

Minority languages, smartphones, mobile phones, apps, mobile application market, Welsh,

Cymraeg

Introduction

According to the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, more than 1,200

languages are currently endangered and nearly 600 more are vulnerable (Mosley, 2010).

Many of these languages are experiencing language shift whereby, over time, speakers of a

minority language move to using a majority language instead (Fishman, 1991). As the

language loses its functional domains, it loses prestige and ultimately speakers lose

competence in the language. Among the indicators of a minority language’s vitality (and its

ability to resist language shift) are its use across multiple domains (Fishman, 1991) and the

extent to which the language is used by speakers in new domains and the media (UNESCO,

2013). The use of a minority language in new technological domains can bring a number of

additional benefits, including an association with modernity and proof of relevance to modern

lifestyles, which may be particularly important in retaining younger speakers (Eisenlohr,

2004).

The mobile phone has been one of the most significant new technologies to emerge in recent

years. In many communities, mobile phone ownership is simply assumed and in more remote

communities, mobile phones may be among the first modern communication technologies to

be used (Bird et al, 2014). The potential for mobile phones to support and revitalise minority

languages and the need for language activists, designers and developers to take action in this

domain have been recognised (e.g. by Holton, 2011 and Lackaff and Moner, 2016,

respectively). The Digital Language Survival Kit (Berger et al, 2018) suggests that apps can

provide a relatively easy way to gain wider public appreciation for a language.

In practice however, few minority languages are represented on mobile phones and even

when they are, there are often factors which may inhibit the use of those languages, including

poor translations, unfamiliar terminology, difficulties in producing diacritics, lack of spell-

checking, inappropriate autocorrect, inappropriate predictive text and inaccurate dictionaries

(Flemming and Debski, 2007; Lackaff and Moner, 2016; Mato et al, 2016; Mentrau Iaith,

2014). Thus, the experience of using a minority language on a mobile phone may be

significantly less good than using a majority language, potentially contributing towards

language shift.

The introduction of the smartphone and mobile applications has significantly enhanced the

opportunities for minority language provision on mobile phones. However, these

opportunities can only be realised if there is an effective market for minority language apps.

The fundamental challenge to the availability of minority language apps is the small size of

the market, in terms of consumers, but also in terms of the number of developers who choose

to be active in that market and the number of apps they produce. A broader view of the

drivers and inhibitors of minority language app production, and the particular challenges and

opportunities faced by developers, is needed in order to understand what forms of support

and intervention may be required in order to develop a vital and sustainable minority

language app market.

This paper presents the first examination of the app market for a specific minority language

community, focussing on the Welsh language, Cymraeg. The examination takes two forms, a

census of the Welsh language apps available in the Apple (UK) App Store and interviews

with Welsh language app developers and the Welsh Government. The census was conducted

to in order to identify the emergent characteristics of the Welsh language app market and to

inform subsequent interview questions. The interviews aim to validate and contextualise the

observations from the census data.

The paper begins by considering the impact of the smartphone and mobile applications for

minority language mobile phone provision and outlining the overall nature of a minority

language application market. It then provides a brief overview the Welsh language context

and reviews existing literature regarding the use of Welsh language apps. Next the paper

describes the methodology, with particular focus on the census methodology, due to its

novelty. The results are then presented, weaving together the observations and data from the

census with the qualitative responses from the interviews to present a rich picture of the

Welsh language app market. The paper concludes by suggesting ways in which the Welsh

language app market could potentially be made more vital and sustainable. While the paper

focuses on the Welsh language, it has implications for other minority language communities.

From mobile phones to mobile applications

While the potential role of mobile phones in supporting and revitalising minority languages

has been recognised, the production of a mobile phone which provides native support for a

minority language (i.e. the built-in functions of the phone can all be used in the minority

language) may be difficult to achieve and sustain. Samsung launched a phone with native

support for the Irish language in 2008 (The Irish Times, 2008) and a phone with native

support for the Welsh language in 2009 (WalesOnline, 2009) but these appear to have been

short-lived. A phone providing native support for the Māori language, launched by Huawei

and Two Degrees Mobile Limited in 2011, appears to have enjoyed some success and to have

led to an ongoing relationship. In 2017, Huawei launched the first smartphones with native

support for the Māori language and announced that all their future phones would feature the

language (Huawei, 2017).

The emergence of smartphones changes the dynamics of minority language provision on

mobile phones. Rather than depending on mobile phone manufacturers and mobile network

operators to provide phones with pre-installed software in a minority language, consumers

are able to download minority language apps produced by a range of developers. Whilst

native support for a minority language by the underlying phone is beneficial, it is not

essential. A number of minority language apps, possibly created by different developers, may

combine to offer a relatively complete minority language experience, even on a smartphone

which does not provide native support for the language. This empowers the consumer to

some extent, in as much as they can choose minority language apps where they exist, but it

also places the onus of responsibility on the consumer to make that choice.

The locus of production is also shifted, from mobile network operators and mobile phone

manufacturers, to app developers. There are fewer technical and financial barriers to app

development (Kirk, 2011), therefore there can be a larger number of developers and greater

diversity among them. There is the potential for more local development, including apps

developed by the minority language community itself. Thus instead of having to lobby

mobile network operators and mobile phone manufacturers or even app developers on behalf

of their language, minority language communities may become empowered by developing

their own apps.

The minority language app market

Minority language app developers are likely to be confronted by similar challenges to those

faced in the production of other minority language media, including less access to talent,

fewer capital resources, higher production costs and smaller market (McElroy and Noonan,

2016). They also face the significant challenge of competing against majority language apps,

typically within the same application portal (such as Apple’s App Store or Google Play).

The app distribution model has been characterised as a two-sided market, based around an

application portal, with developers (and their apps) on one side and consumers on the other

(Holzer and Ondrus, 2011). This market exhibits positive cross-side network effects;

consumers prefer a market with a large number of developers and apps as this provides

greater choice and increased quality, developers prefer a market with a large number of

consumers as this increases the opportunity for sales. It also exhibits negative same-side

network effects on the developer side; developers prefer a market with fewer rival developers

and fewer competing apps.

