PULSES PRODUCTION STRATEGIES IN TAMIL NADU

2000

Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

COIMBATORE – 641 003

CONTENTS

Page No. Perspective of increasing Pulse Productivity in Tamil Nadu 1 Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan Use of Biofertilizers for increasing Pulse Production 8 Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan, K.Govindarajan, K.Kumar & K.Chendrayan Pulses Strategy in Tamil Nadu 24 Dr.M.Subramanian Problems and Perspectives of cultivation of Pulses and prospects 33 of summer irrigated Pulses in Tamil Nadu Dr.C.Surendran & A.R.Muthiah Recent Management Techniques for Rice fallow Pulses 43 Dr.S.Ramanathan Varietal Scenario of Pulses in Tamil Nadu 53 Dr.K.Mohanasundaram Dryland Techniques for Pulses Productivity 62 Dr.T.M.Thiyagarajan & Dr.T.N.Balasubramanian

Plant Protection Strategies in Pulses 73 Dr.Sabitha Doraisamy, Dr.K.Gunasekaran & Dr.T.Ganapathi Management of Pod borer complex in Redgram 83 Dr.K.Gunasekaran Recent Trends in Seed production in Pulses 91 Dr.V.Krishnasamy, Dr.V.Palanisamy & Dr.P.Srimathi Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria : An avenue for increasing 103 Productivity of Pulses Dr.S.Gunasekaran & Dr.D.Balachandran

Tagging Gene(s) for Mung bean Yellow Mosaic Resistance 123 In Mung bean – A Collaborative Approach with AVRDC Dr.Manickam Role of Pulses in Human Diets 129 Dr.A.Suseela Thirumaran & Dr.S.Kanchana Status of Pulse milling Techniques 144 Dr.V.V.Sreenarayanan and Dr.C.T.Devadoss Transfer of Technology for increasing pulses production 154 Dr.S.Uthamasamy and Dr.S.Palaniswamy

Proceedings and Recommendations 161

PERSPECTIVES OF INCREASING PULSE PRODUCTIVITY IN TAMIL NADU

Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan*

Pulses are the major sources of dietary protein in the vegetarian diet in our country. Besides being a rich source of protein, they maintain soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation in soil and thus play a vital role in furthering sustainable agriculture (Kannaiyan, 1999). At present globally 60 million tonnes of pulses are produced annually from 70 million hectares. The contribution of developing countries like India, China, Brazil, Turkey and Mexico accounts for nearly two third production India is the largest producer with 33 per cent of global area contributing 22 per cent of the world’s production. Normally the area under pulses in the country is around 24.38 million hectares with a production of 14.52 million tonnes. The average productivity of the country is about 600 Kg/ha against the average global productivity of 857 Kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu, the total area under pulses is around 9.5 lakh ha with a production of 4.08 lakh tons. The average productivity of pulses in the state is around 430 Kg/ha which is far below the average productivity of the country as well as that of the global productivity. The area under blackgram in the state is around 4.46 lakh ha in the year 1999 with a production of 2.06 lakh tons which accounts for an average productivity of 461 Kg/ha (Dixit et al, 2000). The increase in area and production is attributed to the development of high yielding and MYMV resistant varieties suitable for cultivation in rabi season in rice fallows. The average of blackgram in the state is just above the national average productivity of 448 Kg/ha, however, it is lesser than that recorded in states like Bihar (694 Kg/ha), Maharastra (631 Kg/ha), Gujarat (601 Kg/ha) and Andhra Pradesh (555 Kg/ha). In the case of greengram the area is around 1.83 lakh ha in the year 1999 with a production of 0.696 lakh tons which works out to an average productivity of 380 Kg/ha. It is also just above the national average productivity of 363 Kg/ha. However, this average is lesser than that recorded in states like Maharastra (575 Kg/ha), Punjab (605 Kg/ha), Bihar (561 Kg//ha), Andhra Pradesh (447 Kg/ha), Uttar Pradesh (428 Kg/ha) and West Bengal (390 Kg/ha). * Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

Pigeonpea is yet another important source of vegetable protein, used either as dhal or as green vegetable. Dry grains of pigeonpea have 20-22 per cent protein. Green pigeonpea seeds contain 10 times more fat, 5 times more vitamin A and 3 times more vitamin C than ordinary peas, besides they contain numerous minerals. Pigeonpea stalks are also a major source of firewood and live stock feed. This pulse crop is grown mostly as an intercrop between cereals crops and plays a unique role in enriching the soil, by adding 40 Kg Nitrogen per hectare over a given season. The deep root system of the crop helps to recycle plant nutrients from deeper layers, and the acid secretions from its roots increase the availability of phosphorus in the soil. Pigeonpea also improves the physical structure of soil by enhancing water infiltration for subsequent crops, and plays a crucial role in sustaining agriculture in rainfed, semi arid farming systems (Arunachalam et al., 1995). Redgram (Pigeonpea), occupies an area of around 3.47 million hectares in India with a production of 2.77 million tonnes which accounts for a productivity of 799 Kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu the area under redgram is about 1.40 lakh hectares with a production of 1.20 lakh tons and the productivity is 864 Kg/ha, which is higher than the average national productivity , but lower then the productivity level of Uttar Pradesh (1134 Kg/ha), Haryana (1145 Kg/ha), Bihar (999 Kg/ha), Gujarat (952 Kg/ha) and Punjab (880 Kg/ha). But the productivity is lower in states like Andhra Pradesh (383 Kg/ha), Karnataka (499 Kg/ha), Madhya Pradesh (832 Kg/ha), Maharastra (681 Kg/ha), Orissa (361 Kg/ha) and Rajasthan (380 Kg/ha) compared to Tamil Nadu. Traditional varieties of pigeonpea need about 6 to 9 months to mature, while the improved varieties developed can be harvested in 3-4 months. Both long duration (180 days) and medium duration (130-140 days) genotypes are grown in Tamil Nadu under various cropping systems. Because of shorter growing period and low moisture in soil as well as high atmospheric temperature, the productivity is low. These abiotic stresses are further aggravated by biotic stresses like pod borers, wilt and sterility mosaic (Singh and Bhan, 1998). Management of these stresses can contribute to an yield recovery of 300-350 Kg/ha. Further extension of area is possible in rabi reason as a sole or inter crop with cereals and legumes. Under these situations the short duration pigeonpea like APK 1 (Aruppukottai 1) and Vamban 1 can be suitably fitted in.

APK 1 redgram matures in 95-105 days and capable of giving an average yield of 900 and 1250 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated conditions respectively. It is resistant to SMD. It is highly suited as a pure crop in southern districts for October-November sowings as a rainfed crop in uplands. Vamban 1 redgram is also maturing in 95-100 days and capable giving an

average yield of 850 and 1200 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated conditions respectively. This variety is highly suitable for intercropping in groundnut. Both APK 1 and Vamban 1 regrams because of their shorter duration, they can be raised under irrigated situations as a sole crop in summer. During kharif, under rainfed conditions the age old variety of SA 1 is to be replaced by Vamban 2. It is resistant to sterility mosaic disease and capable giving an average yield 1050 Kg per ha which is 20 per cent higher yield than SA 1.

The hybrid redgram COPH 2 which matures in 120-130 days, gives an average yield of 1050 kg/ha. It is photoinsensitive and can be grown in all the three seasons viz., Kharif, Rabi and Summer. It is suitable as an irrigated pure crop in districts like Erode, Coimbatore, Salem and Dharmapuri and possesses the potential to yield 1350 kg/ha under irrigated conditions. Long duration and medium duration pigeonpeas have been cultivated as mixed and intercrops. However, of late, shift towards monocropping with some inputs in certain agroecological nitches has taken place. Short duration pigeonpea (APK 1 and Vamban 1) varieties are to be grown as a pure irrigated crop during summer in southern districts as well as in Cauvery delta zone which will result in horizontal growth of 25000 ha and an additional production of 0.37 lakh tons can be expected annually from this new nitch. Farmers are reluctant to grow pigeonpea because of pod borers damage (Ali, 1998) which can be managed with integrated pest management practices as given below.

Use of pod borer tolerant varieties Use of Pheromone traps and bird perches Use of NPV (500 larval equivalent per hectare) Spraying Neem seed kernel extract 5% Spraying Endosulfan 35 EC, 1.25 lit per hectare from the third instar of

its larval stage. NSKE 5%, Neem oil 2% and Phasalone 0.07% sprays are effective Mechanical removal of late stage larvae is effective IPM plot has increased the yield by 177 per cent.

Cultivation of redgram on bunds in low land areas is becoming popular. Cultivation of BSR 1 redgram in borders of turmeric fields in Erode district will result in additional production. Each plant can yield 1 to 1.5 Kg of green pods per plant and first harvest can be taken up in 150 days. Green pigeonpea contains 10 times more fat, 5 times more vitamin A and 3 times more vitamin C than ordinary pea and also contain numerous minerals. Pulses are vital for sustainability of our crop production systems, soil health and above all for our food security. Greengram is the early maturing crop and fits well with almost all cropping systems. Although, blackgram is

slightly late maturing crop compared to greengram, its utility in South Indian diet makes it so popular and that these two crops are cultivated in more than six million hectares i.e. more than one fourth of the total area under pulses in this country. Because of their short duration, these crops fit well under different cropping systems and thus have enormous potential for the future which needs to be capitalized. It is estimated that a horizontal expansion of around 7-8 million hectares area under these crops could be possible in the country, under new nitches of cultivation, which can add 4-5 million tons more to the total pulse production. In order to achieve this, the critical gaps in production technology of these crops must be suitably addressed. In coastal and semi arid areas of Tamil Nadu, there is a possible expansion of area under blackgram and greengram during rabi to an extent of nearly five lakh hectares especially under rice fallow conditions. Development of location specific agrotechniques for blackgram and greengram in rice fallows of Tamil Nadu is the most important for the above horizontal expansion in area. Constraints of rice fallow cultivation and remedies

Adequate population coultn’t be maintained in blackgram and greengram under rice fallow conditions due to improper leveling

Uncertainity in the time of sowing of blackgram and greengram. If the

sowing is delayed beyond February 15th, there is a drastic reduction in productivity therefore sowing should be done between January 15th and February 15th.

Terminal moisture stress under rice fallow conditions results in poor

yield. Vamban 3 blackgram maturing in 70 days, is capable of yielding an average of 825 and 950 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated conditions respectively. It is resistant to MYMV and can be grown during kharif, rabi and summer in all districts of Tamil Nadu except Nilgiris and Kanyakumari. K1 blackgram maturing in 70-75 days with an average yield of 700 Kg/ha is best suited for intercropping with cotton in Southern Districts of Tamil Nadu. APK1 blackgram is also suited for intercropping in cotton. About, 50,000 hectares of tapioca raised in Salem and Kallakurichi areas, may be utilized for intercropping short duration blackgram and greengram. KM 2, K 851 and CO 6 greengram and TMV 1, Vamban 2 and Vamban 3 blackgram are very suitable for this situation. CO 6 greengram maturing in 65 days, is resistant to MYMV and gives an average yield of 850 and 1300 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated

conditions respectively. It is suitable for sowing in Kharif , rabi and summer seasons in all districts of Tamil Nadu except in districts like Nilgiris and Kanyakumari. Pulses Management Technologies • Pulses seeds treated with specific strains of Rhizobium increases

(favourable CN ratio is 10:1) the yield through for better nodulation and maintenance of organic matter in the soil (Saxena and Tilak, 1999).

• All pulses can not be inoculated by a single rhizobial strain. Even in

that case particular species of Rhizobium may not possess the efficiency for a long time. This necessitates the introduction of newer strains to maintain the nitrogen efficiency and thereby increasing the productivity. At TNAU newer strains were introduced for crop specific

Rhizobium Percentage of increase Host crop in yield COG 15 30 Green gram COC 10 23 Black gram CC 1 12-60 Red gram CO Be 13 25-30 Bengal gram COC 10 35 Cowpea Combined inoculation

Combined inoculation of Rhizobium with phosphobacteria (Bacillus megaterium and Pseudomonas striata) for red gram, black gram, green gram and bengalgram increased has grain yield for maximum grain yield was recorded by the combination of rhizobial strain with phosphobacteria with full dose of N & P in red gram (986 kg/ha). It increased 34.70 per cent higher yield than the uninoculated control. Dual inoculation with half dose of fertilizer gave an yield of 880 kg/ha which is 20.22 per cent higher than control. A bright future for vegetable soybean

Vegetable soybean can be harvested while the pod is still green with the seed filling 80-90% of the pod. The green beans can be shelled, cooked separately or with meat and other vegetables. They make good snack as well. The green mochai is to be replaced by the vegetable soybean. The beans are sweeter compared to grain soybean. The horticultural characterstics include pod and seed colour, appearance, flavour, texture, taste, size of pod and seed and the number of seeds per pod. At present in Coimbatore, six vegetable soybean types of AVRDC viz., AGS 744, AGS 745, AGS 777, AGS 746, AGS

775 and AGS 797 are tried to assess their yielding ability. The highest yield of 13.8 t/ha in 88 days was obtained in Tainan district of Taiwan. Popularisation of less known pulses to increase the production

High yielding varieties of rice bean, lima bean, sword bean, garden lablab (avarai) and field lab lab (mochai) are to be popularised , to get more production of pulses in the state. Cold season pulses

Among the cold season pulses, horsegram is the most important crop occupies about 1.23 lakh ha of marginal lands with a production of 0.53 lakh tons. The productivity is about 431 kg/ha. In certain years for eg. in the year 1989-90, the productivity was very low in this crop i.e. 319 kg/ha, therefore improved varieties like CO 1, Paiyur 1 and Paiyur 2 are to be grown to get higher productivity. Bengalgram is grown only in an area of about 0.09 lakh hectares and the productivity of this crop is high i.e. about 675 to 700 Kg/ha. Improved root rot resistant CO 3 and wilt resistant CO 4 bengalgram are to be grown to get higher productivity. References Ali, M.1998. Research, Development and Management for production of

pulses. In : IPM system in Agriculture. Vol.4. Pulses (eds. R.K.Upadhyay, K.G. Mukerji and R.L.Rajak) Aditya Books Private Limited, New Delhi. pp 1-40.

Arunachalam,L., S.Purushothaman, SP.Palaniappan and M.Mark Devasahayam,

1995. Relative contribution of non-monetary / low cost inputs in redgram production. Madras Agric. J. 82(3) : 179-181.

Dixit, G.P., Tripathi, D.P., Suresh Chandra, Tewari, T.N. and J.L.Tickoo (2000)

MULL & RP Crops, varieties developed during last fifty years. AICRP on MULL & RP, IIPR, Kanpur. pp 16.

Gurdip Singh and Livinder Khar Bhavan. 1998. Diseases of Mungbean and

Urdbean and their management. In : IPM system in Agriculture vol.4. Pulses (eds. R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak) Aditya Books Private Limited, New Delhi. pp 311-371.

Kannaiyan, S. 1999. Bioresources Technology for Sustainable Agriculture,

Associated Publishing Company, New Delhi. p.422.

Saxena, A.K. and K.V.B.R. Tilak. 1999. Potentials and prospects of Rhizobium biofertilizer. In : Agromicrobes. (eds. M.N.Jha, S.Sriram, G.S.Venkataraman and S.G.Sharma) pp 51-78. Todays and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.

USE OF BIOFERTILZERS FOR INCREASING PULSE

PRODUCTION

S. Kannaiyan1, K. Govindarajan2, K. Kumar3 and K. Chendrayan4

Pulse crops have been an important component of agriculture since ancient times. These leguminous plants on symbiotic association with soil bacterium, the Rhizobium forms nitrogen fixing root nodules which are agronomically significant as they provide an alternative to the use of energy expensive nitrogenous chemical fertilizer. Despite the large and increasing use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture, estimates suggest that biological nitrogen fixation contributes at least four times more nitrogen to the soil throughout the world. On a global basis these symbiotic association between legume and Rhizobium may reduce about 70 million tons of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia per annum which amounts to about 40 % of all biologically fixed nitrogen per year (Burns and Hardy, 1975). The legumes improve soil fertility through their nitrogen fixing ability Nitrogen fixing values estimated for various legumes are given in Table 1. Table 1. Estimates of nitrogen fixed by legumes (Peoples et al. 1995)

Crop Nitrogen fixed Kg /ha

Blackgram 119-140 Chickpea 23-97 Cluster bean 378-196 Cowpea 9-125 Greengram 50-66 Pigeonpea 4-200 Soybean 49-450 Peas 46

1. Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 2-4. Department of Agricultural Microbiology, TNAU, Coimbatore Classification of rhizobia

The classification of root nodulating rhizobia has been modified since 1984 and is likely to change further with more detailed studies on large number of Rhizobium strains from a wide variety of leguminous plants. At present only about 8-9% of the 14,000 or so known species of leguminous plants have been examined for nodulation, and less than 0.5% have been studied relative to their symbiotic relationship with nodule bacteria. A new system of classification was proposed by Jordan (1984) in Bergy's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology and in given is Table 2. Table 2. Classification of root nodule bacteria (Jordan, 1984) Genus Species Biovars Host legumes Rhizobium R. leguminosarum viceae Vicia R.leguminosarum trifolii Trifolium R.leguminosarum phaseoli Phaseolus R. meliloti - Medicago R. loti - Lotus R. fredii - Glycine Bradyrhizobium B. japonicum - Glycine Bradyrhizobium sp. - Gicer,cajanus,

vigna

Selection of rhizobial strains for inoculant production A large scale screening should be carried out to identify ideal inoculant strains for different legume crops. The criterion for selections may vary for particular soil types like acidic, sodic, sodic-saline, saline, nitrate-, rich or heavy metal contaminated. Based on suggestion by Brockwell et al. (1982), and Howieson and Ewing (1986), Keyser et al. (1992) the following characters are considered as desirable for a strains to be fit for use in commercial inoculants. a) Ability to form nodules and fix N2 on the target pulse crop b) Ability to compete in nodule formation with populations of native

rhizobia present in the soil c) Ability to fix N2 across a range of environmental conditions d) Ability to form nodules and fix N in the presence of soil nitrate e) Ability to grow well in artificial media, in inoculant carrier and in the

soil f) Ability to persist in soil, particularly for annually regenerating legumes g) Ability to migrate from the initial site of inoculation

h) Ability to colonize the soil in the absence of a legume host i) Ability to tolerate environmental stresses. j) Ability to fix N2 with a wide range of host genotypes k) Genetic stability l) Compatibility with agrochemical Based on the above criteria, several rhizobial strains were screened for various pulse crops through field experiment. Consequently, the following strains of rhizobia are being employed for inoculant production at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.