A minority language app market might naively be considered a small two-sided market with

the same overall characteristics as a majority language app market. However, this fails to

recognise that minority language speaking consumers are likely to be bilingual (or

multilingual), and therefore are also simultaneously operating in the majority language app

market. For some activities a strict preference condition may apply (Grin and Moring, 2002,

p190), that is, the consumer wishes to carry out that activity using an app in the minority

language rather than an app in the majority language. For many activities this condition will

not apply, the consumer has no preference and will be content with an app in either language.

For other activities a strict negative preference condition may apply, the consumer (despite

speaking the minority language) does not wish to carry out that activity using an app in the

minority language. Where the strict preference condition does not apply, majority language

apps can be seen to exert negative same-side network effects on minority language apps.

Apps themselves may also be bilingual (or multilingual) and therefore may be sold in many

language markets, and developers may develop apps for different language markets.

In a simplified bilingual situation, minority language speaking consumers can be seen as a

subset of majority language speaking consumers and minority language apps/developers as a

partially overlapping subset of majority language apps/developers (see Figure 1).

[Figure 1 near here]

A simplified view of this market would suggest that developers may choose to develop apps

in the majority language (the market is large and there are no additional costs, but large

number of competitors) rather than in the minority language market (the market is small and

there may be additional costs, but the number of competitors is also small), except for those

cases when the minority language speaking consumer has a strict preference for apps in the

minority language. This paper examines the market for Welsh language apps on the Apple

(UK) App Store in detail in order to develop a deeper understanding of minority language

app markets more generally.

The Welsh language context

A minority language app market needs to be understood within its broader socio-linguistic

context. According to the 2011 census, there are just over 560,000 Welsh speakers aged 3+

within Wales, approximately 19% of the population (StatsWales, n.d.). Within Wales, around

53% of Welsh speakers use the language on a daily basis (Welsh Government, 2015).

Practically all Welsh speakers are also fluent English speakers and practically all non Welsh

speakers in Wales are English speakers.

Figures from Ofcom (2017) show that 94% of adults (aged 16+) in Wales own a mobile

phone, with 74% of adults owning a smartphone. Nearly half the mobile phone owners (49%)

have a 4G service. Smartphones were the most important device for going online for 36% of

internet users. Tablets were owned by 61% of households, with 23% of internet users saying

a tablet was their most important device for going online.

Research commissioned by BBC Cymru Wales, S4C and the Welsh Government (Beaufort

Research, 2013) noted little awareness among Welsh speakers for using Welsh language apps

for everyday tasks, such as reading the news or weather reports. A higher proportion of

Welsh speakers had used an app in English than Welsh in the previous week (42% and 6%

respectively) and in the previous month (46% and 9% respectively). The use of Welsh

language apps was higher among young people, 10% of 16-24-year-olds had used a Welsh

app in the previous week. The report suggested that apps were a key area in which

sustainable gains in Welsh language use could be made, particularly with regards to

integrating the language into the everyday lives of Welsh speakers.

The Welsh Government’s Welsh language strategy, Cymraeg 2050: A million Welsh

speakers (Welsh Government, 2017), has as one of its aims to “ensure that the Welsh

language is at the heart of innovation in digital technology to enable the use of Welsh in all

digital contexts”, this is underpinned by the Welsh Language Technology Action Plan (Welsh

Government, 2018). The Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 imposes a duty on certain

organisations to comply with standards that broadly require that the Welsh language is treated

no less favourably than English across a number of areas, including service delivery. Each of

the five Welsh Language Standards Regulations approved to date (which apply to different

types of organisation) has a standard relating to apps. The standard states that “All apps that

you publish must function fully in Welsh, and the Welsh language must be treated no less

favourably than the English language in relation to that app”. As will be observed in the

following analysis, this language policy context and the regulations and incentives used to

achieve its targets, play a significant role in the Welsh language app market.

Methodology

Data gathering was conducted using two methods; an app census and structured interviews.

The census of Welsh language apps was conducted in order to identify emergent

characteristics and potentially significant factors in the market, which would inform the

subsequent interviews. The interviews test and contextualise the observations from the

census.

App census

While App Store Analysis is a relatively well-developed field with a significant body of

literature, there appear to be no published analyses of app stores based specifically on

language. The literature reveals a number of different approaches utilised for different

purposes. App Store mining, in which large quantities of data are analysed to reveal

relationships largely of use to app developers; Topic-focussed analysis, in which all (or a

sample of) the apps relating to a particular topic are surveyed and analysed largely as an aid

to practitioners in that topic area; and Organisation-focussed analysis, in which all the apps

produced by a particular organisation, or a set of related organisations, are analysed and

compared, typically with regards to some theoretical framework.

Topic-focussed analysis appears to provide the best model for the task of language-focussed

analysis, though app stores may not necessarily facilitate search by language as they do for

topic. Topic-focussed analysis surveys and analyses all (or a sample of) the apps relating to a

specific topic. Studies of apps relating to medical conditions appear to be particularly

prevalent (e.g. Bender et al, 2013; Malik et al, 2017; Mosa et al, 2012; Székely et al, 2013;

Wallace and Dhingra, 2014). This type of study often makes use of the in-built app store

search engine and/or a literature review (e.g. using MEDLINE) to generate initial results

which are then manually filtered. There is often a qualitative element to this type of study

typically involving manual inspection of the apps. The actual quality of the apps is also often

considered. The number of apps analysed in a topic-focussed study is generally a few

hundred or fewer. Grundy et al (2016) point to the difficulty in conducting exhaustive,

replicable and systematic search and data extraction due to nature of commercial app stores

search engines and personalised app content. They also discuss the problem of defining app

quality, observing that this is often limited to software qualities, such as user interface design,

performance and stability.

The data gathering presented in this paper aimed to provide a census of the Welsh language

apps available in Apple (UK) App Store. This approach was intended to avoid any bias due to

the app sampling problem (Martin et al, 2015). The census focussed on apps for the Apple

iPhone and iPad available from the Apple (UK) App Store, as an existing human-generated

index of Welsh language apps, the Welsh Apps1 website, indicated that there were

significantly more apps available for iOS (211) than for Android (70). The majority of the

Android apps were also available as iOS apps. The apparent lack of Android apps (which has

not been verified in this study) is interesting. From a developers’ perspective there are several

differences between the Android and iOS ecosystems, with Android being perceived as more

open and as having lower entry barriers (Koch and Kerschbaum, 2014). The apparent

disparity in the sizes of the two app markets and the underlying reasons for this would be a

useful focus for further work.