Crop Rhizobium strains recommended

Redgram CC-1 Greengran CRM-14 Blackgram CRU-15 Bengalgram COBe-13 Soybean

COS-1

Inoculant Production Rhizobia are not very particular in their nutritional requirements. Yeast extract mannitol (YEM) medium is employed for culturing of rhizobia. Large scale multiplication of rhizobia can be carried out using rotary shaker or fermentor. In shake flask culture, liquid medium in flasks is agitated by circular motion of rotary shaker. Fermentors are used for industrial scale production of biofertilizers. Culture vessels ranging from 5 to 1000 lit can be used depending upon the requirement. The amount of inoculum culture to be added into the fermentor vessel depends on the size of the fermentor, but the ratio between the inoculum and the medium in the vessel should be maintained at 1:2 (5% inoculum rate). The broth is continuously aerated by forcing sterile air. Various fermentation requirements like aeration, agitation and fermentation time vary from strain to strain. When the number of rhizobia in the liquid medium has attained the required standard (108 -109 cells /ml), the broth should be added to the carrier for preparation of carrier based inoculant. The term 'carrier' is generally used for a medium, which carries the live microorganisms. The carrier materials should be in powder form and capable of passing through 150-212 micron (72-100 mesh) IS sieve. A good carrier should a) have high water holding capacity b) be non-toxic to rhizobia c) be easy to sterilize by autoclaving

d) readily and inexpensively available e) provide good adhesion to seed f) have buffering capacity g) have cation and / or amino exchange capacity

Most peat's meet these criteria and remain the favoured carrier material for inoculants. In India, high quality peat is not available although peat-like material of medium quality, designated as peat soil, is located in Nilgiris However, search for alternative carrier materials continues. Based on the research findings, lignite which is found better and is being employed as carrier material instead of peat at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. In manufacturing inoculants, a period of 'curing' (maturation) after the addition of broth culture to carrier improves the quality of the product (Burton, 1976). After curing, the inoculant is packed in polyethylene bags (high density; 0.075- 0.090 mm). Inoculants must be incubated for a week in a room with an ambient temperature of 25 - 30° C. During this period the bacterium multiplies and reaches to a required standard. The packets may then be stored in a cold room (4°-15° C) till its use. Quality control of inoculants

The quality of rhizobial incoulants is of great importance in ensuring field performance of as well as for the commercial prospects of inoculant industry. Basically quality means the presence of the right type of microorganism in active form and desired members. Evaluation of inoculant quality by entertain of viable rhizobial is an accurate index of inoculating potential (Hiltbold et al. 1980). According to Bureau of Indian standards, the Indian standard speritications for Rhizobium inoculants is that, it should contain 108 cells / g of carrier material at the time of manufacture and 107 cells / g within 15 days before expiry date.

Rhizobium inoculation Root-nodule forming bacteria although present in most of the soils, vary in number and in their effectiveness in nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Hence, wherever necessary, seed inoculation of legumes with effective strains of the required rhizobia is practiced to ensure their adequate population in the root zone. This helps to improve nodulation, nitrogen fixation, crop growth and yield of leguminous crops which depends for their growth, not only on nitrogen fixation biologically in their root nodules, but are known to benefit the subsequent crops (Thompson, 1980). This is one of the scientific basis of crop rotation. In fields lacking appropriate rhizobia pulse crops can be raised

successfully with rhizobial inoculation without resorting to large application of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers. The survey conducted on nodulation by pulse crops showed that in about half the area, nodulation was poor for one reason or the other, even though the pulse crops had been grown in that area for a long time. Inoculating pulse crops in these areas with suitable rhizobia could improve their nodulation / N2 - fixing capacities, resulting in improved yield. The use of rhizobia as biofertilizer to enhance the yield of pulse crops has been well documented by many researchers. Different diagnostic measures to decide about inoculation have been suggested. Inoculation should be carried out if, a) Population density of species - specific rhizobia is low b) The same or symbiotically related legume is not grown in the area in the

immediate past history c) Waste - lands have to be reclaimed d) Legume follows a non-leguminous crops in a rotation e) Soil is poor in mineral N (nitrate) f) Soils are acidic, alkaline and saline Method of inoculation The major goal of legume inoculation is to introduce efficient and competitive strains in large numbers which can survive and establish in the legume rhizosphere and colonize the roots promptly. Application of inoculant to the seed surface prior to sowing is the traditional means of inoculation, although viability of rhizobia is subject to the hazards of drying (Salena et al. 1982); fertilizer count (Kremer et al., 1982); seed coat toxicity (Materon and Weaver, 1983); incompatible pesticide and mineral additives (Gault and Brockwell, 1980; Skipper et al., 1980) and soil factors (Kremer and Peterson, 1983; Mahler and Wollum, 1982). There are mumerous adhesives like jugglery or sugar, gum arabic, methyl cellose etc, for attaching inoculant to the seed (Brockwell, 1962; Elgba and Rennie, 1984; Hoben et al., 1991). Tenacity is the important characteristic of adhesives to ensure that inoculant is not lost from the seed during handling and passage through sowing machinery. The adhesive must be green from any preservative that might diminish the viability of rhizobia. Rice gruel has been found cheap and best adhesive material and is being recommended by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. The method of seed inoculation induces preparation of inoculant scurry by adding 200 g of carrier based inoculant in 200 ml of rice gruel. This inoculant slurry is added on the seeds and the seeds are thoroughly mixed so as to have a uniform coating. A count of 1000 viable cells per seed is to be

attained at the time of treating the seed and quantity of culture used is accordingly addicted (Saxena and Tilak, 1999). The seeds are spread uniformly for drying on a gunny bag or cement floor in shade and not under direct sunlight. When seeds are treated with fungicides, seed treatment with bacterial inoculant is to done last. Way to improve Rhizobium - legume symbiosis

Host related aspects

Presence of a large genotypic variability for nitrogen fixing traits like nodule numbers, nodule mass and acetylene reduction activity per plant has been known. Experiments conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore and other places indicate that the above nitrogen fixing traits varied with the host genotypes in various pulse crops and are given in table 4,5 and 6. Table 3. Interaction between cultivars of redgram and Rhizobium strains

and its effect on nodule numbers Nodule number / plant

Strains CO.5 ICPL 87 Vamban Mean UASB 722 10.1 9.5 10.0 9.87 PT 300 13.0 13.9 12.6 13.17 JARS 70 15.2 13.3 14.3 14.33 20 kg N/ ha 7.2 6.3 6.5 6.67 Uninoculated control 6.1 5.9 5.6 5.87 Mean 10.32 9.82 9.80 Table 4. Interaction between cultivars of redgram and Rhizobium strains

and its effect on nodule weight Nodule dry weight (mg / plant) Strains

CO.5 ICPL 87 Vamban Mean UASB 722 17.0 16.2 14.0 15.73 PT 300 18.1 17.0 16.3 17.13 JARS 60 19.5 18.6 18.0 18.70 20 kg N/ ha 10.0 8.6 9.1 9.25 Uninoculated control 8.2 7.6 7.5 7.77 Mean 14.5 14.4 11.29 Table 5. Interaction between cultivars of greengram and Rhizobium and

its effect on nodule number Nodule (number/ plant) Strains

PS 16 CO.5 Mean M11 85 10.82 12.52 11.67

M6 84 15.40 16.10 15.75 GR 4 16.20 17.42 16.71 M6 65 12.80 13.25 13.03 20 kg N/ ha 7.25 8.46 7.86 Uninoculated control 5.80 6.10 5.95 Mean 11.38 12.31 Table 6. Interaction between cultivars of green gram and Rhizobium

strains and its effect on nodules dry weight Nodule dry weight (mg / plant) Strains

PS 16 CO.5 Mean M11 85 19.10 21.50 20.30 M6 84 22.00 19.20 20.60 GR 4 22.65 24.10 23.78 M6 65 23.70 18.40 21.05 20 kg N/ ha 16.60 13.10 14.85 Uninoculated control 10.40 11.20 14.85 Mean 19.80 17.93 10.83 Likewise, observation on the variability in nodulation between varieties was also made in chickpea (Rupeal, 1994). It was also observed that not only consistent low-and high nodulating plants were present within chickpea cultivars, even non-nodulating plants occurred in normal cultivars. Arunachalam et al (1984) found that nodule weight has good predictive value for plant growth and yield related traits. These studies suggest a great scope for enhancing symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legumes through host plant selection. Another approach to improve symbiontic nitrogen fixation in pulse crop is breeding for nitrate tolerance, as the nitrate is an inhibitor of nodulation process in the host plant (Carroll et al., 1985). Soil - related aspects a) Physico -chemical parameters

Soil temperature, moisture and reaction are the important physico-chemical parameters that influence the symbiotic nitrogen fixation in pulse crops. Plant root exudation, growth and survival of rhizobia, root hair formation and infection process in plants are influenced significantly by the soil temperature. In India, the soil temperature during summer month exceeds 54° C. This high temperature will certainly influence the above factors and ultimately affect the efficiency of rhizobia. Since, the soil temperature under field condition cannot be controlled, temperature tolerant strains have to be used. Similarly, soil monisture or water stress limits not only the survival of

rhizobia but also their symbiotic association with pulse crops. Taneja et al (1980) reported that water stress (-2 to -4 bars) resulted in decreased growth of Rhizobium strains. Mohammed et al. (1991) reported that the salt tolerant Rhizobium strains are more tolerant to moistore stress. Soil reactions viz., salinity and acidity have a great impact on rhizobia and their symbiotic activity. High concentration of salts has a detrimental effect on host, rhizobia and their symbiosis. Salt stress decreases symbiotic efficiency to levels below the genetic potential of host - Rhizobium association and thus may decrease plant growth and grain yield (Singleton and Bohlool, 1983). Levels of salinity that inhibits the growth of the individual symbionts (Subba Rao et al., 1972). Sodium chloride concentrations that affect the symbiosis between Rhizobium and chickpea are lower than those that affect the growth of individual chickpea genotypes or Rhizobium spp. (Sexena and Revari 1992). Legumes are generally more sensitive to osmotic stress than their microsymbiont, the rhizobia. Likewise, soil acidity also found to affect the symbiotic nitrogen fixation, limiting Rhizobium survival and persistence in soils and reducing nodulation (Munns, 1986). Some species of rhizobia tolerate acidity better than others. Reduction of soil acidity and associated production of legume nodulation and N2 fixation can be achieved by liming. Among the soil chemical factors that influence symbiotic nitrogen fixation in pulse crops, mineral nitrogen concentration is the most important one. In general, high soil nitrogen levels, applied or residual, reduce nodulation and N2 - fixation. Based on several studies, nodulation and / or nitrogen fixation was reduced by approximately 50% in different legumes, when nitrogen concentration in root environment was between 20 and 90 mg / kg in the growth medium. The suppression in symbiotic nitrogen fixation is particularly due to the nitrate fraction in the root growth environment (Streeter, 1988). The exact mechanism of inhibition is not very clear. Other nutrients affecting nodulation include P,K, Mo, Zn, Fe, Mg,, S, CO, Ca ,Cd, Mu and Cu. Phosphorus deficiency is a factor that commonly restricts the realization of the potential of N2 - fixation by legumes. In addition, only 30% of P is available to the crop if applied as chemical fertilizer due to fixation in soil. Experiments conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University indicates that dual inoculation of pulse crop with rhizobia and phosphobacteria is found to enhance 'P' uptake by plants and consequently giving better nodulation, plants growth and yield in various pulses crops (Table 7,8,9 and 10). Table 7. Effect of Combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria

on the available "P" content of soil and "P" uptake in redgram

Treatments Available "P" mg /g soil "P" Uptake

mg/g plant Control 6.3 6.2 Rhizobium 7.7 8.1 Super phosphate (S.P) 9.1 11.5 Rock phosphate (R.P) 8.0 9.3 P.S.B. 1+ S.P 9.5 11.8 P.S.B. 2+ S.P 10.0 10.8 P.S.B. 1+ R.P 10.3 9.9 P.S.B. 2 10.0 10.0 P.S.B. 1 + RHI + S.P 10.9 12.9 P.S.B. 2 + RHI + S.P 11.0 11.7 P.S.B. 1+ RHI + R.P 12.3 12.3 P.S.B. 2+ RHI + R.P 12.0 11.6 CD 0.86 0.9

Table 8. Effect of Rhizobium on redgram (CO.5)

Treatments Nodule No/pl

Nodule dry wt. mg/pl

Plant dry wt.

g.pl

Haulms weight

t/ha

Grain yield

kg / ha

% increase overcont

Uninoculated 6.3 10.4 6.1 6.820 192 - Rhizobium (Rhiz)alone

11.3 13.6 7.6 7.017 194 1.04

Super phosphate (S.P) 11.0 14.5 8.0 7.233 198 3.12 Rock Phosphate (R.P) 10.0 12.8 8.4 6.953 198 3.12 Phos.1 + S.P 9.0 11.1 9.4 7.960 198 3.12 Phos.2 + S. P 11.7 13.9 9.4 8.187 214 25.50 Phos.1 + R.P 11.0 14.7 10.3 8.850 248 29.10 Phos.1 + R. P 13.3 17.3 9.9 9.510 272 41.60 Phos.1 + Rhiz + S.P 17.3 22.0 11.6 10.623 289 50.50 Phos.2 + Rhiz + S.P 17.7 25.8 11.2 10.537 311 61.90 Phos.1 + Rhiz + R.P 14.7 23.2 12.4 11.540 314 63.50 Phos.1 + Rhiz + R.P 15.7 24.0 12.4 12.123 328 70.80 SE 1.47 1.03 0.30 0.162 9.08 CD(P= 0.05) 4.31 3.07 0.91 0.481 27.08

Phos. 1 - Bacillus megatherium var. phosphoticum Phos. 2 - Pseudomonas striata Table 9. Effect of combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria

on the available P content of soil and P uptake in gereengram

Sl.No.

Treatments * Available P mg /g soil P uptake mg / g plant

1. Control 6.2 5.9 2. Rhizobium (Rhiz) alone 7.3 6.8 3. Super phosphate (S.P) 8.2 11.3

4. Rock phosphate (R.P) 8.3 8.6 5. Phos.1 + S.P 9.7 11.6 6. Phos.2 + S.P 9.4 10.6 7. Phos.1 + R.P 10.2 10.8 8. Phos.2 + R.P 10.3 9.6 9. Phos1 + Rhiz + S.P 11.6 13.3 10. Phos.2 + Rhiz + S.P 11.3 12.0 11. Phos.1 + Rhiz + R.P 12.1 11.8 12. Phos.2 + Rhiz.+ R.P 12.4 11.3 C.D 0.92 1.2

* Initial available P content = 15. 75 kg / ha

Phos. 1- Bacillus megatherium var. phosphoticum Phos. 2 Pseudomonas striata Table 10. Effect of Rhizobium and prosphobacteria on greengram

Treatment Nodule No/Pl

Nodule dry wt.

Plant dry wt.

g/pl

Haulms yield t/ha

Grain yield kg

/ha

% incr. over

conttrol Uninoculated 13.3 16.0 1.6 2.292 479 - Rhizobium (Rhiz) alone 21.0 22.7 2.5 2.534 561 17.1 Super phosphate (S.P) 22.3 15.3 2.3 2.396 516 7.7 Rock phosphate (R.P) 19.3 18.0 1.7 2.430 583 21.7 Phos. 1 + S.P 18.7 15.7 2.3 2.500 625 30.4 Phos. 2 + S. P 20.0 15.0 2.3 2.604 625 30.4 Phos. 1 + R. P 17.3 18.0 2.2 2.882 663 38.4 Phos. 2 + R. P 15.3 14.7 2.5 3.055 625 30.4 Phos. 1 +Rhiz+ S.P 21.0 24.7 2.6 3.021 645 34.6 Phos. 2 +Rhiz+ S.P 16.0 22.0 2.9 2.987 643 34.4 Phos. 1 + Rhiz + R.P 27.7 25.3 3.0 3.403 718 49.8 Phos. 2 + Rhiz + R.P 21.0 28.0 3.2 3.438 704 46.9 SIG NS ** ** ** ** SE 1.74 0.28 0.271 CD (P= 0.0 5.17 0.83 0.796

Among the secondary nutrients, calcium and magnesium play an important role in legume - Rhizobium symbiosis. Among micronutrients, the requirement of boron for nodule development is similar to that for growth of the host. Likewise, for nitrogen fixation Mo and Co are found essential. Above all, presence of organic matter in soil has favorable influence on the number of rhizobia, nodulation and nitrogen fixation. b) Soil biological parameters Inoculated rhizobia not only must compete for limited nutrients, but interactions with indigenous heterotrophic microbes and predators reduces the

capacity of inoculated rhizobia to maintain population densities at sufficient levels to ensure contact with susceptible legume roots. In the rhizosphere soil, where rhizobia are present in large numbers there is a chance for the build up of population of rhizobial phages. Negative interaction with them may influence the establishment of Rhizobium strain. Bdellovibrio, an intracellular bacterial parasite of Rhizobium is capable of infecting and lysing large population of rhizobia. As the above mentioned factors influence the symbiotic activity location specific rhizobial strains are identified through screening many strains for each pulse crop. For example, the rhizobial strains CRU -15 and CC1 performed better than others in the field experiments with blackgram and redgram respectively (Table 12). Therefore these strains are being used for the mass production of rhizobial inoculant for blackgram and redgram. Table 11. Testing of blackgram Rhizobium strains for effectivity Sl.No. Rhizobium strains Grain yield (kg / ha)

1. CRU -7 608 2. CRU-15 635 3. AUBR-17 606 4. AUBR-10 628 5. UPU -11 518 6. UPU-20 506 7. BUR-9528 557 8. BUR-9533 620 9. 20 Kg N/ha 562 10. Uninoculated control 489

CD (5%) 78 Table 12. Testing of redgram Rhizobium strains for effectivity Rhizobium strains Grain yield (kg / ha) RA 5 720 DHA 19 730 JARS 70 690 GB 1 743 CC 1 780

20 kg N/ ha 730 Uninoculated control 620

CD (P=0.05) -40.3 Further, the competition between indigenous microorganisms can be manipulated. Use of fungicides and antibiotics found to enhance the probability of rhizobial colonization. Hossain and Alexander (1984) augmented soybean rhizosphere colonization with Bradyrhizobium japonicum by using benomyl (a fungicide) and the antibiotics streptomycin and erthromycin. In this aspect, an antagonistic bacterium isolated from the rhizosphere of pigeonpea on combined inoculation with Rhizobium found to enhance nodulation and crop yield (Table 13 ). This antagonistic bacterium inhibits the growth of several soil bacterial and fungal isolates and not the rhizobia Table 13. Synergistic effect of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and

antagonistic bacteria on blackgram

Treatment Nodule number /

plant

Nodule dry wt. / plant

Grain yield kg / ha

Unioculated control 5.1 8.0 548 Rhizobium 20.0 30.3 670 Rhizobium + Antagonistic bacteria

24.2 38.0 728

Antagonistic bacterium 9.0 12.0 596 Conclusion Considerable input of biologically fixed N can be achieved in almost all agricultural ecosystems through the activity of symbiotic associations. Strategies are available for pulse crops to manipulate N inputs through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. This can be achieved by changing the proportion of plant nitrogen derived from symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Management practices can be imposed which either increase the numbers of effective rhizobia in soil, reduce the levels of or legumes sensitivity to soil nitrate or enhance the potential for legume growth.

For increasing pulse crops yield through biofertilizers, the following strategy is suggested. Most important constraints to effective exploitation of symbiotic nitrogen fixation are

• The quality of the inoculants

• Lack of knowledge about inoculation technology for the extension personnel and the farmers

• Effective inoculant delivery system • Formulation of the policy to exploit symbiotic nitrogen fixation

successfully For success of biofertilizers concerted efforts right from production, demonstration to distribution is required. The next step is convincing and educating the farmers regarding the benefits of these inoculants. References Arunachalam, V., G. D. Pungle, M. Dutta P.T.C. Nambiar and P.J. Dart. 1984.

Efficiency of nitrogenase activity and nodule mass in producing the relative performance of genotypes assessed by a number of characters in grounelmet (Arachis hpogaea). Exp. Agric. 20: 303-309.

Brockwell, J. 1962. Studies on seed pelleting as an aid to legume seed

inoculation.1. Coating materials, adhesives, and methods of inoculation. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 13: 638-649.

Brockwell, J., A. Diatloff, R.J. Roughly and R.A. Date 1982. Selection of

rhizobia for inoculants. In : Nitrogen fixation in legumes (ed. J.M Vincent) Academic Press, Sydney. pp.173-191.

Burton, J.C. 1964. 'The Rhizobium legume association: Microbiology and soil

fetility. Proc. of 194 biology. Colloquiam Oregon State Press, Corvallis, pp. 107-134.

Burns, R. C and R. W. F. Hardy 1975. Nitrogen fixation in bacteria and higher

plants. Springer Verlag, New York p.189. Carroll, B.J., D.L. Mc Neil and P.M Gresshoff. 1985. A supernodulation and

nitrate - tolerant symbiotic (nts) soybean mutant. Plant Physiol. 78: 34-40.

Elegba, M.S. and R. J. Rennie 1984. Effect of different inoculant adhesive

agents on rhizobial survival, nodulation and nitrogenase (acetylene - reducing) activity of soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merrill. Can. J. Soil Sci. 64: 631 - 636.

Gault, R. R. and J. Brockwell. 1980. Studies on seed pelleting as an aid to

legume inoculation, 5. Effect of incorporation of molybdenum

compounds in the seed pellet on inoculant survival, seedling nodulation and plant growth of lucerne and subterranean clover. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb. 20: 63-70.

Hiltbold, A. E., D. L. Thurlow and H.D Skipper. 1980. Evaluation of

commercial soybean inoculants by various techniques. Agron J. 72: 674-681.

Hossain, A. K. M., and M. Alexander. 1984. Enhancing soybean rhizosphere

colonization by Rhizobium japonicum Appl. Environ. Microbiology. 48: 448-472.

Howieson, J.G. and M.A. Ewing. 1986. Acid tolerance in the Rhizobium

meliloti- medicago symbiosis. Aust. J. Agric. Res.- 37: 55-64. Hoben, H.J., N.N. Aung, P. Somasegaran and U.G. Kang 1991. Oils as

adhesives for seed inoculation and their infludence on the survival of Rhizobium spp. and Bradyrhizobium spp. on inoculated seeds. World J. Microbial Biotechnol. 7: 324 - 330.

Jordan, D. C. 1984. Rhizobiaceae. In: Bergey's Manual of Systematic

Bacteriology, (eds. N.R. Kreig and J.G. Holt) vol. I. williams and Wilkins Publications, Baltimore.

Keyser, H.H., P. Somasegaran and B.B. Bohlool 1992. Rhizobial ecology and

technology. In: Soil Microbial Ecology.(ed. F.B. Meeting Jr.). Applications in Agricultural and Environmental Management. pp. 205-260. Marcel Dekker, New York.

Skipper, H.D., J.H. Palmer, J.E. Giddens and J.M. Woodruff. 1980. Evaluation

of commercial soybean inoculants from South Carolina and Georgia. Agron. J. 72: 673-674.

Kremer, R.J., J. Polo and M.L Peterson 1982. Effect of suspending agent and

temperature on survival of Rhizobium in fertilizer. Soil Sci. Soc Am.J. 46.: 539-542.

Kremer, R.J. and M.L. Peterson. 1983. Effects of carrier and temperature on

survival of Rhizobium spp. in legume inoculation: development of an improved type of inoculant. Appl. Environ. Microbial 45: 1790 - 1794.

Mahler, R.L and A. O. Wollum II. 1982. Seasonal fluctuation of Rhizobium japonicum under a variety of field conditions in North Carolina. Soil Sci. 134: 317-324.

Materon, L.A and Weaver, E. W. 1984. Toxicity of arrow leaf clover seed to

Rhizobium trifolii. Agron. J. 76: 471-473. Mohammed, R. M., A. M. Kharazian, W. F. Campbell and M.D. Rumbaugh.

1991. Inendification of salt and drought tolerant R. meliloti strians. Plant and Soil 134: 217-276.

Munns, D. N. 1986. Acid soils tolerance in legumes and rhizobia. Adv. Plant

Nutr. 2: 63-91. Peoples, M.B. D.F. Herridge and J.K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen

fixation. An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil, 174: 3-28.

Rupela O.P. 1994. Screeing for intracultivaral variability for nodulation of

chickpea and pigenopea. In: Linking Biological Nitrogen Fixation Research is Asia: Report of a meeting of the Asia Working Group on Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes. (eds. O.P Rupela, J.V. D. K. Kumar Rao, S.P. Wani and C. Johansen ) pp 75-83. International crop Research Institute for the Semi - Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Salema, M.P. C.A. Parker, D. K. Kidby and D. L. Chatel 1982. Death of

rhizobia on inoculated seed. Soil Biol. Biochem. 14: 13-14. Saxena, A.K. and R.B. Rewari 1992. Differential response of Chickpea (Cicer

arietinum) -Rhizobium combinations to saline soil conditions. Biol. Fertil. Soils 13: 31-34.

Saxena, A. K. and K.V.B.R. Tilak. 1999. Potentials and prospects of Rhizobium

biofertilizer. In: Agromicrobes (eds. M:N Jha, S. Sriram, G. S. Venkataraman and S. G. Sharma) pp 51-78. Today and Tommorrow's Printers & Publishers. New Delhi.

Singleton, P.W. and B.B. Bohlool, 1983. Effect of salinity on the functional

components of the soybean - Rhizobium japonicum symbiosis. Crop Sci. 23: 815-818.

Streeter, T. 1988. Inhibition of legume nodule formation and N2 fixation by nitrate. CRC critical Rev. Plant Sci. 7: 1-23.

Subba Rao, N. S. M. Lakshmi Kumari, C. S. Singh and S. P. Magu. 1972.

Nodulation of Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) under the influence of sodium chloride. Indian J. Agric. Sci, 42: 384-386.

Taneja, S., H. S. Nainawatee and S. Dhillon 1980. Effect of water stress on

malate dehydrogenase activity of Rhizobium and Azotobacter cells. Ind. J. Microbiol. 20 : 317-318.

Thompson, J. A. 1980. Production and quality control of legume inoculants. In:

Methods for evaluating biological nitrogen fixation, (ed. F.J. Bergerson) John wiley and sons Ltd. Chichester. pp. 489-533.

PULSES STRATEGY IN TAMIL NADU

Dr.M.Subramanian*

Pulses are not only the important food grain to supply protein which forms part of the vegetarian diet, it is also useful in many ways. It is a rich source of protein and possesses 2-3 times more than that of many other cereals. The protein composition makes up the deficiency of essential amino acids in cereals and millets. (Table 1)

Table 1. Nutrient content pulses Nutrient / Pulses Redgram Blackgram Greengram Bengalgram Soyabean

Moisture (%) 13.4 10.9 10.1 9.9 8.1 Protein (%) 22.3 24.0 24.5 20.8 43.2 Fat (%) 1.7 1.4 1.2 5.6 19.5 Carbohydrates (%)

57.6 59.6 59.9 59.8 20.9

Minerals (%) 3.5 3.2 3.5 2.7 4.6 Calcium (mg) 73.0 154.0 75.0 56.0 240.0 Phosphorus (mg)

304.0 385.0 45.0 331.0 690.0

Iron (mg) 5.8 9.1 8.5 1.1 11.5 Total N (%) 3.6 4.2 3.9 3.3 6.9 Calorie value 335.0 347.0 451.0 372.0 432.0 Vitamin ‘A’ (mg/100 g)

220.0 64.0 83.0 2160.0 710.0

Pulses enrich the soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the root

nodules and improves the soil structure (Asthana and Chaturvedi, 1999). The tap root system opens the soil into deeper strata and heavy leaf protein increases the soil organic matter and improves the soil structure. Pulses are ideal crop for mixed, and intercropping and also serve as nutritious vegetables and fodders. The seeds of lab lab, peas, pigeon pea and chickpeas are used as green vegetables while mungbean, urd bean and cowpea are used as green fodders for cattle. * Director of Research, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

India, the sub continent is growing pulses in about 22.39 million ha with a production of 14-24 million tones of pulses. This works out to an average productivity of 1623 kg/ha (1999.) Redgram, blackgram, greengram, bengalgram, horsegram, lentil, peas and beans, soyabeans and cowpea are some of the important pulse crops grown in many parts of the country. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh are the important States which grow the pulses in area ranged from 9.2 (Bihar) to 51.11 lakh ha (Madhya Pradesh). (Table 2) Table 2. State – wise area, output and yield of pulses

State Area (l/ha) Ouput (l/t) Yield (kg/ha) Andhra Pradesh 16.10 8.38 477 Arun.P. 0.07 0.07 - Assam 0.98 0.51 520 Bihar 9.10 7.45 671 Goa 0.10 0.08 - Gujarat 9.20 6.64 721 Haryana 4.20 3.45 823 H.P 0.72 0.11 - J & K 0.35 0.17 470 Karnataka 17.50 7.22 382 Kerala 0.21 0.15 800 Madhya Pradesh 51.70 35.44 719 Maharashtra 33.30 20.37 613 Meghalaya 0.03 0.03 - Mizoram 0.04 0.07 - Nagaland 0.08 0.14 1070 Orissa 8.50 2.26 350 Punjab 1.03 0.80 540 Rajashtan 38.00 18.45 494 Sikkim 0.07 0.06 - Tamil Nadu 9.50 2.33 430 Tripura 0.07 0.06 924 Uttar Pradesh 28.80 26.25 672 West Bengal 2.30 1.72 - A & N Islands 0.20 0.01 - D & N Haveli 0.04 0.03 - Daman, Diu 0.01 0.01 - Delhi 0.02 0.02 - Pondicherry 0.06 0.04 - All India 223.90 142.44 623

The average productivity of pulses ranged from 350 (Orissa) to 1070 kg ha (Nagaland). This productivity is very low when compared to cereals, millets and oilseeds. The annual production growth of pulses is estimated to be only 0.3% when compared to 2.6% in cereals. The current productivity level of pulses is very low which could not meet the per capita requirement of pulses ie; 80 gms day as recommended by the FAO/WHO. The current per capita availability of pulses is below 40 grams.

The requirement of protein in Indian diet has to be met through pulses

especially for the vegetarians. The country will need 30.3 million tons of pulses by 2020 AD since the population will touch 1350 million by that time. But the pulses production remains stagnated for about 4 decades it should be increased through many possible approaches.

The following are the main reasons to low productivity of pulses in

India. (1) Out of 22.39 million ha, about 78% of the area is under rainfed conditions (2) The soils where the pulse crops are grown are highly low in their nutrition level (3) unfavourable weather conditions like eratic and uncertain rainfall, low and high temperature and moisture stress at various crop growth stages (4) poor soil fertility and moisture retention capacity (5) soil salinity and alkalinity (6) the protein rich pulses crops are highly susceptible to various pests and diseases (7) number of storage grain pests cause considerable losses (8) lack of high yielding pest and disease tolerant pulse varieties (9) farmers devote poor attention to the pulses cultivation (10) mostly grown as mixed crop, intercrop, bund crop etc. (11) lack of fine tuned package practices for pulses cultivation (12) highly susceptible to drought and water logged conditions (13) poor storability and lack of storage facility and (14) fluctuation in the weather conditions affect the crop very much. Rice Fallow Pulses Pulses are cultivated under irrigated as well as rainfed conditions. They are cultivated in another unique ecosystem knows as ‘Rice fallow condition’. In the residual soil moisture in this system, the pulses particularly blackgram (Urd) and green gram (Mungbean) are broadcast, 7-10 days before the harvest of paddy crop and allowed to germinate and grow. Since pulses are grown under paddy stubbles the pulses crops have to survive in the residual moisture of the soil, besides frost & mist available during the period will also provide all comforts to grow well and yield with in 65-70 days of sowing. However, yield recorded in this ecosystem is highly variable mostly and depends on the management practices followed. The yield ranged from 300-500 kg/ha. This reduced production obtained from rice fallow pulses are due to

Very low extent of cultivation Sowing is not done at the appropriate time (Jan 15 –Feb 15) Use of poor quality seed with low germination (farmers seed) Poor seed and poor population Prevalence of drought during reproductive stage Full of weeds Non practice of DAP spraying High pest and disease incidence

Besides, blackgram and green gram soyabean was introduced as rice

fallow crop; but this is a highly sensitive crop to high temperature (340C) particularly at reproductive stage. The soyabean crop develops pods with out seeds due to high temperature if prevailed during reproductive stage. It has caused heavy loss to the farmers, which inhibited further promotion of soyabean area and cultivation in cauvery delta zone of Tamil Nadu.