The apps available for the iPhone and iPad are exclusively available via Apple’s App Store.

This single source provides a degree of convenience for the researcher, the consumer and the

developer. However, in common with many other electronic content spaces, there is no easy

mechanism for identifying minority language content. While the App Store does provide a

search facility, it is not possible to specify a search by language, and, as will be discussed

later, the language metadata associated with an app does not appear to be a reliable indicator

in any case.

A snowball sampling method was used in order to identify Welsh language apps. The

snowball sampling was conducted within the Apple (UK) App Store. Seed points for the

snowball sampling were generated from three sources. The first source was the Welsh Apps

website2 which lists iOS, Android and Mac OS X apps which are available in Welsh

(fulfilling a similar purpose to the literature review in some topic-focussed analyses). On the

day the site was examined3, Welsh Apps claimed to list 211 iOS apps, but only 210 apps were

in fact listed. Of the 210 apps listed, 17 were no longer available on the App Store. During

subsequent inspection of the apps following snowball sampling, 7 were removed as the

1 http://www.appsinwelsh.com/2 http://www.appsinwelsh.com/3 23 June 2017

current version of the app did not appear to include Welsh. The second source were apps

which were known to the author, but not included in Welsh Apps. There were 16 of these, but

only three were currently available in the App Store. Snowball sampling was performed on

the 196 apps identified at this stage. The final method was to use the App Store search facility

using a variety of terms relating to Wales and Welsh in both English and Welsh (again

similar to approaches used in topic-focussed analyses). This resulted in an additional 76 apps.

Further snowball sampling was performed on these apps.

In the snowball sampling, for each of the seed point apps, the ‘Related’ apps – those by the

same developer and those which ‘Customers Also Bought’ – were examined and added to the

census results if appropriate (a similar approach to Székely et al, 2013). Apps were added to

the census results if they featured the Welsh language, either in their interface, content, or

both. No judgement was made of the quality of the Welsh language provision. Several forms

of information were used to efficiently identify Welsh language apps – language metadata in

the App Store, app titles, descriptions and screenshots, customer reviews, the app developer

(were they known to produce Welsh language apps), and the organisation or their

product/service (were they likely to include Welsh in their app). Where there was uncertainty,

apps were downloaded and inspected. The issue of app language identification is discussed

further later in the paper.

The census identified 439 apps4 available on the Apple (UK) App Store which feature the

Welsh language, either by itself, bilingually with English or in combination with multiple

other languages. The analysis presented in this paper is based on these 439 apps. While it is

possible that there are additional Welsh language apps which have not been included in the

census, it is believed to represent the substantial majority.

4 As of 11 July 2017

Interviews

Following an analysis of data from the census, a number of factors influencing the app

market were tentatively identified. These factors then formed the basis for the questions

presented in email interviews. It was decided to focus on those developers most actively

engaged in the Welsh language app market as indicated by the number of Welsh language

apps they produced. Seven of the eight5 app development companies who had produced ten

or more Welsh language apps were invited to take part in an email interview. Three app

development companies responded to the request for an interview. Two of the companies are

based in Wales (identified as W1 and W2) and one in the United States (identified as US1).

While this sample is small, it does represent about 2% of the developers and 9% of the apps

identified in the census. An email interview was also conducted with the Welsh Language

Unit of the Welsh Government (identified as WLU). The purpose of the interviews was to

gain a qualitative insight into the tentatively identified factors and their significance, as well

as potentially revealing additional factors.

Analysis

The analyses presented here are to a large extent exploratory, as there are no previous studies

to follow, characterising the apps in the census in order to understand potentially significant

factors in the Welsh language app market on the Apple (UK) App Store. Quotations from the

interviews are presented alongside the census data.

Identifying Welsh language apps

The 439 Welsh language apps represent only a very small proportion of the combined

English language and Welsh language app market (and apps in other languages) facilitated by

the Apple (UK) App Store. Consumers are faced with the challenge of finding them and

developers are faced with the challenge of making their apps visible to consumers.

5 A satisfactory point of contact could not be identified for one developer.

As noted earlier, the App Store provides no mechanism for searching or filtering by language.

The consumer is likely therefore to identify Welsh language apps from a list of recommended

or topical apps, some of which may include the Welsh language. The metadata associated

with an app in the AppStore includes language, which should make it easy for a potential

customer to determine whether or not an app includes the Welsh language. However, in

practice, the language data is often unreliable, listing languages which are not included and

not listing languages which are included. For example, Social Care Induction Framework

(Care Council for Wales) lists its languages as English, German, Northern Sami, and Spanish.

In fact, it is in Welsh and English only.

A re-examination of the language metadata of the apps in the census was conducted some 14

months after the census6. Of the 370 census apps which were still available in the App Store,

only 105 (28.38%) included the Welsh language in their language metadata. The lack of

reliable language metadata would limit the potential value of searching, filtering and

recommending by language.

Developers have other opportunities to make consumers aware of the languages provided; the

textual description and the screenshots. Byd Cyw (S4C) lists its languages as English in the

metadata even though it is identified as a “Welsh language app” in the description and

appears to be only in Welsh.

However, developers do not necessarily make use of these opportunities either. Newcastle

Emlyn Heritage Trail (Audio Trails Limited) lists its language as English, despite the fact that

the app features both Welsh and English. The Welsh provision is not mentioned in the

description, nor is it shown in any of the screenshots. The only clue that languages other than

English might be available is a “language” menu option included in one of the screenshots.

Even then, it is not clear what languages might be available. In the case of Eek! It's a Bomb! 6 19 September 2018

(Potassium Frog Ltd) the language listed is English and the fact that the app features Welsh is

only apparent from the comments in the customer reviews. In some cases, such as Scorch

(Welsh Rugby Union) the only way to discover that the app features Welsh is to download

and run the app.