Rice fallow area is a potential one, therefore careful and appropriate management of pulse crops will increase the yield. There is every possibility to expand the area of rice fallow with the pulses. Like Rice, Cereals, Oilseeds, Millets etc., research outcome for the benefit of increasing yield in pulses is not much. Particularly biotechnological approach to get pulses resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses coupled with high yield is very minimum. However, if the following recommendations are followed the pulses production can be increased. USE OF NEW HIGH YIELDING VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS Redgram (Arhar, Tur, Pigeon pea) (Cajanus cajan)

It is an important pulse crop grown throughout India and gives better yield. Research done over the years has resulted in the release of hybrid pigeon peas ICPH8, PPH 4, CO H 1, COPH2 and AKPH 4101. Besides, long duration (180-200 days) redgram has been reduced in their maturity period and early maturing redgram varieties in 90-100 days viz APK1 and Vamban1 were developed in Tamil Nadu. These can be raised as pure crop as well as inter and mixed crop with cereals/millets/oilseeds and harvested in a shorter period. The are also suitable for multiple cropping Besides, the longer duration redgram varieties like SA1 & Vamban 2 as Perannial redgram BSR 1 can be raised as intercrop and bund crop to boost productivity. Blackgram (Urd) (Phaseolus aureus)

Very commonly cultivated pulse crop in India as well as in Tamil Nadu. It suffers from heavy incidence of mungbean yellow mosaic virus transmitted by a white fly (Bemisia tabaci) However, resistant varieties like Vamban 1, Vamban 2 and Vamban 3 blackgram varieties have been released for cultivation. It can also be raised as inter as well as mixed crop with cereals / millets / oilseeds. It also suits for bund cropping. Greengram (Mungbean) (Phaseolus mungo)

It is yet another highly nutritious pulse crop popularly cultivated in

India. Tamil Nadu is also having considerable area under this pulse. It also suffers from MYMV disease however newly released varieties like CO 6, Paiyur 1 and Vamban 1 are tolerant to this disease. This crop can be also raised as inter and mixed crop with cereals/millets/oilseeds and raised as bund crop. A new variety known as ‘Pusa bold’, was recently introduced from AVRDC, Taiwan which possesses bold seeds without any hard seeds and matures in 50-55 days. It gives about 500 kg of yield /ha.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) CO1 and Paiyur 1, Horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) CO4, CO 6 Vamban 1, Vamban 2, CO2 and Unguiculata sp; Paiyur 2 Bengal gram (Chick pea) (Cicer arietinum) CO3, CO4 and Soyabean (Glycine max) CO1 and CO2 are other pulses crops cultivated in considerable area in Tamil Nadu as well as in India.

Rice fallow pulses

1. Blackgram - ADT 3 and ADT 4 (65 –70 days) 750-1000 kg/ha 2. Greengram - ADT 3 (75 days) 850 kg/ha 3. Soyabean - ADT 1 (85 days) 12750 kg/ha.

RESISTANT PULSE CROPS (Chandra, 1991) Crop varieties Resistant to Redgram BDN1, BDN 2 and Maruthi (KP 8863) wilt Bahar, CO 5, Vamban 2 COPH 2 and APK1 sterility mosaic WB 20 & DA9 Alternaria blight CO 5 Root rot and mod

Resistant to pod fly Chick Pea (gram) CO 3, CO 4, Pusa 212, JG 315 Avrodhi BG 244 wilt and ICC 32 H355 Root rot Blackgram (urd) CO 5 Moderately resistant Vamban, 1, Vamban 2, Vamban 3, to powdery mildew Pant U 19, Pant U 30, UG 18and PDU 1 Yellow mosaic ADT 3 Leaf Crinkle Greengram (Mung bean) CO6, ML 267, ML 337, Pant mung 2 Yellow mosaic Pant mung 1, and Pant mung 3 Yellow mosaic 2

macrophomina CO4 Tip blight &

root rot

Management practices Optimum population stand should be maintained for all pulses (33 no/m2) except redgram, which needs 11 no/m2.

Seed hardening for drought management and use of specific Rhizobium (600 gr/ha) seed treatment for all pulses are highly essential.

Phosphobacteria (600 g / ha) seed treatment for all pulses to increase ‘P’ use efficiency. Application of Trichoderma viridi (4g/kg of seed) as seed treatment to control diseases like welt and nematode.

Application of sulphur through gypsum at 40 kg/ha increases the yield in ‘S’ deficient soil. Integrated weed management is very essential to avoid the competition of weeds with pulse crops and increase the yield. Rice fallow Pulses 1. Use of improved varieties like ADT 3 & ADT 4 blackgram and ADT 3

greengram 2. Sowing / broadcasting of pulses between January 15 and February 15th 3. Use of quality picked seeds to maintain the required population 4. Foliar spray (2% DAP) twice. Population maintenance This is one of important criteria by which yield is affected very much. The population ie; 33 no/m2 is fixed as an optimum population for getting higher yield at the seed rate of 20 kg/ha, but generally the population is not maintained due to various reasons. So to maintain the population, about 1-2 kgs of Blackgram / greengram seeds are soaked and allowed to sprout previous day after the harvest of paddy, the sprouted seeds are sown wherever gaps and patches are seen. Foliar spray

Supplementary foliar spray of 250 liters of solution / ha with the following chemical will boost the yield of pulses.

Chemicals Blackgram Greengram

Urea 7.5kg 7.5-10 kg DAP 1.95kg 1.9-2.6 kg Muriak of potash 1.31 kg 1.31 – 1.75kg Potassium sulphet 1.05 kg 50 g Succmic acid 40 g 50 g Teepal 125 ml 125 ml First spray 25 DAS 25 DAS Second spray 40 DAS 40 DAS

Preconditioning The gunny bags are first soaked in water than excess water is removed by squeezing. The pulse seeds are spread to a depth of 1-2 cm on the gunny bag and covered with another moist gunny bag. The preconditional seeds are then soaked in aqueous botanical leaf extracts of prosopis and pungam using 1% solution each mixed with 1:1 ratio. To prepare 1 litre of botanical extract 10 grams in each of prosopis and pungam forest leaves are macerated in to paste separately and both put in to water and made up the volume to 1 lit. Soak the preconditioned seeds in this prepared solution using 1:0.3 ratio i.e 1 kg of seeds in 300 ml of leaf extract gently stir the seeds occasionally to have uniform absorption. After 1 hour, drain the solution and dry the seeds in the shade. Invigouration Following seed hardening the seeds are treated with halogen formulation at 3g kg-1 of seed (5 parts of pure bleaching powder : 4 parts of finally powdered chalk powder : 1 part of arappu leaf powder mixed). This treatment should be given to the seeds at the time of drying. Future thrust Development of plant types responsive to high inputs Development of early maturing location specific pulse varieties suitable

for multiple cropping Development of pigeonpea hybrids and efficient hybrid seed production

technologies Application of biotechnological tool to overcome the problem on

resistant breeding particularly YMV, SMD etc., and yield stability Development of some clones, transgenic plants marker assisted selection

should be given priority. New source of CMS lines are to be identified through intergeneric

crosses. Evaluation and maintenance of germ plasm Strengthening basic research on physiological and nutritional aspects for

increasing photosynthetic efficiencies Development of pulse varieties tolerant to various abiotic stresses (High

and low temp, drought and salt stress alkalinity and excessive moisture etc)

Development of integrated pest and disease management practices Strengthening the post harvest Tech.research Efficient and effective extension methods through on farm testing and

front line demonstration for the improved varieties and technologies Standardisation of quality seed production Increasing the storage ability and storage facility Well defined location specific package of practices need to be developed

for i) Seed rate and seed treatment ii) Population maintenance iii) Foliar spray iv) Irrigation schedule and methods v) Use of biofertilizers like Rhizobium etc., vi) Effective but cost effective INM.

References Asthana, A.N. and S.K. Chaturdevi, 1999. A little impetus needed. The Hindu

survey of Indian Agriculture, 1999 p.61-65. Chandra, S. 1991. Poised for a break through the Hindu survey of Indian

Agriculture, 1991 p.73-79.

PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES OF CULTIVATION OF PULSES AND PROSPECTS OF SUMMER IRRIGATED

PULSES IN TAMIL NADU

Dr.C.Surendran1 and Dr.AR.Muthiah2

A wide array of pulses is cultivated in India including Bengalgram, Redgram, Greengram, Blackgram and lentil besides some minor pulses viz., Moth bean, Cowpea etc. The cultivation of grain legumes provides cheapest source of plant protein. Although the production of pulses has increased to some extent since independence the per capita availability has declined substantially. It implies that the increase in production has not kept pace with the growing population. The per capita availability of pulses has gone down from 60-70g in 1950-51 to 42.00 g in 1996-97. The per capita availabiling of total food grains has, however, gone up from 349.90g in 1950-51 to 560.00 g in 1996-97. Hence the total food grains availability has gone up mainly due to the increased production of cereals. This has resulted in cereal - pulse imbalance in the diet. While the world health organisation recommends 80 g as a per capita consumption of pulses per day and the Indian Council of Medical Research has recommends a minimum consumption of 47g/day. The actual consumption in India, however is much less i.e., around 30-35 g per capita per day. Status of pulses in Tamil Nadu The total area under pulses in Tamil Nadu fluctuated from 4.93 (1982-1983) to 9.61 lakh hectares (1995-96) in the last two decades and the average area is around 7.0 lakh hectares. The productivity of all the pulses put together in the state raised from 322 (1979-80) to 492 kg/ha (1994-95) in the last two decades and the average productivity is around 410 kg/ha. 1. Director, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, TNAU, Coimbatore 2. Professor and Head, Pulses, TNAU, Coimbatore Redgram (Cajanus cajan)

The area of under pigeonpea in the state fluctuated from 0.60 (1980-81) to 1.66 lakh hectares (1995-96) in the last two decades and the average area under pigeonpea is around 1.07 lakh hectares. The productivity of pigeonpea varied from 452 (1993-94) and 979 kg/ha (1986-87) in the last two decades and the average productivity of pigeonpea is around 671 Kg/ha. Blackgram (Vigna mungo) The area under blackgram in the state varied from 1.19 (1982-83) to 3.40 lakh ha (1995-96) in the last two decades and the average area is around 2.53 lakh hectares. The productivity of blackgram was between 209 (1983-84) and 523 kg/ha (1994-95) in the last two decades and the average productivity is around 406 kg/ha. Greengram (Vigna radiata) The area under greengram in the state fluctuated from 0.19 (1982-83) to 1.63 lakh hectares (1996-97) in the last two decades and the average area under mungbean is around 0.88 lakh hectares. The productivity also varied from 181 (1983-84) to 480 kg/ha (1996-97) in the last two decades and the average productivity is around 394 kg/ha. Horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) The area under horsegram fluctuated in the state from 1.95 lakh ha (1979-80) to 1.03 lakh ha (1988-89) in the last two decades and the average area is around 1.38 lakh hectares. The productivity was between 233 (1979-80) and 497 kg/ha (1993-94) in the last two decades and the average productivity is around 398 kg/ha. Bengalgram (Cicer arietinum) The area under bengalgram in the state fluctuated from 0.04 (1995-96) to 0.10 lakh ha (1994-95) in the last two decades and the average area is around 0.08 lakh hectares. The productivity varied from 527 (1996-97) to 714 kg/ha (1988-89) and the average productivity is around 628 kg/ha in the last two decades. Other pulses (Cowpea, Garden lablab, field lablab, French bean, Peas etc.)

The area under other pulses fluctuated from 0.65 (1979-80) to 3.02 lakh ha (1986-87) in the last two decades and the average area is around 1.62 lakh hectares. The productivity was between 162 (1995-96) and 362 kg/ha (1982-83) in the last two decades and the average productivity is around 231 kg/ha. General constraints to pulse production in the state Redgram, blackgram and greengram are mostly grown as rainfed crop,

that too as a mixed crop / border crop / intercrop. Susceptibility of pigeonpea to pod borer Helicoverpa armigera and to

the diseases like wilt and sterility mosaic. Indeterminate tall growth of pigeonpea makes the plant protection difficult. Sowing of blackgram and greengram under rice fallow conditions if

delayed beyond February, 15th, there is drastic reduction in the productivity in rice fallow pulses.

Poor plant stand and terminal moisture stress are the two major constraints for rice fallow pulses viz., blackgram and greengram in Tamil Nadu and the normal area under rice fallow blackgram is around 1.75 lakh ha and greengram is around 0.5 lakh ha in the state.

Greengram and blackgram are susceptible to mungbean Yellow Mosaic Virus (MYMV), besides they are susceptible to powdery mildew, cercospora leaf spot and to leaf curl virus.

Adequate population of blackgram and greengram could not be maintained under rice fallow conditions especially due to improper levelling.

Susceptibility of bengalgram to root rot wilt as well as to the pod borer Helicoverpa armigera

Pulses in general do not withstand, heavy rains in October - November and prolonged drought in July - August.

Lack of fertilizer responsive varieties in pulses Use of poor quality seeds and non availability of quality seeds in time.

Seed Production in pulses is mostly taken up by TNAU and State Agricultural Departments and Private seed Companies are not taking up seed production in pulses.

Unremunarative and unstable prices for pulses Inadequate technology transfer to farming community. High sensitivity of pulses towards environmental flucluations

Specific problems in pulses Cropwise and zone wise problems are listed below to enable the scientists to develop suitable technologies for different crops and different locations to enhance pulse production.

A. Redgram Mainly raised as rainfed agriculture with moisture strees due to low

precipitation Raised as intercrop in marginal and submarginal lands. High risk factor as a rainfed crop prohibits the increase in area. Susceptibility to diseases like wilt, sterility mosaic etc. Susceptibility to pests like pod borer, podfly etc. Indeterminate tall stature of cultivars makes plant protecion difficult

B. Greengram Uncertainity in time of sowing of rice fallow crop. Sowing after the

harvest of paddy depends on release of water in Cauvery. If the sowing is delayed for greengram beyond February 15 the yield per day is reduced

Plant stand in rice fallow condition is not optimum As a rainfed crop during kharif and rabi , crop yields are uncertain and

depend on unpredictable precipitation High risk factor is susceptibility to YMV, powdery mildew, Cercospora

leaf spot and leaf curl and stemfly. C. Blackgram Uncertainity in time of sowing in rice fallows as sowing depends on the

paddy sowing which in turn depends on release of water in Cauvery Optimum plant population in rice fallows can not be maintained Yellow mosaic, powdery mildew and Cercospora leaf spot and Stemfly and spodoptera menace.

D. Bengalgram Root rot and wilt Heliothis pod borer Uncertain winter - need for early maturing varieties

PULSES PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS ZONE WISE I. North eastern zone (Thiruvallur, Kancheepuram, Vellore,

Thiruvannamalai and Cuddalore districts) Mostly sown as rainfed crop Mostly as mixed, inter and border crop Susceptibility to YMV, pests and diseases

Pulses dot not withstand heavy rain in October - November and prolonged drought in July - August

Heliothis on redgram Powdery mildew, Cercospora, rust, wilt and leaf spot

II. Cauvery delta zone (Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore districts) Damage by cyclones and floods YMV, powdery mildew, leaf spot in blackgram and greengram Plant stand and terminal moisture stress

III. North western zone (Dharmapuri, Salem districts) Mostly as rainfed crop Mostly as mixed or inter crop Horsegram grown in vast area during rabi (September - October) Lack of fertiliser responsive varieties and genetic variability Poor adoption of available technical knowledge

IV. Central zone (Trichy and Pudukkottai districts) Mostly as a mixed crop with sorghum or bajra Disease like YMV, powdery mildew Pests like Heliothis, pod borer etc.

V. Western zone (Coimbatore and Erode districts) Pulses are grown under rainfed condition Pulses are grown as a mixed crop and border crop Lack of fertiliser responsiveness Susceptibility to YMV and powdery mildew Heavy incidence of Heliothis and pod borer Failure to adopt package of practices

VI. Southern zone (Madurai, Ramnad, Sivagangai, Virudhunagar and Tirunelveli districts) Lesser area coverage by certified seeds Less use of bio-fertilizers Mostly as a rainfed crop Poor adoption of technical knowledge Pulses are grown with less attention

Technologies to over come constraints In redgram, Vamban 1 is to be replaced by Aruppukottai 1 (APK 1) which is resistant to sterility mosaic disease. It is a short duration redgram and as an irrigated summer crop has a very good potential of yielding 1000-1200 Kg/ha. In 120-130 days maturity group CO 5 redgram can be grown in all districts of the state.

In 180 days group, Vamban 2 redgram to replace SA 1 and CO 6. It is resistant to sterility mosaic disease and gives an average yield of 1050 kg/ha. CO 6 redgram being tolerant to pod borer, it can be continued in areas where pod borer menace is a regular future. COPH 2 , a hybrid redgram, maturing in 120-130 days is suitable for the June-July, September-October and January - February sowings with an average yield potential of 1050 Kg/ha. Bund cropping BSR 1 redgram - perennial redgram can be kept for more than two years by ratooning. BSR 1 recommended for Kitchen garden, backyards, farm road sides etc. The average seed yield of 750g to one Kg per plant. IPM technologies for pod borer control Grow varieties which are tolerant to pod borer Use of pheromone traps to monitor emergence of adults Use of NPV (500 larval equivalent per ha) Spraying Neem seed kernel extract If larvae stage is in the third instar start spraying endosulfan 35EC. 1.25

lit per hectare NSKE 5%, Neem oil 2% and phasalone 0.07% are effective in the management of pest complex and for higher yield Mechanical removal of late stage larvae

Use of appropriate bacterial cultures There is ample scope for increasing the average yield by way of using appropriate rhizobium cultures. These cultures not only increase yield but also upgrade fertility status of the soil. At TNAU the following newer strains were introduced for specific crop.