The lack of clear signalling of the availability Welsh language provision makes it difficult for

consumers who would potentially choose a Welsh language app, thereby reducing downloads

and any potential competitive advantage afforded by the Welsh language provision.

Language provision in Welsh language apps

The combination of languages used in each app was categorized into three types: Welsh Only

(92 apps, 20.96%); Welsh & English (243 apps, 55.35%); Welsh & Multiple Other

Languages (104 apps, 23.69%).

Almost all of the Welsh & English apps are fully bilingual, though there are a very small

number of exceptions, for example DragonSongs (Living Data Ltd) which teaches the Welsh

National Anthem (which is in Welsh) but whose interface is in English. The large number of

Welsh & English apps reflects the bilingual market at which the majority of the apps are

aimed, as well as apps that teach the Welsh language. In many cases, but by no means all, an

equivalent English Only version of a Welsh Only app was available, with developers

choosing to create two separate versions of the app rather than a single bilingual version.

The Welsh & Multiple Other Languages apps provided a number of different languages,

typically in apps where the language content was relatively minor, reducing the effort

required to produce each language version. Most of the additional languages included in the

Welsh & Multiple Other Languages category were majority languages, but there are some

interesting examples where other minority languages are used. Babog Baby (BábógBaby

Limited), for example, contains English, Irish, and Scots Gaelic, in addition to Welsh.

Developers

The 439 apps in the census were produced by 158 different developers, an arithmetic mean of

2.78 apps per developer7. However, 92 developers only produced one app in the census (see

Figure 3).

[Figure 3 near here]

Due to the small number of apps overall, it is possible for a developer to achieve a prominent

position in the market with relatively few apps. Atebol Cyfyngedig have 46 apps included in

the census, so produce more than 10% of the apps in the market. Those developers who had

ten or more apps featured in the census are shown in Table 1. All of these appear to be based

in Wales, apart from Tinybop Inc and Daily Workout Apps, LLC both of which appear to be

based in America. The apps developed by Tinybop Inc and Daily Workout Apps, LLC

typically include multiple languages.

[Table 1 near here]

Four main developer archetypes have been observed:

One-off developers – a developer who produces a single app and that app features

Welsh, for example Wanderwald (Sebastian Eberlein).

Developers with a one-off Welsh app – a developer who produces numerous apps, but

only a single app (or a very small proportion of the apps developed) feature Welsh.

For example, Y Ras (Subsplash Consulting) is the only app featuring Welsh among

the more than 3,800 produced by that developer.

7 Number of apps per developer, mean=2.78, median=1, standard deviation=4.626, min=1, max=46, skew=6.077

Developers with a number of Welsh apps – a developer who produces a number of

apps, a large proportion, or all of which feature Welsh. For example, Atebol

Cyfyngedig have produced nearly 50 apps, all of which feature Welsh.

Language app developers – developers who specialise in producing language-

orientated apps (such as dictionaries and language courses) in a variety of different

languages. For example, English Welsh Translator and Dictionary (HANNA

RUDAK) is one of more than 70 “Translator” apps produced by that developer.

Godwin-Jones (2011, p4) comments with regards to language learning apps that ‘Not

all are of the highest quality’. There appears to be some evidence of this among the

apps produced by language app developers. For example, English Welsh best

dictionary - Geiriadur gorau Saesneg Cymraeg encyclopedia (Nguyen Van Thanh)

features poor quality Welsh (and English) in the app description.

Motivation

While some app developers may be motivated by intrinsic factors (such as learning and fun),

for those motivated by extrinsic factors (principally financial gain), potential market size is

important (Koch and Kerschbaum, 2014). Given the small market for Welsh language apps,

the development companies were asked whether their involvement in the Welsh language

apps market was about exploiting a commercial opportunity or whether there were other

motivations.

The two Wales-based companies expressed a strong social commitment to the Welsh

language and Welsh speakers, suggesting that they are, at least in part, intrinsically

motivated.

“We are based in Gwynedd where some 65% of people speak Welsh (2011 stats). It

makes sense that people should have the opportunity to engage with mobile apps in

their own language - otherwise it acts as a form digital exclusion.” W1

“We have primarily developed free apps for large organisations, or government

funded projects. There are commercial opportunities, but we choose to create Welsh

or bi-lingual apps instead of going into the English market - this is a social factor,

not a commercial one.” W2

The direct and indirect influence of government via funding and policy can also be identified

as an extrinsic motivation.

This social commitment to the Welsh language was also occasionally reflected in the app

descriptions provided by developers.

‘... Unfortunately, the provision for Welsh language medium schools to engage with

the newest technology through the medium of Welsh is hindered by the lack of Welsh

language apps...’ Llythrennau (Big Click)

‘We believe the Welsh Language is beautiful and deserves to be kept alive…’ Clecs

(Clecs Media Ltd)

These comments can be seen as a statement of the companies’ values, a form of

metalinguistic discourse with consumers and perhaps a wider political statement on the

situation of the Welsh language.

Where this form of social commitment and intrinsic motivation exists, negative same-side

network effects may not exist among developers. Developers may instead consider it good to

have more developers and more apps in the market as this benefits their wider social agenda.

They may also recognise the need for there to be sufficient developers and apps to constitute

and maintain a viable market.

The US-based company expressed a broader ambition to localise their apps in order to reach

a wide range of language communities - “We want to serve all kids.” This had led to the

design of apps that support language localisation and of processes to manage the creation of

the required language assets. Their relative separation from Wales and Welsh-speaking

communities has given rise to a model based on engagement with volunteers from the

language community. This may also allow them to localise more widely without incurring

significant translation costs.

“Note we try to localize as broadly as possible. With minority languages we often rely

on help from committed volunteers. This was the case w/ Welsh (and Irish). Someone

from the community volunteered to translate some of our apps and we provided the

translation tools which in this case were simple Google docs.” US1 

There is the potential for apps that are developed by large companies, localised for multiple

language markets and which make use of free translation, to outcompete apps that are

produced by smaller, local companies aimed only at local language markets and which make

use of paid translation. This may lead to fewer economic opportunities for minority language

speakers in app development. However, this did not appear to be a significant concern in the

Welsh language apps market due to there being little direct competition between apps.

The motivations expressed by both the Welsh and US companies suggest a relationship

between the consumer and the developer based on a mutual agenda of support for the Welsh

language.

The role of government and institutions

One of the notable features of the apps in the census was the role played by institutions, such

as the Welsh Government, local government and NGOs. Twenty-seven apps in the census

either acknowledged Welsh Government support or were developed by the Welsh

Government. The Welsh Government has supported app development through initiatives

such as the Welsh-language Technology and Digital Media grant scheme.

“When we began giving grants to companies and organisations making or

commissioning Welsh-language apps in 2013-14 a Welsh-language mobile app was

quite a rarity. We felt there was a degree of market failure, which meant that

commercial companies didn’t often choose to make Welsh apps because the small

market size would make it hard for them to make money in that way.” WLU

These interventions can be seen as a form of pump-priming for the app market, providing

funding for apps in order to stimulate the market and support developers.

“In the case of the Welsh Government’s Welsh Language Unit’s technology support,

we have given grants for, not procured, apps. If you procure, you get what you

specify and pay for; when you give grants, you put out a call, based on key criteria,

and you financially support winning applications from groups which are applying to

do something they want to do.” WLU

Support extended beyond the development of individual apps to include the support of

companies providing internationalization services and the creation of the Welsh Apps

website.

“We supported including Welsh in app internationalisation by a company called

Applingua Ltd. The money they received enabled them to offer their clients Welsh as

an added extra language […] This resulted in hugely popular apps such as Waze and

Alto’s Adventure becoming available in Welsh to anybody who has chosen Welsh as

their favourite language on their mobile iOS device.” WLU

A number of apps in the census were produced by (or on behalf of) local Councils in Wales,

Welsh NGOs (e.g. the Care Council for Wales, the National Museum of Wales and Sports

Wales) and the traditional media, particularly the Welsh language television broadcaster,

S4C. Eight apps acknowledged support from Mentrau Iaith, community organisations that

promote the use of Welsh throughout Wales.

State and institutional agents are playing a significant role in the development of the Welsh

language app market. This may be due in part to limited commercial opportunities for

developers, institutional agendas and strategies, and the requirements of the Welsh Language

Standards. One possible weakness is that these apps are not necessarily driven by consumer

demand, which may lead to low uptake.

Challenges

The companies were asked what the greatest challenges facing Welsh-language app

developers are.

“There are 3 main challenges to Welsh language (and other minority language) app

development. 

1. Small market - making the case for a Welsh app harder, unsustainable and 

2. Technologies - tools aimed at making development easier and faster are English

centric, making the addition of a Welsh version even more expensive.

3. Funding - due to the small market, and high costs, funding the development of a bi-

lingual or Welsh only app is very hard.” W2

“Cost vs Marketshare. We were able to include Welsh because we have built low cost

translation tools. But many developers don’t think about translation until after their

apps are finished which makes adding translations expensive. Even then most focus

on the languages w/ the most speakers.” US1

“There are far less companies in Wales who are looking to commission apps in

general. This naturally leads to a deficit in apps available in Welsh. Perhaps we need

to shift the focus from Welsh-language apps to developing innovative apps and

experiences that also happen to be available in Welsh.” W1

In addition to the challenges due to the small consumer market and low client demand, there

is also a need for appropriate tools and processes to develop a bilingual/multilingual app.

The approach taken by the US company of building apps that can then be localised to include

numerous languages may be an attractive model for sustainable Welsh language apps,

allowing a relatively small market to be cross-subsidised by larger markets in other

languages.

Understanding the needs of Welsh-speaking consumers

The companies were asked whether they believed that there is sufficient understanding of the

needs of Welsh-speaking consumers with regards to apps.

“No” US1

“Not particularly, but Welsh language apps tend towards providing specific services

or experiences which are relevant to the company or organisation that has funded

them.” W1

If Welsh app development is driven by the needs of client organisations rather than being

consumer focussed, it may result in apps for which there is little consumer demand and a

failure to provide apps for which there is a demand. This in turn may lead to a dysfunctional

app market.

“We receive direct requests and feedback from individuals. We occasionally look at

the list of the most popular apps on the app stores (and websites) in English and ask

ourselves which important genres are missing or under-represented in Welsh. These

are some of the ways we use to try to assess likely need.” WLU

There appears at best to be a limited and partial understanding of Welsh speaking consumers

that may not reflect their unique requirements and, in particular, those apps for which a strict

preference condition would apply.

There may also be a general lack of understanding of the significance of language on the part

of technology companies and among clients commissioning apps.

“There is sufficient understanding from users and developers who are active in this

space, but the wider tech world (and the app's content specific industry) does not

appreciate the importance of bi-lingual services, and the advantage of connecting

with customers through their own language.” W2

Apps by topic

Each app can be catalogued by the developer under a single primary category in the App

Store. This provides a rather crude overview of the range of functions provided by the Welsh

language apps (see Table 2). However, even these figures need to be treated with caution.

The categories are very broad and can cover a variety of apps aimed at quite different

audiences. The category boundaries are not well defined and the categories available may

vary over time. The developer is also required to select a single category when several might

apply. This can result in inconsistencies where a developer selects different categories for

apps that are very similar. For example Sillafu Ail Iaith (Second Language Spelling) and

Sillafu Iaith Gyntaf (First Language Spelling) by Atebol Cyfyngedig are both Welsh

language spelling games aimed at 9 to 11 year olds, one of which is categorised as Education

while the other is categorised as Entertainment.

[Table 2 near here]

Across those categories which contained at least one app, there was an average of 21.95 apps

per category8.

Due to the small number of apps in the census, it is possible for a single developer to produce

a relatively small number of apps within a specific category, but for this to count as a

significant percentage of the whole. For example, the 3.19% of apps in the Health & Fitness

category represent only 14 apps, all of which are produced by the same developer (Daily

Workout Apps, LLC).