Rhizobium Yield increase (%) Crop

COG 15 30 Greengram COC 10 23 Blackgram

CC 1 12-60 Redgram COBe 13 25-30 Bengalgram COC 10 35 Cowpea

Blackgram and Greengram Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) is the major constraint. Vamban 3 blackgram which is resistant to yellow mosaic virus disease and capable of giving an average yield of 775 Kg/ha and 825 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated conditions respectively. It can be cultivated throughout Tamil Nadu in the place of TMV 1, T9, Vamban 1 and Vamban 2. CO 6 greengram which matures in 65-70 days is resistant to yellow mosaic virus and gives an average yield of 982 Kg/ha. It can replace KM 2 greengram. Rice fallow pulses Management 1. Use of higher seed rate to maintain adequate population 2. Foliar application of 2% DAP twice one at flowering and another 15

days after flowering results in increased yield due to well developed seeds.

3. Foliar spraying of 0.5 per cent potassium chloride during flowering will not allow yield loss due to water stress

Under cold season pulses, horsegram and bengalgram play an important role in adding to the pulse production in the State. CO 1, Paiyur 1 and Paiyur 2 horsegram varieties with in 100-110 days duration and capable of giving an average yield of 600-900 Kg/ha under rainfed conditions can also be used as fodder pulses. Other pulses There are several legumes notably winged bean and ricebean hold great promise. Both are rich sources of protein. Their protein quality is on par with the commonly grown pulses. For example, the mean protein content of the winged bean is about 34.2 per cent. It also contains 16-18 per cent fat in

addition to appreciable quantity of iron and calcium. All parts of winged bean are edible. Therefore these legumes can also be cultivated to alleviate malnutrition and hunger.

Less known pulses like limabean, swordbean, dewgram etc. can also be popularised. Broadening genetic base The experience of plant breeders reveal that the genetic bases of pulses are very narrow i.e the genetic variability is limited. Genetic base can be broadened by extensive exploration and collection of germplasm of economic as well as related wild species. Summer irrigated pulses The wide spread of north east monsoon in Tamil Nadu state, will lering a comfortable storage of water in all reservoirs and tanks, improve soil moisture and ground water availability. There is possibility of increasing the area under irrigated pulses dueing this period. Monocrop concept is necessary in tank fed areas and rice follows. The production of pulses can be improved, if thay are judiciously introduced in cropping systems, thereby they share the advantage of fertile lands, irrigation and other inputs.

The demand for more pulse production necessitated the strengthening of crop improvement, to get increased output per unit area and creating new genotypes for production in non traditional areas. This can be achieved by combining genetic and agronomic improvement. The recent achievement in genetic and agronomic improvement of pulse i.e. the development of short duration pigeonpea (Redgram) can be quoted as an example. Simlarly in blackgram and greengram MYMV resistant genotypes with early duration, and well suited to summer irrigated situations have also been developed. Hybrid redgram can be grown under summer irrigated situations in districts like Erode, Coimbatore, Salem, Madurai and in other potential districts.

The following are the varieties best suited for summer irrigated situation

in different pulse crops. Blackgram : ADT 5, TMV 1 and CO 5 Redgram : Vamban 1, Aruppukkottai 1 (APK 1) and COPH 2 hybrid Greengram : CO 6 and KM 2 Soyabean : CO 1 and CO 2 Cowpea : CO 2 (Vegetable) CO 4 and CO 6 (grain types)

Cultivation of blackgram as summer crop can be tried in the potential areas like Salem, Tirunelveli, Trichy, Kancheepuram, Thiruvallur, Dindigul, Madurai, Thoothukudi, Dharmapuri, Erode and Coimbatore Districts. The greengram is having a chance of giving high productivity in districts like Salem, Dindigul, Tirunelveli, Coimbatore, Erode, Thiruvallur, Kancheepuram and Thoothukudi Districts. Soyabean It may be grown as a pure crop during February - March with CO 1 and CO 2 varieties in all districts except Kanyakumari and Nilgiris. Cowpea It is a cosmopoliton pulse can be raised as a sole crop during February - March in the districts like Salem, Coimbatore, Erode, Madurai, Trichy and Tirunelveli with Vamban 2 and CO2 (vegetable) and CO 4 and CO 6 varieties (grain types). Particulars of varieties of different pulse crops that can be grown during summer in Tamil Nadu.

S.No. Variety Year of release

Duration (days)

Yield Kg/ha (irrigated)

Redgram 1 Vamban 1 1992 95-100 1200 2 Aruppukkottai 1

(APK 1) 1999 95-105 1250

3 COPH 2 (Hybrid) 1997 120-130 1350 Blackgram 4 CO 5 1981 70-75 1250 5 TMV 1 1979 65-70 1200 6 ADT 5 1988 70-75 1550 Greengram 7 CO 6 1999 65-70 1300 8 KM 2 1978 65-70 1150 Cowpea 9 CO 4 1983 85 1570

10 CO 6 1993 70 1500 11 CO 2 1972 90 11 tons green pods 12 Vamban 2 1998 85 10.6 tons green pods Soybean 12 CO 1 1980 85 1600 13 CO 2 1995 75-80 1350

RECENT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR RICE FALLOW PULSES

Dr.S. Ramanathan*

Food is complete and balanced only when pulses, the basic ingredients are included. Pulses are the major sources for the protein. According to FAO/WHO’s recommendation every individual needs 85 grams of pulses/day to meet the protein requirement but at present per capita availability of pulses is only 40 grams/day in India. This situation warrants to produce 3 fold increase as that of the current pulse production even to meet the minimum need. Pulses are cultivated in about 226 lakh hectares in India with production of 121 lakh metric tonnes build up from an average productivity of 534 kg/ha. The per hectare productivity of pulses in India is very low when compared to the average productivity of 1494 and 637 kg/ha in other developed and developing countries respectively, as well as the global average pulse productivity of 797 kg/ha. The important pulse crops grown in Tamil Nadu are redgram, blackgram, greengram, soybean, cowpea, bengalgram lal lab and horsegram. They are cultivated in about 8.2 lakhs hectares with the production of 3.7 lakhs metric tonnes. The average productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu is about 449 kg/ha, which is very low when compared to Indian average of 534 kg/ha as well as other pulses producing states like, Haryana (936 kg/ha), Madhyapradesh (739 kg/ha), Uttarpradesh (795 kg/ha), Gujarat (572 kg/ha) etc. The low productivity of pulses is attributed to reasons as detailed below : 1. Lack of high yielding varieties 2. Pulses are given secondary importance due to their low productivity 3. Mostly cultivated as mixed, inter or border crop 4. Cultivated in marginal lands and grown as rainfed crops 5. Very minimum management 6. Pulses are not able to with stand prolonged drought/water stagnation 7. Susceptible to pests and diseases 8. Poor keeping quality 9. Lack of storage facilities * Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthurai

Recently protein famine is threatening the developing and under developed countries. To meet its requirement pulses, the rich protein crops need to be improved. Tamil Nadu ranks 10th in terms of area and 11th in terms of production at All India level. Current estimated (1998-99) total production of pulses in Tamil Nadu is 3.52 lakh metric tonnes. Since the annual requirement of pulses for our state is 11 lakh tonnes, the balance is being met form the neighbouring states. While such is the present scenario, the area under pulses should be increased with high yielding varieties, in order to obtain self sufficiency in pulse production. It is evident that the area under pulses has been increased during the period and productivity has also been increased form 322 kg/ha (1979-80) to 490 kg/ha (1996-97) (Table 1). The increase in productivity is attributed to the combined effect of improved crop varieties with efficient crop management practices. Table 1. Total area, production and productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu.

Years Area in L.ha Production L.M.T. Productivity Kg/ha 1979-80 6.06 1.95 322 1980-81 5.44 1.76 324 1981-82 5.58 1.89 337 1982-83 4.93 1.89 383 1983-84 6.03 2.22 367 1984-85 6.18 2.49 403 1985-86 5.82 2.75 473 1986-87 6.89 3.12 453 1987-88 6.35 2.83 451 1988-89 6.25 2.48 397 1989-90 8.21 3.34 407 1990-91 8.47 3.59 424 1991-92 7.76 3.51 453 1992-93 7.39 3.43 464 1993-94 6.90 2.76 401 1994-95 6.91 3.40 492 1995-96 9.61 3.59 374 1996-97 9.53 4.10 430 1997-98 8.05* 3.40 422* 1998-99 8.14* 3.52 432* * Estimated

Area production and productivity of major pulses in Tamil Nadu Among the different pulse crops grown blackgram occupies the major area followed by greengram and redgram (Table 2). By adopting improved method of technologies like improved variety, optimum time of sowing, plant population, suitable rhizobial inoculation, fertilizer application, timely weed management practices, need based plant protection measures coupled with proper irrigation schedule would definitely increased the yield of pulses. Table 2. Area, Production and Productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu Crops Area L.Ha Production L.MT Productivity Kg/ha Blackgram 3.67 1.43 390 Greengram 1.63 0.78 480 Redgram 1.41 1.22 864 Horsegram 1.23 0.54 431 Bengalgram 0.09 0.05 625 Other pulses 1.50 0.25 164 Rice fallow pulses Pulses are also cultivated under rice fallow conditions in about 2.6 lakh hectares in Tamil Nadu which is 30.75% of the total area under pulses in this state. Rice fallow pulses contribute about 40.5% of the total pulse production. The rice fallow pulses are cultivated in Trichirapalli (0.3 lakhs ha), Thanjavur (0.52 lakh ha), Nagapattinam (0.7 lakh ha), Vilupuram (0.48 lakh ha), Tirunelveli (0.18 lakh ha) and Tuticorin (0.36 lakh ha). The success of rice fallow crop is depending upon many factors. However, average per hectare productivity of rice fallow pulses ranged from 300-500 kg/ha during favourable years but if soil moisture is inadequate, the yield will be drastically pulled down to 100 kg/ha. The following are the causes identified for the low productivity in rice fallow pulses. 01. Low area coverage 02. Use of poor quality seeds due to (farmers own seed) non availability of

quality seeds 03. Sowing is not done at correct time due to late release of water/ non

availability of irrigation water for rice 04. Poor germination of seeds 05. Water stress at flowering stage 06. Non adoption of DAP spraying 07. Excessive weed growth

08. Pests and disease problems 09. Sub optimal seed rate/inadequate population 10. Storage problem 11. Cattle grazing 12. Poor marketing Therefore the current rice fallow pulses cultivation strategy needs to be reviewed critically to overcome the constraints and get higher yield. It is a potential area where considerable hectares of land are under pulses cultivation. A minimum of even 10 per cent yield increase will boost the pulses production considerably form rice fallow pulses. The following are suggestions to boost the pulse productivity and production in Tamil Nadu. I. Strengthening research on rice fallow pulses a) Breeding

i) Maintenance and evaluation of germplasm ii) Identification of resistant genes for YMV and crinkle virus diseases iii) Intensifying inter varietal and inter specific hybridization programme iv) Introduction of biotechnology approach v) Identification varieties to suit rice fallow condition (includes short

duration soyabean) vi) Augmenting the quality seed production b. Management i) Technology for population maintenance ii) Optimum seed rate and plant stand iii) Time and method of sowing iv) Use of organic inorganic and bio-fertilizers v) Fertilizer management and application vi) Micronutrient management vii) Foliar spraying of nutrients/anti transparents/growth regulators viii) Residual and fertility analysis after pulses harvest ix) Cropping pattern – Pulses can be introduced as inter crop in rice fallow

cotton / maize / vegetables c. Protection

i) Screening varieties against pest and diseases; Particularly for yellow mosaic virus and its vector Bemisia tabaci, pod borer and pod fly ii) Development of integrated insect pest and disease management iii) Intensification of research on storage pests d. Seed Technology i) Fixing norms for quality seeds ii) Identification of places for quality seed production iii) Seed hardening iv) Quality seed production techniques v) storage studies vi) Seed viability in soyabean II. Exploring the possibilities of extending rice fallow pulses in other

districts III. Strengthening the seed production by identifying suitable places IV. Well defined marketing facilities V. Good storage facilities for keeping the pulse seeds without loosing their

viability and protection against insect attack. Rice fallow pulses production techniques In Tamil Nadu rice is being cultivated in an area of 21 lakh hectares either as single or double crop. After the harvest of the rice crop during the month of January, much of the area is left as fallow. However in the districts of Tanjore, Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur, Trichy, Pudukkottai, Cuddalore, Villupuram, Thirunelveli and Thoothukudi. Pulses viz., blackgram, greengram, soybean are being cultivated under rice fallow situations. Rice fallow pulses are grown utilizing the residual moisture and also the moisture obtained from dew late in the season. The productivity of rice fallow pulses is low due to various reasons already indicated above. The productivity could be enhanced by following improved production techniques including the use of high yielding varieties. Varietal improvement Varietal improvement programmes are to be continued to breed high yielding and short duration varieties, taking into consideration the residual moisture and quantum of moisture obtained from dew. The local varieties which were in cultivation are of long duration in nature with excess vegetative growth and ultimately yielding less. Varietal improvement works in rice fallow pulses

at TRRI, Aduthurai and TNAU, Coimbatore resulted in the release of high yielding varieties suitable for rice fallow situation. Blackgram ADT 1 : Released in 1965 pureline selection form Aduthurai local, Duration 70-75 days, attains 50% flowerings 30-35 DAS yield 650 kg/ha. ADT 2 : Released in 1979, Duration 70-75 days; yield 600 kg/ha; 50% flowering 30-35 DAS. ADT 3 : Released in 1981; Duration 72-75 days, yield 750 kg/ha, Medium height and branches in the lower part of the plant. Also suitable for bund cropping. ADT 4 : Released in 1987; Duration 65-70 days, yield 100 kg/ha also suitable for bund cropping. Resistant to root rot, yellow mosaic virus and stemfly capable of yielding even under late sown condition. Greengram ADT 1 : Released in 1996; Duration 80 days, yield 500 kg/ha. ADT 2 : Released in 1982; Duration 70-75 days, growing upto 35 cm height, attain 50% flowering 50 DAS, yield 700 kg/ha. Resistant to powdery mildew disease. ADT 3 : Released in 1988; Duration 65 days, yield 1000-1200 kg/ha.. Resistant to stemfly and yellow mosaic disease. Soybean ADT 1 : Released in 1990, 85-90 days duration, protein 30%, oil content 29% yield 1270 kg/ha, field resistant to major pest and disease. CO 1 : Released in 1985, rainfed as well as irrigated condition, duration 85 days, yield 1800 kg/ha (rainfed), 1640 kg/ha (irrigated). Suitable for rice fallow situation also, high temperature during flowering grain filling is affected. CO 2 : Duration 75 days, Released in 1996; yield 1340 kg/ha, non dehesive pods at maturity, oil content 24.8 also suitable for rice fallow situation. To realise higher yield from rice fallow pulses the correct time of sowing is very important. Sowing the rice fallow pulses form January 15th to February 15th (Thaipattam) will give higher yield. The result of the time of sowing experiment in blackgram is furnished in Table 3. Sowing the pulses at appropriate time under rice fallow situation will enable the crop to utilize the residual fertility and moisture properly. Delayed sowing will expose the crop to drought at later period due to depletion of residual soil moisture. The main

reasons attributed to low yields in late sowings are high temperature prevailing in the growth and flowering phases. Table 3. Seed yield of blackgram (kg/ha) at different dates of sowing 1998 Date of sowing Yield January II fortnight 739 February I fortnight 702 February II fortnight 409 March I fortnight 362 March II fortnight 262 CD 32 Seed rate Optimum plant population is the basis for higher yield (optimum seed rate of 25 kg/ha is adopted). The gaps are to be filled with pre sprouted seeds to maintain optimum population. Seed treatment To prevent the spread of seed borne diseases, pre seed treatment with fungicide / biocontrol agent is to be resorted to Bevistin 2 g/kg of seed or Trichoderma viride 4 gm/kg of seed. A study was conducted at Aduthurai for three years to compare the effect of soaking seeds in chemical solution. The seeds were soaked in water for 2 hours and than in chemical solution for 2 hours. The seeds were dried in shade before sowing. The results indicated that soaking seeds in 8% MnSO4 solution gave consistantly higher yields in all three years (Table 4). Table 4. Effect of pre soaking of pulse seeds in chemical solutions

Grain yield (kg/ha) Blackgram Greengram

Treatment

1979 1980 1981 1979 1980 1981 MnSo4 8% 268 413 286 213 247 285 KCL 1 2% 128 201 139 199 207 165 FeSO4 4% 222 253 228 89 93 110 ZnSO4 8% 182 265 186 178 103 215 CuSO4 0.4% 161 250 213 63 103 130 K2SO4 2% 228 273 128 93 117 203 Water soaking 196 217 178 161 190 149 Unsoaked control 151 173 172 125 159 181

CD (P=0.05) 50 82 66 53 14 81 Pelleting of seeds with Super Phosphate, Rhizobial culture and plant protection chemicals has been reported to improve establishment, nodulation and grain yield in trials conducted under the All India Coordinated Pulses Improvement Project in different centres in the country. Efficacy and economics of this practice under rice fallow conditions are to be tested. Bacterial seed treatment Bacterial slurry may be prepared with rice kanji and treated the seeds. Bacterial culture treated seed to be dried in shade for 15 mts. before sowing (24 hour interval should be maintained between fungicide and bacterial treatments). Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride and carbendazim/thiram/PCNB at 4 and 2 g/kg respectively. Treating seeds with 3 pockets of crop specific Rhizobium culture has to be done. Sowing Proper levelling of Samba/Thaladi rice fields is necessary to avoid excess/deficit moisture during pulse sowing situation. Making availability of good quality seeds with more than 90% germination is to be ensured. Advising the farmers to at samba/Thaladi rice crops leaving 4 to 6 inches in order to facilitate growing young pulse seedlings to get more sunlight is also important. The pulse seeds are sown when the field is in waxy condition, 7-10 days prior to harvest of the crop. If sowing is not able to be taken up prior to harvest, the pulse seeds are to be dibbled manually at 30x10 cm spacing. The optimum population required per unit area is 33 plants. Germination and establishment should be completed before the top soil dried and an encrustation formed. Nutrient Requirements Of the 16 essential elements required for the nutrition of plants, pulses specially need adequate amount of P, Ca, Mg, S and Mo. Phosphorus is required for proper root growth and growth of rhizobia. Calcium and magnesium are required to stimulate growth and to increase the size of the nodules, pod formation and grain setting. Sulphur is required for nodulation and protein synthesis, Molybdenum for nitrogen fixation and assimilatation and boron for reproduction. Greengram needs 45 kg of N; 4.5 kg of P; 7.3kg of K; 8.4 kg of Ca; 2.2 kg of Mg; 3.8 kg of S; 147g of Fe; 68g of Mn; 23 g of Zn and 10g of Cu to produce 1 t seed/ha.

Similarly blackgram requires 45 kg of N; 5.3 kg of P; 7.5 kg of K; 90.2 kg of Ca; 3.0 kg of Mg; 4.5 kg of S; 150 g of Fe; 68 g of Mn; 36 g of Zn and 11 g of Cu to produce 1 t seed/ha. Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms When pulse plants are not supplied with adequate amount of these nutrients they develop deficiency symptoms. NITROGEN : Stunted growth, small sized seeds, pale green coloured

leaves, premature yellow colouring of leaves, shortened crop duration.

PHOSPHORUS : Reduced growth dark green or bluish green leaves POTASSIUM : Pale green coloured chlorotic leaves, chloreotic

symptoms appearing on the margin and in between veins, necrotic

spotted veins, plants susceptible for diseases. MAGNESIUM : Interveinal chlorosis on older leaves, pale necrotic spots, leaves prematurely shed SULPHUR : Similar to N deficiency symptoms, reduction in yield MANGANESE : Intervenial chlorosis of the terminal young leaves AND IRON ZINC : Reduction in size of young leaves, thick brittle leaves

forming upward cups, brownish orange chlorosis of the older leaves.

Foliar spray of nutrients There is no possibility of basal application of fertilizers for pulses, since the pulses are sown prior to harvest of rice crop. Therefore, fertilizer incorporation becomes impossible. Hence foliar fertilization is resorted to spraying of 2% DAP and 1% KCl is recommended at 30 and 45 DAS. To mitigate the drought effect on the crop for pulses cycocel at 100 ppm (100 mg/lit) is recommended. Cycocel spray will enhance the root development, which facilitates the crop to get moisture from deeper layer. During drought situation, flower dropping is seen. The check the flower dropping, NAA (4ml in 4.5 lit) spray is advocated, first spray at floral initiation and another spray at 15 days thereafter. Plant Protection • Need based application of fungicides and pesticides

• Effective rat control measures are to be taken for checking the damage of pulse crop and yield reduction

The rats start damaging the pulse crops after 30-35 days of sowing i.e. on the day of flowering. Rat movements have to be carefully watched and baits kept in 30-35 rat holes. The bait should be prepared with twenty grams of popped paddy/popped cumbu. Then popped grains are soaked with 2% coconut oil and then mixed with zinc phosphide in the ratio of 49:1 and collected in a coconut shell. About 70-80% of the rats which eat the bait will be killed within 12 hours. All dead rats are removed in the next day morning at 5-6 AM and buried, otherwise eagles, crows other birds, cats, dogs etc. will eat the dead rats and die. Baiting should be repeated on 10th day of flowering. Harvesting and storage Harvesting should be done at appropriate time and the seeds are striped of from the pods by beating with sticks. Seeds are then dried cleaned and stored in gunny bag after treating them with activated clay/mixing with Notchi/neem leaf/treating with oil. Periodical drying is essential to check Bruchid damage. Extension method i) Creating awareness among the farmers about the need for pulses

production ii) Frequent viable programmes broadcasting/telecasting through AIR/TV iii) Distribution of pamphlets/leaflets on pulses production iv) Conducting large scale demonstrations for the technology like, seed

treatment, population maintenance DAP spraying and rat control v) Conducting field day with farmers who have good pulse crop and

encouraging them with awards. vi) Arrangements for field visits with farmers to Research stations like,

National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban, Coimbatore and Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institue, Aduthurai to discuss with the Scientists and even to other pulse growing stages.

vii) Organising seminars/workshops farmers gatherings for discussion and to disseminate new varieties/technologies

viii) Conducting pulses production lessons through Farm school on AIR/correspondence course.

VARIETAL SCENARIO OF PULSES IN TAMIL NADU

Dr.K.Mohanasundaram*

Pulses are very well known for their protein source. Currently protein famine is threatening the developing and under developed countries. According to FAO/WHO's recommendation a minimum of 85 g. of pulses per capita per day is required. Protein availability in Tamil Nadu as against the recommendation is very low to a meagre level of 36.5g. The major pulses in Tamil Nadu are redgram, blackgram, greengram, bengalgram, horsegram, cowpea, soybean and lab lab. Annually these crops are grown on an area of 8-9 lakh hectares producing 4.51 lakh tonnes of pulses with a productivity of 454 kg/ha against the national average of 607 kg/ha. Tamil Nadu ranks 10th in terms of area and 11th in terms of production at all India level. Since the annual requirement of pulses for our state is 11 lakh tonnes, the balance is being met from the neighbouring states, hence, the area under pulses should be increased with high yielding varieties in order to produce more to attain self sufficiency in pulse production. Area production and productivity of pulse crops in Tamil Nadu It is evident that the area under pulses has been increased during the period and the productivity has also been increased from 320 kg/ha to 450 kg/ha (Table 1). The increase in productivity is attributed to the combined effect of improved crop varieties with efficient crop management practices. Table 1. Total area, production and productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu

Years Area in L.Ha Production L.MT. Productivity Kg/ha 1979-80 6.06 1.95 322 1980-81 5.44 1.76 324 1981-82 5.58 1.89 337 1982-83 4.93 1.89 383 1983-84 6.03 2.22 367 1984-85 6.18 2.49 403 1985-86 5.82 2.75 473 1986-87 6.89 3.12 453

* Professor and Head, NPRC, Vamban

1987-88 6.35 2.83 451 1988-89 6.25 2.48 397 1989-90 8.21 3.34 407 1990-91 8.47 3.59 424 1991-92 7.76 3.51 453 1992-93 7.39 3.43 464 1993-94 6.90 2.76 401 1994-95 6.91 3.40 492 1995-96 9.61 3.59 374 1996-97 9.53 4.10 430 1997-98 8.05* 3.40* 422* 1998-99 8.14* 3.52* 432*

* Estimated Area production and productivity of major pulses in Tamil Nadu Among the different pulse crops grown blackgram occupies the major area followed by greengram and redgram (Table 2). By adopting improved method of technology like improved variety, optimum time of sowing, plant population, suitable rhizobial inoculation, fertilizer application, timely weed management practices, need based plant protection measures coupled with proper irrigation schedule would definitely increase the yield of pulses. Table 2. Area, Production and Productivity of Pulses in Tamil Nadu

Crops Area L. Ha Production L.MT. Productivity Kg/ha Blackgram 3.67 1.43 390 Greengram 1.63 0.78 480 Redgram 1.41 1.22 864 Horsegram 1.23 0.54 431 Bengalgram 0.09 0.05 625 Other pulses 1.50 0.25 164

The principal pulse crops which occupy major area and localised in cultivation in different agro climatic zones of Tamil Nadu is furnished below:

Table 3. Pulses under different Agroclimatic Zones

Sl.No. Agroclimatic zones Districts Predominant pulse crops

1. North Eastern Zone Chengai MGR Thiruvannamalai South Arcot

Blackgram, Redgram, Greengram & Horsegram

2. North Western Zone Salem Dharmapuri

Redgram, Lab lab, Horsegram and Other pulses

3. Western zone Coimbatore Erode

Lab lab, Horsegram, Blackgram Greengram, Bengalgram, Redgram & Other pulses

4. Cauvery Delta zone Thanjavur, Trichy, Pudukkottai

Blackgram, Greengram Redgram, Lab lab

5. Southern zone Madurai, Virudhunagar, Sivagangai,Ramnad, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi

Blackgram, Horsegram, Redgram, Lablab, Greengram

6. High rainfall zone Kanyakumari Blackgram & Other pulses

Pulses varieties recommended for Kharif / Rabi cultivation for different Agro climatic zones: Table 4. Important pulses varieties for different seasons Sl.No. Zones Redgram Blackgram Greengram Cowpea

1. North eastern SA 1 CO 6 Vamban 2 Vamban 1 APK 1

CO 5 T 9 VBN 1 Vamban 2 Vamban 3

CO 4 CO 5 KM 2 Vamban 1 CO 6

C 152 Vamban 1 Vamban 2

2. North western SA 1 CO 6 Vamban 2 Vamban 1 APK 1

CO 5 T 9 Vamban 1 TMV 1

CO 5 KM 2 CO 6

Paiyur 1 C 152 Vamban 1 Vamban 2

3. Western SA 1 CO 6 CO 5 Vamban 1 Vamban 2 APK 1

CO 5 Vamban 1 Vamban 2 Vamban 3

CO 4 CO 5 KM 2 CO 6

Paiyur 1 C 152 Vamban 1 Vamban 2 CO 6

4. Cauvery Delta CO 5

ADT 3 ADT 4 ADT 5

ADT 2 ADT 3

-

5. Southern zone Co 5 VBN1, VBN2, APK 1

CO 5 VBN 1 T 9 VBN 2 VBN 3

CO 5 CO 4 KM 2 VBN 1

Paiyur 1 C 152 Vamban 1 Vamban 2 CO 6

Table 5. Varietal details of Redgram, Blackgaram, Greengram, Cowpea,

Horsegram, Bengalgram and Soybean S.N. Variety Year of Duration Yield kg/ha Special Area of

release (days) Rain fed

Irri-gated

character ristics

adaptation

REDGRAM 1. Vamban 2 1999 180 1050 - Resistant to

sterility mosaic disease. Suitable as a rainfed crop in mixed and intercropping situations to replace SA 1 and CO 6

Entire Tamil Nadu

2. CO 5 1985 120-130 800 1500 Photoinsen sitive moderately resistant to podfly, root rot sterility mosaic disease

Entire Tamil Nadu

3. Vamban 1 1992 95-100 840 1200 Highly suitable for intercropping in groundnut

Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Pudukkottai, Madurai, Sivagangai, Tirunelveli, Virudhunagar, Theni, Ramanathapuram

4. Aruppuk- kottai (APK 1)

1999 95-105 900 1250 Suitable for a pure crop in irigated conditions. Resistant to SMD

Virudhunagar, Ramanathapuram, Sivagangai, Madurai, Theni, Tuticorin, Tirunelveli, Trichy, Salem, Dharmapuri, Coimbatore.

5. COPH 2 1997 120-130 1050 1350 Suitable as a pure crop in irrigated conditions and rainfed situations also. Good. Synchro-nisation of flowers in male and female parents in hybrid for seed production and resistant to SMD

Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Trichy

BLACKGRAM

6. CO 5 1981 70-75 750 1250 Moderately resistant to powdery mildew, leaf crinkle, pod borer and tip blight but susceptible to YMV

Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai

7. Vamban 1 1987 65 780 900 High yielding and resistant to YMV. Suitable for both irrigated and rainfed conditions

Ramnad, Pudukkottai, Tirunelveli, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Tuticorin, Madurai, Trichy.

8. Vamban 2 1996 65 700 1100 Suitable for both rainfed & irrigated conditions. Resistant to YMV

Ramnad, Pudukkottai, Tirunelveli, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Tuticorin, Madurai, Trichy.

9. Vamban 3 2000 70 825 950 Suitable for both rainfed & irrigated conditions. Resistant to YMV

Entire Tamil Nadu

10. K1 1994 70-75 700 - Suited to Southern districts. Suited for intercropping with cotton

Shouthern districts for intercropping with Cotton

GREENGRAM 11. CO 6 1999 65-70 850 1300 Resistant to

YMV. Suited to both rainfed and irrigated conditions

Entire Tamil Nadu

12. Paiyur 1 1988 85-90 700 - Suitable for rainfed conditions in Dharmapuri and Salem districts low incidence of YMV

Dharmapuri & Salem districts

13. Vamban 1 1989 70 800 - Suitable for rainfed conditions in Southern districts

Pudukkottai, Madurai, Trichy, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin.

14. K 1 1998 70-75 700 - Suitable for Suitable for

Cotton based intercropping because of short duration and short stature

intercropping with Cotton in southern districts

COWPEA 15. CO 4 1983 85 960 1570 Seed colour

greenish brown. Suited for irrigated conditions. High yielding.

Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Vellore and Tiruvannamalai.

16. CO 6 1993 65-70 700 - Highly suitable for rainfed conditions. Shortest duration. Resistant to rust disease. Seed colour light cream. Good marketability.

Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Vellore and Tiruvannamalai.

17. Paiyur 1 1985 90 750 - Suited to rainfed condition of Dharmapuri and Salem districts

Suited to Dharmapuri and Salem districts.

18. Vamban 1 1997 65 950 - Suited to rainfed conditions. White grain.

Suited to Pudukkottai, Trichy, Madurai, Vellore and Tiruvannamalai.

19. Vamban 2 1998 85 10.6 tons green pods

- Vegetable types lengthy, Fleshy pods

Entire Tamil Nadu

20. CO 2 1972 90 11.0 tons Green pods

- Vegetable type, lengthy, fleshy pods

Entire Tamil Nadu

HORSEGRAM 21. CO 1 1953 110 600 - Suited to rainfed

condition Suited to Coimbatore and Erode districts

22. Paiyur 1 1988 110 650 - Suited to rainfed condition

Suited to Dharmapuri and Salem districts

23. Paiyur 2 1998 105 870 - High protein (19.25%) suited for Samai, Groundnut, Gingelly – Horsegram crop sequences in rainfed lands

Suited to Dharmapuri and Salem districts

BENGALGRAM 24. CO 3 1986 85 1000 - Tolerant to root Suited to

rot and wilt Coimbatore, Salem and Dharmapuri districts

25. CO 4 1998 85 1150 - Attractive Desi bold grains. 30-32 g. 100 seed weight and tolerant to root rot

Suited to Coimbatore, Salem and Dharmapuri districts

SOYBEAN 26. CO 1 1980 85 - 1600 Erect, bushy

determinate photoinsen sitive

Entire Tamil Nadu

27. CO 2 1995 75-80 - 1350 Photoinsen sitive, Tolerant to YMV and leaf minor. Suited to intercropping.

Entire Tamil Nadu

28. ADT 1 1990 85 - 1270 (rice

fallow)

Suitable for rice fallow situations where there is no terminal moisture stress and high temperature.

Suited to Tanjore, Tiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Cuddalore and Trichy.

RICE FALLOW PULSES BLACKGRAM 29. ADT 2 1979 70-75 600 - Highest protein

content (21.5%)

Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.

30. ADT 3 1981 70-75 750 - Suited for raising in field bunds

Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.

31. ADT 4 1987 65-70 1000 - Synchronised flowering and maturity and suited for bund cropping

Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.

32. ADT 5 1988 70-75 1550 (irrigated summer)

- Very high yielder. Flowering behaviour

Pudukkottai, Orthanad areas summer, kharif irrigated situations 2

according to moisture availability.

to 3 flushes.

GREENGRAM 33. ADT 2 1982 70 800 - Resistant to

powdery mildew

Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.

34. ADT 3 1988 70 850 - Resistant to stemfly

Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.