Kim et al (2013) performed an analysis of over 100,000 apps across 70 Apple App Stores,

including primary category. Whilst it is not appropriate to make a direct statistical

comparison with the data of Kim et al, an informal comparison can highlight any potentially

interesting characteristics of the distribution of Welsh language apps (see Figure 3). The

Education category appears to be significantly over-represented for the Welsh language apps,

whilst Sports and Utilities are under-represented.

[Figure 3 near here]

8 Apps per category for categories containing at least one app, mean=21.95, median=8.5, standard deviation=42.289, min=1, max=189, skew=3.83.

The Welsh language apps in the Education category include both apps which aim to teach the

Welsh language and apps that aim to teach a subject through Welsh. It also contains apps

aimed at children and apps aimed at adults. Of the 189 apps in the Education category, 64

appear to be aimed at adults while 125 appear to be aimed at children.

Of the 64 apps aimed at adults, 36 relate to learning the Welsh language (including

dictionaries). The remaining 28 apps cover a variety of topics including utilities for education

professionals, advice for healthcare professionals, and tourist guides.

With the 125 apps aimed at children it is difficult sometimes to distinguish between an app

that is teaching the Welsh language and one which is teaching a subject through Welsh. This

is particularly the case with apps aimed at very young children. Of the 125 apps, 57 focus on

reading, writing and building Welsh language vocabulary, so can be considered to be

principally focused on teaching the language. The remaining 68 apps cover a variety of

traditional school subjects, such as science and maths, as well as 31 apps providing advice for

autistic children.

“Some genre areas are doing just fine without needing much or any direct

intervention or public money. Welsh language learning is perhaps the best example.

There are 988,000 registered users of Duolingo’s Welsh course

(https://www.duolingo.com/register accessed on 29/03/18). And Say Something in

Welsh works independently and has even grown by taking the course and

methodology beyond Welsh and into new language markets.” WLU

Learning Welsh is a case where a strict preference conduction will necessarily apply. It is

also likely to apply when learning a subject through Welsh (e.g. where Welsh is the medium

though which the subject is learnt in school). This may be part of the explanation for the

relative over-representation of Education apps.

App pricing

Even when they are intrinsically motivated, companies need to make a profit in order to

maintain a viable business. This may be less of an issue for one-off or small scale developers,

as they have no need to support a company infrastructure, and may not rely on app

development for an income.

In terms of payment model, apps can be divided into those which are totally free (65.15% of

apps in the census) , those which require a single one-off payment (27.65% of apps in the

census), those that are free but which offer IAP or subscription (6.15% of apps in the census),

and those which require a single payment and offer IAP or subscription (1.15% of apps in the

census).

The study by Kim et al (2013) found that 30% of apps were free, that more than 50% of paid

apps were offered at a low price ($0.99) and that the average app cost $2.56 (£1.89). As can

be seen in Figure 5, 65% of apps in the census were free, more than twice the rate. Of the

paid apps, around 30% are offered at the lowest price point, compared to 50% in the Kim et

al study, perhaps in part due to the high proportion of free apps. Jung et al (2012) suggest that

app store ranking and customer ratings are particularly important for free apps, as consumers

have to evaluate the value and quality of the app without a price as an indicator.

[Table 3 near here]

The average price for a single payment app is 80 pence and the average price of an app

offering IAP or subscription is £1.69, before the cost of IAPs or subscription9. Even allowing

for currency fluctuations, the price of Welsh language apps appears relatively low compared

to Kim et als study.

9 Price of apps, mean=0.8696, median=0, standard deviation=2.676, min=0, max=38.99, skew=8.65

There is also a statistically significant difference (p<0.001)10 in price between the different

language types (see Table 4). Welsh & Multiple Other Language apps are the most

expensive, followed by Welsh & English, and Welsh Only apps are the cheapest.

[Table 4 near here]

The companies were asked if the large number of free apps and the low average price of a

single payment Welsh language app is commercially sustainable.

“Many apps have been funded by grants - which enables them to be free. But long

term I don’t believe this to be sustainable.” W1

“No. Most of the apps are there because they are gov funded or follow policies driven

by gov initiative. Due to the small market, and the ability for Eng language apps to

charge small amounts to a larger audience there are only a small number of apps

that will be able to charge higher price for high quality Welsh experiences. Welsh

apps need to take advantage of other business models.” W2

“It depends on the cost of producing apps vs the size of the market and the popularity

of the app. It’s not connected to a specific price point.” US1

A traditional model where the costs of an apps development are passed on to the customer

may not be viable in the case of minority language apps due to the small customer base.

Other funding models, such as grants, may have some role to play but are unlikely to create

and sustain a vibrant market. Other business models based on producing multi-language apps

which can sell into multiple markets, alternative funding models via advertising, sponsorship

or community ownership, and processes which facilitate low-cost localisation (such as

volunteer translators) may have a role to play.

10 No groups have normally distributed data. Kruskal-Wallis test performed, KW=62.176, df=2, p<0.001There is a difference, multiple Mann-Whitney tests performed for paired comparisons, all different p<0.001.

Customer reviews

Malik and Shakshuki (2016) identify customer reviews as a crucial element of the app market

place, having a key role in terms of revenue generation for developers and in providing

insight to consumers. Jung et al (2012) report that both overall ranking and customer ratings

have an effect on the “product survival” of an app. They suggest that this is particularly

important for free apps where consumers have to infer the value and quality of an app without

having the price as a guide. Consumers tend to prefer highly downloaded apps (Jung et al,

2012) and are likely to refer to customer ratings and customer reviews when making their

choices (Necmiye and Abran, 2016).

The availability of top charts and the enhanced visibility this can give to an app may well be a

disadvantage for minority language apps. Minority language apps are likely to have a low

number of customer ratings and downloads compared to majority language apps and the top

charts provide no way to filter by language. While the application portal (in this case the App

Store) may appear to be language neutral, its functionality and algorithms serve to

disadvantage the minority language.

Even if a consumer can find and identify a minority language app, then the low number of

customer reviews and ratings may make that app appear less appealing than a majority

language app. If an app does not have sufficient customer ratings then an overall Customer

Ratings value for the app is not provided, though individual customer reviews may still

indicate their rating for the app. Of the 439 apps in the census, 307 (69.93%) were unrated,

and the proportion of rated apps varies according to language type. Of the 92 Welsh Only

apps, 9.98 were rated, of the 243 Welsh & English apps, 21.40% were rated, and of the 104

Welsh & Multiple Other Languages apps, 67.31% were rated (see Table 5).