In Tamil Nadu, Research on pulses improvement is being carried out in NPRC, Vamban, Pulses Research Station, Coimbatore, TRRI, Aduthurai, RRS, Paiyur, AC&RI, Killikulam and ARS, Kovilpatti and Pattukkottai. In crop improvement, 13 redgram varieties, 18 blackgram varieties, 17 greengram varieties, 9 cowpea varieties, 3 soybean varieties, 13 garden lab lab varieties, 2 field bean varieties, 4 bengal gram varieties and 3 horsegram varieties were released for cultivation upto 2001. Table 6. Number of varieties released in different pulse crops in Tamil Nadu

Centres Red

gram Black gram

Green gram

Cow pea

Horse gram

Bengal gram

Lab lab

Mochai Soy bean

Coimbatore 8* 5 6 5 1 4 13 2 2 Vamban 2 3 1 2 - - - - - Aruppukkottai 1 1 - - - - - - - Bhavanisagar 1 - - - - - - - - Salem 1 - - - - - - - - Aduthurai - 5 3 - - - - - 1 Tindivanam - 1 - - - - - - - Kudimianmalai - 2 2 1 - - - - - Kovilpatti - 1 1 - - - - - - Paiyur - - 1 1 2 - - - - Others - - 1 - - - - - - Total 13 18 15 9 3 4 13 2 3

80 N.B.: * Includes two hybrids

Due to the release of these varieties the cropping area and production of pulses has been increased in the state. In redgram, under rainfed situation, sterility mosaic disease – resistant variety Vamban 2 can be utilised for maximum yield. Under irrigated

condition, short duration varieties Vamban 1 and APK 1 can be utilised as pure crop or intercrop with groundnut. In blackgram, high yielding variety Vamban 3 may be recommended for cultivation under irrigated and rainfed situations. It is resistent to yellow mosaic disease. For summer irrigated situation ADT 5 blackgram is performing well with high yield potential. For Greengram, the major problem is yellow mosaic disease. To overcome this situation YMV resistant variety CO 6 can be utilised for maximising yield without any loss. Under moderate situations, Vamban 1 greengram can be utilised which is tolerant to YMV. Under Rice fallow situations, ADT 3 can be grown for better results. K1 greengram is recommended for rainfed situation to southern districts. In Cowpea, under rainfed situations, short duration varieties like Vamban 1 and CO 6 can be popularised. Under irrigated condition vegetable cowpea, CO 2 and Vamban 2 can be cultivated for green pods.

Erect and bushy varieties of Garden lab lab like CO 9, CO 10, CO 11, CO 12 and CO 13 can be cultivated throughout the year which gives different types of green pod with market fancy.

For rice fallow situation in blackgram the varieties like ADT 2, ADT 3 and ADT 4 and in greengram the varieties ADT 2 and ADT 3 and in soybean, the variety ADT 1 can be cultivated to obtain maximum yield.

DRYLAND TECHNIQUES FOR PULSES PRODUCTIVITY

T. M. Thiyagarajan1 and T. N. Balasubramanian2

Pulses are the universal crops in the world like rice rated as one among the important crops because of their biological nitrogen fixing mechanism and inherited in-situ high protein contribution. Among the merits of these crops, rich diversity in germplasm, adaptability of a variety of edapho-climatic conditions and its flexibility to accommodate in any cropping system are need special mentioning. However, its productivity is far below compared to that of food cereal crops. In India even though it is cultivated over 1/5th of total cultivated area, its production is only 1/12th of total food production. Among the many reasons attributed for its lower productivity. Lower yield potential, cultivation in marginal lands, below average management efforts, non-availability of quality seeds, prevalence of higher temperature in its growing environment, susceptible to pod borers and wilt diseases are important. The challenge of a quantum jump in pulses production in India and especially in Tamil Nadu is formidable, as it requires addressing important developing and research issues. The demand for pulses during 2030 AD would be around 26 million tonnes in India with an expected annual growth rate of 3.3 per cent per annum. To achieve this, the present productivity level of 0.6 tonnes/ha has to be increased to 0.99 tonnes/ha. The limitation is its popularity with the farmers as intercrops rather than as sole crops. In Tamil Nadu, pulses are being cultivated in 0.953 million hectares within the seven million hectares of cultivable lands and this works to 13 per cent as against 29 per cent under rice. The distribution of different pulses to total pulse area is 39 per cent for blackgram, 17per cent for greengram, 15 per cent for redgram, 13 per cent for horsegram, 0.94 per cent for bengalgram and 16 per cent for other pulses. Majority of the blackgram area is under rice fallow situation followed by as companion crop in the intercropping system especially under dryland situation. About 55 per cent of total cultivable area ( 4 m ha ) is still under dryland, wherein, the scopes are greater to crops is in operation 1. Director, SCMS, TNAU, Coimbatore 2. Professor and Head, Dept. of Meteorology, TNAU, Coimbatore

in the past four decades in Tamil Nadu and many field oriented easy to do, cheap and effective technologies have been generated by TNAU and those offer opportunities to increase the productivity in Tamil Nadu. The viable technologies especially for dryland situation are discussed here upon. Technologies to increase dryland pulses productivity Non monetary inputs Field studies were conducted during Kharif 1992, 1993 and 1994 at NPRC, Vamban on rainfed blackgram (Srinivasan et al., 1997). The treatments comprised of variety, method of sowing, time of sowing and time of weed control. The pooled results are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Non monetary inputs on the grain yield of blackgram Treatments Pods plant Grain yield (kg/ha) CBR T1 Vmpw 19.0 475 1.65 T2 Vmpw 22.0 573 2.43 T3 Mvpw 21.0 545 2.15 T4 Pvmw 21.2 501 2.00 T5 Wvmp 22.0 602 2.40 T6 VMpw 25.0 655 2.52 T7 VPmv 25.0 645 2.50 T8 VWmp 28.7 696 2.65 T9 MPvw 24.5 640 2.50 T10MWvp 29.1 700 2.66 T11PWmv 30.1 705 2.68 T12 VMpw 30.2 705 2.69 T13 VMWp 38.0 803 2.92 T14 VPWm 36.0 774 2.83 T15 MPWv 33.2 735 2.75 T16 VMPW 42.1 845 3.10 CD (5%) 2.9 56 - (V = Variety; M = Method of sowing; P = Time of sowing; W = Time of weed removal Small letters indicate local practices, while capital letters indicate improved practice)

The result indicated that there was significant effect of non-monetary inputs on the growth and yield of rainfed blackgram. Improved practices outyielded local practices. Line sowing of Vamban 1 with 30 x 10 cm spacing at the onset of monsoon sowing; weeding 3 weeks after sowing recorded higher number of pods per plant and resulted in higher yield, with increased yield of 78 per cent over control. In respect of the per cent contribution of different non-monetary inputs, improved weed management contributed for 26.7 per cent increased yield, while improved variety, method of planting, time of sowing contributed for 20.6, 14.7 and 5.5 per cent respectively indicating the importance of weeding when sowing was taken up with the onset of rains. Studies conducted at TNAU, Coimbatore under rainfed during 1989-90 and 1990-91 revealed that adoption of the combined inclusion of non monetary / low cost inputs such as improved redgram variety (CO 5) increased plant population (1,00,000 plants/ha) sowing with the onset of monsoon rain and weed removal on the third week resulted in higher seed yield in redgram (865 kg/ha) (Arunachalam et al. 1995). At Aruppukkottai, experiment was conducted to identify suitable time of sowing for APK1 redgram and the results are presented in Table 2 (ARS, 2000). Table 2. Times of sowing on redgram grain yield (kg/ha)

Treatments Grain yield September I fortnight sowing 812 September II fortnight sowing 304 October I fortnight sowing 158 October II fortnight sowing 78 CD (5%) 34

The result indicated the superiority of September first fortnight sowing. When the sowing was delayed there was drastic reduction in grain yield. In another experiment at the same station when sowing was delayed for greengram, bengalgram and horsegram, there was drastic reduction in pulses yield (Table 3) for greengram, but the yield of bengalgram and horsegram was higher in the middle sowing compared to first sowing. Table 3. Times of sowing in greengram, bengalgram and horsegram Name of the crop Grain yield (kg/ha) Onset of NEM November 1 November 30

Oct 15 week Greengram 213 105 61 Bengalgram 208 223 145 Horsegram 477 520 423 The output of several research works have indicated that optimum early time of sowing is required to obtain higher yield in pulses especially for redgram, blackgram, greengram, while, horsegram and bengalgram need late sowing as compared to redgram, blackgram and greengram. Even then, location specific time of sowing has to be generated across areas after identifying efficient cropping zone for each of the pulse crop. b. Moisture efficiency and conservation practices Moisture use efficiency of different pulses was computed (ARS, 2000). The moisture use efficiency of blackgram was 0.61 kg/ha/mm, while it was 0.12 for redgram, 0.84 for greengram and 0.53 for cowpea against 6.50 of ragi crop. It is inferred from the information that pulses have lower moisture use efficiency. Research has to be strengthened in this direction. In another experiment at ARS, Kovilpatti on blackgram (CO5) the results revealed that among the tillage treatments evaluated medium and shallow tillage combination recorded the highest yield of 285 kg / ha followed by shallow ploughing ( 264 kg/ha) (Table 4). Compartmental bunding was found superior in terms of blackgram grain yield obtained. Table 4. Effect of tillage and management practices on blackgram grain yield (kg/ha) Sub/Main Compartmental

bunding Ridges and

furrows BBP Mean

Shallow ploughing 299 256 237 264 Medium and shallow ploughing

349 285 223 285

Country ploughing 285 235 210 243 Mean 311 259 223 - CD (5%) Main plot : 16 Sub plot : 12 M x S : 23 S x M : 21 Little research efforts were taken to identify suitable moisture conservation practices for sole pulses, but information are available for different pulses based intercropping systems. Greengram seemed to possess higher WUE character followed by blackgram and this indicated that for area of low rainfall greengram would be the choice either as sole crop or as intercrop.

c. Nutrient Management There was response from blackgram to P application up to 40 kg / ha (Table 5) in a study conducted at NPRC, Vamban especially in lateritic soils (Ramamoorthy et al., 1997) and single year response to sulphur (applied through gypsum) up to 40 kg / ha. Table 5. Effect of P and S on blackgram grain yield (kg / ha) Treatments Grain yield 1992 1993 Mean P kg/ha 0 157 224 191 20 360 356 358 40 497 512 505 60 494 490 492 CD (5%) 49 57 - S kg/ha 0 334 342 338 20 384 374 379 40 347 470 452 CD (5%) 51 82 - Interaction CD (5%) 75 105 - In another experiment conducted (Solaiappan et al., 1994) at Madurai during kharif 1984 in sandy clay loam soil, on redgram (CO 4), the results revealed that basal application of 6.25 kg N and 12.5 kg P2O5 /ha followed by foliar spray of 3 per cent DAP (70 DAS) recorded higher seed yield (11.26 q/ha with a BC ratio of 2.02. In the same study seed treatment with Rhizobium recorded higher yield of 10.26 q/ha with a BC ratio of 1.86 and the treatment was at par with the treatment wherein seeds were treated with super phosphate (12% W/W). In a study on greengram, the highest grain yield and Relative Agronomic Efficiency (RAE) were obtained under MRP application at 25 kg P2O5 /ha along with seed treatment of phosphobacteria at 400 g / ha seeds (Table 6) as reported by Ramamoorthy and Arokia Raj (1997). Table 6. Effect of treatments on greengram yield (kg / ha)

Treatments Grain yield (kg / ha)

RAE (%)

T1 Control 517 - T2 25 kg P205 / ha as SSP 634 77 T3 50 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP 669 100 T4 25 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + seed treatment with Phosphobacteria

1044 346

T5 50 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + seed treatment with phosphobacteria

799 185

T6 25 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + FYM 10 t/ha 693 116 T7 50 kg P2O5 /ha as MRP + FYM 10 t/ha 708 126 T8 25 kg P2O5 /ha as MRP + BDS at 5 t/ha 777 171 T9 50 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + BDS at 5 t/ha 813 195 T10 Seed treatment with phosphobacteria 699 120 T11 FYM 10 t/ha 600 55 T12 Enriched BDS at 5 t/ha 907 257 CD (5%) 131 - BDS : Biodigested slurry In another study at NPRC, Vamban (Ramamoorthy et al., 1997) on rainfed redgram, the results revealed that the highest grain yield was obtained (449 kg / ha) under 12.5 kg N + 37.5 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP with seed inoculation of phosphobacteria. This treatment was significantly superior to other treatments but at par with higher dose of P ( 50 kg / ha as MRP). Nutrient efficiency of dryland pulses was computed based on experiments at ARS, Kovilpatti (ARS, 2000). The nutrient efficiency of blackgram was 14.9 and 6.7 kg per kg of N and P respectively while it was 29.2 and 12.9; 20.6 and 9.7; 12.8 and 6.1 respectively for redgram, greengram and cowpea. Redgram seemed to be nutrient efficient crop as compared to other pulses. In another experiment at the same station the result revealed that application of 25 kg P2O5 / ha as EFYM registered significantly higher blackgram yield of 1.20 q / ha( Table 7). Table 7. Effect of P on blackgram yield Treatments Grain yield (q /ha ) Rainfall use efficiency

(Kg / mm / ha) 10 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP) 0.79 0.8 12.5 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP) 0.81 0.9 25 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP) 0.90 0.9 37.5 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP) 0.87 0.9

25 kg P2O5 / ha (Super) 0.81 0.8 25 kg P2O5 / ha (EFYM+Super)

0.95 1.0

25 kg P2O5 / ha (ERYM+MRP)

1.20 1.3

CD (5%) 0.04 - At Paiyur, soil application of recommended inorganic fertilizer with 2 per cent DAP spray twice (flowering and 15 days later) recorded the highest grain yield of 1134 kg /ha in cowpea (Table 8) as reported in RRS, 2000. Table 8. Yield of rainfed cowpea kg / ha (mean of 1995 and 1996) Treatment Seed yield ( kg / ha) BC ratio T1 (DAP spray twice) 863 1.75 T2 Seed pelleting with DAP 536 1.16 T3 Soil application of recommended fertilizer

954 1.75

T4 Seed pelleting with KH2PO4 463 0.99 T5 T1 +T3 1134 1.96 T6 Control 255 0.55 CD (5%) 82 - In another trial conducted in the same station with horsegram, which was a succeeding crop to sorghum in the cropping system of sorghum-horsegram (pooled data of three years), horsegram yield was higher (184 kg/ha) under recommended inorganic fertilizer application + EFYM, which was at par with recommended fertilizer + biofertilizer; EFYM + biofertilizer and EFYM alone treatments. In a ragi-horsegram crop sequence the treatment 40 kg P2O5 / ha as RF either with phosphorus solubilising agents like phosphobacteria or VAM4 recorded higher horsegram yield of 348 and 365 kg / ha respectively. In greengram at Paiyur, the yield got increased significantly in the plot applied with 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha + seed soaking (Table 9). Table 9. Effect of treatments on greengram yield kg / ha

Treatments Grain yield (kg /ha)

Haulm yield

(kg / ha)

BC ratio

T1 Control 844 1577 4.87 T2 Seed soaking with SSP at 20 g SSP/kg of seed for 1 hour

1064 1878 6.13

T3 Seed soaking with RP at 20g RP / kg of seed for 1 hour

1118 2087 6.34

T4 25 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP 1214 2223 5.87 T5 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP 1141 2040 5.90 T6 12.5 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP +T2 1200 2287 6.30 T7 12.5 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + T3 1154 2064 6.18 T8 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP +T2 1374 2491 6.92 T9 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + T3 1197 2186 6.35 T10 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + Pb 1221 2252 6.29 T11 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + VAM 1219 2162 5.80 T12 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + Pb + VAM

1276 2343 6.06

CD (5%) 113.4 428.0 - In a cropping system of groundnut-horsegram at Paiyur, horsegram grain yield was higher (638 kg / ha) when the preceding groundnut crop was applied with 75 per cent soil test based Nitrogen + CCP (5 t/ha). The above results indicated that pulses responsed to phosphorus and sulphur. There was promising response of rock phosphate when it was applied along with phosphobacteria. Similarly foliar application of DAP had added advantage on pulses productivity. Still INM has to be developed for each agroclimatic sub zone of Tamil Nadu. d. Weed Management Kandasamy (1999) studied weed management for redgram (CO 5) for two years 1993 and 1994. The result indicated that metalachlor at 1.0 kg / ha + manual weeding effectively controlled the weeds and maximized pigeonpea yield to 832 and 893 kg ha-1 (Table 11) in 1993 and 1994 respectively. Application of metalachlor or alachlor alone each at 1.5 kg / ha, alachlor or pendimethalin each at 1.0 kg / ha + manual weeding and manual weeding twice caused similar increase in grain yield and were statistically at par with the best treatment metalachlor + manual weeding. Pre-emergence application of oxyfluorfen and clomazone were phytotoxic and this was more pronounced with higher doses, especially with oxyfluorfen. The uncontrolled weeds resulted in 55 to 60 per cent yield loss of rainfed pigeonpea and maximum economic advantage was achieved with metalachlor or alachlor applied at higher dose (2.38 to 2.65 ) or at lower dose in combination with manual weeding (2.31 to 2.58).