[Table 5 near here]

The companies were asked how important they believed customer reviews and ratings are.

“Ratings are hugely important - it really helps nudge people into pressing install.

However, getting people to leave reviews is pretty tricky. A very small percentage of

people rate/review apps - and our demographic is already really small.” W1

“Very important, as it's one of the main ways people perceive the quality of an app.

Unfortunately most people reviewing are there to commend something amazing, or to

trash something that doesn't work - it is rarely a representation of the average user's

experience - and therefore isn't actually that useful.” W2

In the case of the US company, consumer engagement with apps was seen as an indicator of

support from the language community.

“This is very important. Community support is vital for getting developers interested

in minority language support. We have had great support from other minority

languages which has led us to focus on them more.” US1

While many of the Customer Reviews in both Welsh and English refer to the content or

functionality of the app itself, a small number of comments refer specifically to the Welsh

language provision, for example:

‘Mae'n dda gweld gem Cymraeg ar y AppStore, mwy plis :)’

[It’s good to see a Welsh language game in the App Store, more please :)] Geiriau

Gwyllt (Pixel Knights) – customer comment

‘App gwych!! Dal sylw'r plant. Neis i gal apps yn yr iaith Gymraeg!!’

[Excellent app!! Holds the children’s attention. Nice to have apps in the Welsh

language!!] Sion Corn Yn Ffonio (Celtel Ltd.) – customer comment

Again, these comments are suggestive of a relationship between the customer and the

developer around a shared agenda of support for the Welsh language.

Sustainability

As noted previously, 17 of the Welsh language apps listed on the Welsh Apps website and a

further 13 known apps were no longer available in the Apple (UK) App Store at the time of

the census. A re-examination of the apps in the census, some 14 months after the census

date, revealed that 69 (15.72%) of them were no longer available in the Apple (UK) App

Store. This may in part be due to the release of iOS11 and iOS12 in the intervening period. It

is possible that sustainability is a greater challenge for developers of minority language apps,

perhaps due to the small markets that they serve, or the way in which their development was

funded. Apps which lack longevity fail to take advantage of the long tail of sales (Holzer and

Ondrus, 2011) which can aid the financial sustainability of less popular apps (Jung et al,

2012).

In their interview, the Welsh Language Unit recognised the issue of sustainability and

identified several potential challenges to sustainability

“In choosing which of the submitted projects are to be offered grants, one scoring

criterion has been the likely sustainability of the project in question. This is just one

of the criteria but, in scoring this, we have been looking for evidence in the

application that being able to continue beyond the grant period has been considered

and addressed.

The types of factors that can cause a project to come to an end include:

1. The grant payment for those working on the app comes to an end at the

end of the funding period, so work stops

2. Subscription runs out – app store or games platform annual membership,

server space, platform, software licence

3. Third party platforms update their systems and this sometimes causes apps

to stop working on the latest and updated devices, because the need to

update comes after the end of the funding period

4. Sub-contractor ceasing business

5. Re-branding of the parent organisation

6. Etc.” WLU

The companies identified budget as a significant factor influencing sustainability,

highlighting the lack of long-term financial viability of many Welsh language apps.

“I don’t think there are any issues specific to the Welsh language. With any app it’s

sustainability is linked to usage and funding/investment.” W1

“Developing apps requires regular updates based on the latest technologies. There

have been a few Technology updates that have wiped older apps completely out of the

app store... due to them mainly being gov projects, there is no ownership, and no

budget to maintain them. That should be a government initiative in itself - update all

the old apps to keep them alive!” W2

“No, it’s simply an issue of cost. OSes are always evolving and apps need to be

updated. Often apps made specifically for minority languages are one off projects or

are built using grant money… ie they are not commercially sustainable enterprises,

so the apps are eventually neglected. In our case our apps are commercially viable.

The languages we support are not their main reason for being.” US1

Future

The companies were asked about the future of Welsh language apps and Welsh language app developers.

“The technology is constantly changing and it’s important that developers keep up

with the newest trends eg VR and AR. I think we need to celebrate Welsh-language

apps more and encourage their use - so that people have an expectation of being able

to use apps in their own language.” W1

“Progress will be in waves... something will threaten the existence of Welsh apps (like

a new piece of technology, which only works in English), and then there will be a

response to fight it.” W2

“The best hope for any specific language set is if local developers build great

products that fill real community needs. If software becomes essential and has a good

business model to support it, it is much more likely to be maintained.” US1

The developers expect to have to adapt and change as technology advances and business

models need to plan for sustainability. They also suggest there is a requirement to address

real community needs and achieve buy-in from the community, including an increased

expectation and use of apps in the Welsh language.

Limitations of study

The census only examined the Apple (UK) App Store. While the Welsh Apps website

suggests that the vast majority of Welsh language apps are available for iOS, this has not

been independently verified. Further work is necessary to understand the market for Welsh

apps on Android and to examine whether there are differences between the two app markets.

The census relies to some extent on the reliability and availability of data and metadata in the

App Store. The sampling method used means that not every app in the App Store has been

inspected. There is an element of informed human judgement, by a single person, in both the

methodology and the analysis.

In January 2018 the Apple App Store was redesigned and some additional features, such as a

Today tab, were introduced. The visibility and findability issues for Welsh language apps

remain and in some cases may actually be worse. Where an app features a number of

languages, the language metadata is now shown as “English and n more” and the user must

tap a drop down menu to see the additional languages. App language metadata which

comprises only English and Welsh is not affected, as both languages are shown.

Only a small number of interviews have been performed, though they do represent some of

the major Welsh language app developers who account for a significant proportion of the

Welsh apps. The interviews do not represent the views of smaller developers.

Conclusions and recommendations

“… apps are intimate interactions that need to be personal, and language is a key

factor of this.” W2

The introduction of the smartphone and mobile applications has significantly enhanced the

opportunities for minority language provision on mobile phones. Despite the potential role

that mobile phones might play in supporting and revitalising minority languages, they remain

practically unstudied. Minority language app markets face challenges due to their small

absolute size (in terms of consumers, developers and apps) and their small relative size

compared to the majority language app market. Each minority language app market will also

have its own specific characteristics, influenced by the language context, the social and

economic context and so on. This paper has examined the market for Welsh language apps on

the Apple (UK) App Store, identifying a number of characteristics, challenges and

opportunities. This examination has revealed ways in which the Welsh language app market

could potentially be made more vital and sustainable.

Recommendations for the language community and activists

The community should engage more directly with developers – to make developers

more aware of their requirements and to demonstrate consumer demand.

The community could consider providing free translation services for app developers,

though there may be a need to balance the potential benefit of the app to the

community against the potential loss of income for members of the community who

provide translation services commercially.

The community should consider the recommendations contained within the Digital

Language Survival Kit (Berger et al, 2018), for example, to develop simple flashcard

apps using existing platforms.

Recommendations for developers

Developers could engage more directly with the community – to better understand

consumer requirements; to promote awareness and desire; to support app development

within the community.

Developers need to consider appropriate business models through which minority

language apps can be subsidised; develop multilingual apps which can appeal to a

wider market; consider sustainability and the benefits of the long tail.

Developers need improved support for bilingualism and multilingualism through the

design, and implementation process, including the availability of appropriate

developer toolkits.

Developers should signal app language more clearly, for example through app

descriptions, and ensure language metadata is correct.

Recommendations for app market owners

Improved marketplace – current Application Portals disadvantage minority languages,

minority language apps need to be more findable and more visible.

Improved developer toolkits which better support multilingual app development.

Recommendations for the Welsh Government and language promotion NGOs

A census can be used to identify gaps in Welsh language app provision, particularly

when combined with studies of consumer needs.

Where appropriate Welsh language apps are available but uptake by consumers is

low, targeted awareness campaigns can be conducted, for example via social media.

It may be appropriate to introduce a list of approved or recommended Welsh language

apps based on some form of quality benchmark, similar to the whitelist of cancer apps

proposed by Bender et al (2013).

It may be worth developing an app that provides a comprehensive list of Welsh

language apps along the lines of Autism Apps (Touch Autism). This may help to

improve the visibility and findability of Welsh language apps.

Where app development is funded by a grant, or similar mechanism, the funding

should reflect the likely need to maintain the app through operating system updates.

It may be worth allocating specific funding to maintain “critical” apps.

While the census has provided an overview of the Welsh language app market, and the

interviews have given the developers’ perspective, there is also a need to conduct additional

consumer-focussed studies into the suitability of Welsh language apps, the extent to which

they meet consumer need, their actual use by consumers and the effect this has on consumers

perception and use of the Welsh language. Some initial work in this area is reported by

Pritchard and Jones (2017). Only by generating evidence addressing the issues raised in this

paper can meaningful action be taken to deliver the potential offered by smartphones for

minority language communities.

Acknowledgements

The author gratefully acknowledges the contribution made to this paper by the companies

who responded to the interview request and by the Welsh Language Unit in their response to

the interview request. The author also thanks Dr Paul Jarvis of The University of South

Wales for assistance with the statistical analysis.

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Figure 1 Simplified bilingual application market

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Number of Developers

Num

ber o

f App

s

Figure 2 Number of Apps (up to 10) by Number of Developers

Table 1 Developers producing 10 or more apps

Developer Apps

Atebol Cyfyngedig 46

S4C 19

Tinybop Inc. 16

Geosho 15

Daily Workout Apps, LLC 14

Galactig 14

Care Council for Wales 10

Moilin Cyf 10

Table 2 Primary Category by app count

Primary Category Count Percentage

Education 189 43.05

Travel 42 9.57

Games 39 8.88

Entertainment 31 7.06

Reference 27 6.15

Lifestyle 19 4.33

Productivity 18 4.10

Books 14 3.19

Health & Fitness 14 3.19

Music 9 2.05

Business 8 1.82

Navigation 5 1.14

Social Networking 5 1.14

Photo & Video 4 0.91

Utilities 4 0.91

News 3 0.68

Weather 3 0.68

Medical 2 0.46

Sports 2 0.46

Food & Drink 1 0.23

Catalogues 0 0.00

Finance 0 0.00

Kids 0 0.00

Magazines & Newspapers 0 0.00

Shopping 0 0.00

WeatherUtilities

TravelSports

Social NetworkingShopping

ReferenceProductivity

Photo & VideoNews

NavigationMusic

MedicalMagazines & Newspapers

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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Comparison by primary category (percent)

Kim et al Welsh App Census

Figure 3 Percentage of apps per primary category

Table 3 Price of apps by payment model

Free and single payment apps Apps offering IAP or subscription

Price Number Percentage Number Percentage

Free 286 65.15 27 6.15

0.99 47 10.71 1 0.23

1.99 25 5.69

2.99 27 6.15 1 0.23

3.99 10 2.28 1 0.23

4.99 5 1.14

6.99 1 0.23 1 0.23

7.99 1 0.23

9.99 2 0.46

12.9 1 0.23

9

17.9

9

1 0.23

19.9

9

1 0.23

38.9

9

1 0.23

Table 4 App price by app language type

Mean Median StdDev Min Max SkewWelsh Only

0.1514 0 0.64289 0 3.99 5.132

Welsh & English

0.7134 0 2.98124 0 38.99 9.995

Welsh & Multiple Other Languages

1.8697 0.99 2.77216 0 19.99 3.375

Table 5 Ratings by app language type

Language Type

Mean Median StdDev Min Max Skew

Welsh Onlyn=10

Rating given 3.9 4 0.58 3 4.5 -0.36Number of ratings 27.6 13 88.05 5 79 0.91

Welsh & Englishn=52

Rating given 4.06 4.5 0.94 1 5 -1.32Number of ratings 38.17 9 38.17 5 897 6.42

Welsh & Multiple Other Languagesn=70

Rating given 4.04 4.5 0.81 1.5 5 -0.99Number of ratings 2,454.6

3129 7,520.5

85 51,268 4.85