Table 11. Effect of weed control methods on redgram yield

Treatments WCE (%) Grain yield ( kg / ha)

BC ratio

1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 Metolachlor 1.50 kg ha-1 3 DAS 69.3 76.1 774 826 2.38 2.54 Oxyfluorfen 0.20 kg ha-1 3 DAS 70.6 69.4 619 692 1.78 1.99 Pendimethalin 1.50 kg ha-1 3 DAS

71.1 72.2 762 799 1.97 2.06

Alachlor 1.50 kg ha –1 3 DAS 71.7 75.2 740 862 2.28 2.65 Clomozone 1.00 kg ha-1 3 DAS 61.3 63.0 648 681 2.07 2.18 Metolachlor 1.0 + MW (40 DAS) 83.6 79.2 832 893 2.35 2.58 Oxyfluorfen 0.15 3 DAS + MW (40 DAS)

82.1 73.4 652 707 1.73 1.88

Pendimethalin 1.00 3 DAS + MW (40 DAS)

82.5 76.0 812 792 2.06 2.01

Alachlor 1.00 3 DAS + MW(40 DAS)

79.5 71.4 819 840 2.31 2.37

Clomazone 0.75 3 DAS MW (40 DAS)

78.5 63.8 743 668 2.12 1.91

Fluazifop 0.25 3 DAS + MW (20+40 DAS)

76.9 62.5 764 676 2.26 2.00

MW twice (20 + 40 DAS) 83.5 80.2 829 884 2.16 2.31 Control - - 375 362 1.50 1.45 CD (5%) - - 58 71.1 - -

In a study on times of application of herbicides for rainfed greengram Jaganathan et al. (1994) concluded that sand mix application of pendimethalin at 0.75 kg/ha applied at the time of sowing recorded higher grain yield of 1216 kg/ha which was at par with hand weeding and hoeing on 30 DAS (1175 kg /ha), sand mix application of fluchloralin at 0.70 kg /ha, applied at the time of sowing (1208 kg /ha) and sand mix application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg / ha applied at 3 DAS (1005 kg / ha). In another study conducted at Paiyur (RRS ,2000) application of fluchloralin at 1.5 litres / ha at 3 DAS followed by hand weeding (30 DAS) registered higher yield of 1180 kg / ha in cowpea, while in greengram the best treatment was application of fluchloralin 1 litre / ha ( 3 DAS) followed by one hand weeding on 30 DAS. The results indicated that herbicides could be applied up to 3 DAS without any loss from the herbicides on the control of weeds. When manual weeding was integrated with herbicide application, there was synergistic interaction. However further research is required to generate IWM practice for each agroclimatic sub zone of Tamil Nadu.

Conclusion Even though in the past means researches were conducted, the results were inadequate to provide ways and means to increase the productivity of pulses to achieve the expected production level for 2030 AD. A number of key technological economical and political factors can influence the pulse production. Horizontal expansion through short duration pulse in production, genetic enhancement, development of new types to high inputs, development of varieties for intercropping system, introduction of INM, development of varieties resistant to Helicoverpa and wilt diseases are some of the research and development agenda to be addressed immediately. Genomic and transgenic research is the need of the hour. The prospects of the use of molecular techniques to magnify the power of breeding research offers greater scope for developing better varieties. Multiplication of large quantity of quality seeds, their safe storage and distribution, timely dissemination of information on plant protection need allotment of increased funds for pulse research. Fitting of pulse crops in new and non-conventional cropping systems, providing support prices are some of the areas need policy attention. Earmarking efficient cropping zone for pulses and introduction of hi-tech, documentation of productivity of different pulse based cropping systems are some of the prioritized works to be attended. It is thus concluded that pulses productivity can very easily be increased and sustained provided integrated approach is handled. Each component of improved technology is equally important. With the introduction of high potential pest and disease resistant genotypes, Rhizobium inoculation, proper seed rate, executing optimum time of sowing, practicing INM and IWM techniques, the productivity of pulses could certainly be doubled in the coming years, if strong pulse research and extension co-exist. References Arunachalam,L., S.Purushothaman, Palaniappan,SP. And M.Mark

Devasahayam. 1995. Relative contribution of non-monetary/low cost inputs in redgram production. Madras Agric.J., 82(3): 179-181

ARS, 2000. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Agricultural Research

Station, Kovilpatti.

Jaganathan,R., Jayakumar,R. and M.Nadanam. 1994. Times of application of herbicides for rainfed greengram. Madras Agric.J., 81(10): 570-571.

Kandasamy,O.S. 1999. Effect of herbicides with and without manual weeding

on weeds and yield of rainfed pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.mill sp.). Legume Research, 22(3): 172-176.

Ramamoorthi,K., Balasubramanian,A. and A.Arokia Raj. 1997. Response of

rainfed blackgram (Phaseolus mungo) to phosphorus and sulphur nutrition in red lateritic soils. Indian J.Agron.,42(1): 191-193.

Ramamoorthy,K. and A.Arokia Raj. 1997. Agronomic effectiveness of organic

sources and MRP to phosphorus economy in rainfed greengram Madras Agric.J., 84(10): 593-595.

RRS, 2000a. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Regional Research Station,

Aruppukottai. RRS, 2000b. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Regional Research Station,

Paiyur. Solaiappan, U., Senthivel, S. and S. Paramasivam. 1994. Influence of seed

treatments and fertilizer levels on growth and yield of rainfed redgram. Madras Agric.J., 8(5): 245-248.

Srinivasan, K., Vairavan,K. and M.Ramasamy. 1997. Relative contribution of

non-monetary inputs in rainfed urd bean. Madras Agric.J.,84 (10): 602-603.

PLANT PROTECTION STRATEGIES IN PULSES

Dr.Sabitha Doraiswamy1, Dr.K.Gunasekaran2 and Dr.T. Ganapathy3

India is one of the largest producer of pulses (13 million tonnes) but the average productivity is very low (614 kg/ha) (Ali, 1998).The major pulse crops grown in Tamil Nadu are chickpea, pigeonpea, urdbean, mungbean and cowpea. Among the various constraints, insect pests and diseases are the major and important one affecting the productivity of pulses apart from ecological and biological constraints.

I. INSECT PESTS

A variety of insect pests infest pulses and the annual yield loss is estimated to be 20 per cent in pigeonpea, 15 per cent in chickpea and 30 per cent in urdbean and mungbean. On an average 2.5 to 3.0 million tonnes of pulses are lost annually due to pests (Ali, 1998). The insects causing economic damage are :

1. Pigeonpea

1. Gram pod borer : Helicoverpa armigera 2. Spotted pod borer : Maruca virtata 3. Plume moth : Exalastis atomosa 4. Blue butterfly : Lamides boeticus 5. Podfly : Melanagromyza obtusa 6. Pod bug : Clavigralla gibbosa; Riptortus spp. 7. Blister beetle : Mylabris spp

2. Mungbean / Urdbean / Lentil / Peas 1. Stemfly : Ophiomyia phaseoli 2. Whitefly : Bemisia tabaci 3. Leaf hopper : Empoasca kerri 4. Pod borer : Etiella zinkenella 5. Aphids : Aphis craccivora

1. Director, CPPS, 2. Associate Professor, Entomology, 3. Associate

Professor, Plant Pathology, TNAU, Coimbatore

3. Chickpea 1. Gram pod borer : Helicoverpa armigera

2. Semilooper : Autographa nigrisigma 3. Cutworm : Agrotis ipsilon

4. Black aphid : Aphis craccivora 5. Temite : Odentotermes obesus Pest management 1. Pigeonpea Pigeonpea is the second most important and highly profitable pulse crop cultivated in 3.47 million hectares in different states in the country. The production is also steadily increasing from 1.02 in 1949–'50 to 2.77 million tonnes in 1998–'99. The average yield is almost static varying from 0.4 to 0.8 tonnes /ha despite the potential yield of 1.5 to 3.0 tonnes/ha. Nearly 90 per cent of the crop is grown under rainfed conditions with medium and long duration cultivars. Short duration varieties are suited for irrigated conditions. As the pigeonpea is grown under wide variety of agroclimatic conditions and under varied cropping systems of different maturity, it is valuables to many pests and about 250 species of insects belonging to 8 orders and 61 families are reported to attack this crop. The early or vegetative stage pests are not causing economic damage. However, the pests of flowers and pod borers are the major and important pests. Apart from the above pests pod wasp, Tanaostigmodes cajaninae (LaSalle) and mealy bug, Coccidohystrix insolitus (Green) are also attaining major pest status causing 10–75 per cent damage in Tamil Nadu. There is no resistant variety for pod borers. Planting date is having influence on the incidence of pod borers. For example, June month sowing helps the crop to escape from the attack of pod borers like H. armigera and requires lesser number of sprays in Tamil Nadu. Though there are several parasitoids and other biocontrol agents have been recorded, only NPV and B.t are found to be promising under field conditions. 1. Seedling pests : If sucking pests are noted , spray methyl demeton 25 EC

500 ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml (250 litres spray fluid/ha). 2. Inflorescence and pod borers : Spraying can be taken up based on

Economic Threshold (ETL).For example , Maruca 3/plant, Exalastis 5/plant. Whenever H. armigera is predominant apply NPV 500LE/ha to control the pest in the early stage. Apply any one of the following

insecticides at 25 kg/ha – Endosulfan 4% D; quinalphos 4% D; carbaryl 5% D or spray endosulfan 35 EC 1250 ml, monocrotophos 625 ml/ha. Spraying of NSKE 5% twice followed by triazophos 0.05% is also effective. Application of Neem oil 2% and phosalone 0.07% has controlled the pod borers and increased the yield.

Recent studies have indicated that following IPM methods have

controlled the pest and increased the yield.

1. Installation of bird perches @ 50/ha 2. H. armigera pheromone trap @ 10/ha 3. Collection and destruction of fully grown larvae 4. Spraying NSKE 5% at 50% flowering 5. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha at 15 days after first spray 6. Application of the following insecticides at 15 days interval depending

on the intensity of pest. Chlorpyriphos 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.04% 2. Green gram and black gram There are nearly 200 insect pests belonging to 48 families in coleoptera, diptera, hemiptera, hymenoptera, isoptera, lepidoptera, orthoptera, thysanoptera, and 7 mites of the order Acarina are attacking the above crops. Under severe case stemfly alone causes more than 90 per cent damage resulting in an yield loss upto 20 per cent (Talekar, 1990). The galerucid beetle, Madurasia obscurella causes damage upto 20 – 60 per cent. Whitefly, a potential vector of mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) causes losses ranging from 30 – 70 per cent. Damage due to bruchids, Callosobruchus chinensis starts right from the field. Adults emerging from the stored seeds lay eggs on healthy grains. The field infestation ranges from 7.8 – 9.9 per cent (Banto and Sanchez, 1972) and there was 100 per cent destruction of seeds when there was 9.9 per cent field infestation. Adjusting the sowing dates, use of resistant varieties and growing inter or trap crops can be followed depending on the availability and effectiveness in a particular location. Use of biocontrol agents has not been successful in these crops although it is a viable alternative despite the record of several natural enemies in the field. 1. Early stage pests : In order to protect from seedling stage pests like

stemfly and sap feeders, application of carbofuron 3 G (30 kg) or Aldicarb 10 G (10 kg)/ha in the soil at the time of sowing can be applied. Spraying of endosulfan 35EC 500 ml/ha a week after germination and again 10 days after first round also controls the pests (Anon,1999). Alternatively, seed

pelleting with dimethoate 5 ml/kg (dissolve 1g gum in 20 ml of water and add 5 ml of dimethoate, pellet the seeds and shade dry) followed by one round of endosulfan 0.035 per cent controls the early stage pests.

2. Young plants : If sucking pests are noticed, spray methyldemeton 25 EC 500 ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml or phosphamidon 85 EC 250 ml/ha (250 litres of spray fluid / ha)

3. Inflorescence and pods : Apply any one of the following insecticides at 25

kg/ha. endosulfan 4% D or quinalphos 1.5 % D or phosalone 4 % D or carbaryl 5 % D. Spraying of endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml can also be sprayed (spray fluid 500 ml/ha).Spraying of neem seed kernel extract 5 % twice ,starting from 50 per cent flowering stage followed by one round of endosulfan 0.07 % is also effective.

4. Storage pests : Seeds must be dried to reduce the moisture level to 8 per

cent. To reduce further attack by bruchids seeds can be treated with 1 kg of activated clay or malathion 5 % D / 100 kg of seed. Neem seed kernel powder 3 % also protects the seeds from pests.

Pest management in cowpea The cowpea is an important pulse and vegetable crop attacked by variety of sap feeders like aphids in the early stage and flower feeders and borers at later stage of the crop. 1. Early stage pest

Sucking pests : Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml/ha (250 l spray fluid / ha). Stemfly: Soil application of carbofuron 3G (15 kg/ha) at the time of sowing or spray endosulfan 35 EC a week after germination and second round 10 days after first round. 2. Protection of inflorescence and pod borers : Dust endosulfan 4% D or quinalphos 1.5% D or phosalone 4% D or carbaryl 5% D@ 25 kg/ha or spray endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml 0r monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml (500 l spray fluid/ha) Pest management in chickpea

Chickpea is an important pulse crop grown in 7.3 million hectares (Yadava and Lal, 1998) with an average yield of 800 kg/ha. A wide variety of are attacking the crop and nearly 54 insect species have been recorded. In addition to insects, few nematodes are also infesting the chickpea. Helicoverpa is the key pest causing an average yield loss of 7.3 per cent for the entire country. There was even 90 per cent damage under severe cases. The annual loss due to this pest was estimated to be Rs.20.30 crores (Lal et al. 1985) 1. Protection of pods and flowers Application of phosalone 4% D or quinalphos 1.5% D or or carbaryl 5% D @ 25 kg/ha; NPV 250 LE/ha; NSKE 5% or spraying of endosulfan 35EC 1000 ml/ha or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml/ha (500 litres spray fluid/ha) Spraying (ETL 2 early instar larvae / 10 plants) of endosulfan 0.07% in combination with neem oil 0.01%. or three sprays of NPV along with 10% aqueous extract of Vitex negundu is also effective against H. armigera. The application of B.t. @ 1500 ml/ha is effective against H. armigera. 2. Storage of seeds

Seeds can be treated with 1.0 kg of malathion 5% D or Activated Kaolin clay/100 kg of seed to protect the seeds from storage pests. Store the seeds in polythene lined gunny bags. II. DISEASES

Red gram , blackgram and greengram are the major pulse crop grown in different systems as rain fed and irrigated crop in different seasons. The above pulse crop is attacked by several diseases caused by viruses, fungi , bacteria and phytoplasma. Major constraints in increasing the production in redgram is sterility mosaic and in black gram and green gram are yellow mosaic caused by Mungbean Yellow Mosaic virus (MYMV), leaf crinkle caused by Urdbean leaf crinkle virus (ULCV), leaf curl caused by Peanut bud necrosis virus (PBNV), powdery mildew and dry root rot. These are the potentially dangerous diseases in Tamil Nadu. Only possible way to reduce the yield loss due to these diseases are adopting the integrated disease management practice (IDM) employing many strategies like use of resistant varieties, use of disease free seeds, manipulation of cultural practices, management of vectors, application of bio-control agents and chemicals.

Table 1. Some important diseases of Red gram

Common name Symptoms Host range Transmissiion

Sterility mosaic Typical mosaic mottling symptom, later plants become sterile or partially sterile

Narrow Eriophyid mite (Aceria cajani)

Wilt Gradual withering and drying up of plants

Wide –

Root rot Premature defoliation and sudden death of the plants

Wide –

Table 2. Important viral diseases of blackgram and greengram, symptoms,

host range and transmission Common name Virus code Symptoms Host range Transmissiion

Yellow mosaic MYMV Mild scattered yellow specks on the leaves

Wide White fly (Bemisia tabaci)

Leaf crinkle ULCV Enlargement, crinkling and rugosity are the typical symptoms

Wide Aphid, white fly, beetle, and also through seed.

Leaf curl PBNV Chlorosis and inward curling of leaves

Not known Transmitted through thrips

The other virus diseases of black gram and green gram are bean

common mosaic, alfalfa mosaic, bean yellow mosaic, Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic and etc.

The major fungal diseases of black gram and green gram are the

powdery mildew, dry root rot, and leaf spot diseases like Cercospora, Alternaria leaf spots and rust (Gurdip Singh and Bhan, 1998 : Muthukrishnan et al., 1995)

Table 3. Important fungal diseases of blackgram and greengram, causal

organism and their symptoms

Common name Causal organism Symptoms

Powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni White powdery growth both on upper and lower surface of the leaf

Dry root rot Macrophomina phaseolina Sudden death of the plants

Cercospora leaf spot Cercospora canescens Irregular to regular purplish brown spots with pale gray center.

Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria spp Dark brown lesions with concentric rings.

Rust Uromyces sp. Small brownish errumpent pustules

The bacterial and phytoplasma diseases are the minor importance in Tamil Nadu.

Important diseases of Cowpea Cowpea aphid borne mosaic virus

Root rot

Important disease of Bengal gram Wilt Integrated Management of Diseases A. Redgram i. Sterility mosaic : Rouge out the infected plants in the early stages of

growth. Spray monocrotophos 500 ml/ha on noticing the initial symptoms and repeat after a fortnight.

ii. Wilt and root rot :

a. Spot drench around the base of the affected plants as well as healthy plants surrounding them with carbendazim @ 1 g/litre for wilt and root rot.

b. Soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM/sand at 30 days after sowing

Black gram and green gram

Integrated management strategies involves use of resistant varieties, use of disease free seeds, manipulation of cultural practices, management of vectors, and biological and chemical control methods (Raguchandar et al., 1995; Vidhyasekaran and Muthamilan, 1995).

• Use of resistant varieties • Vamban 1, Vamban 2, and Vamban 3 are resistant to yellow mosaic virus. • Application of Neem cake @ 150 kgs / ha for the control of dry root rot

disease • Seed treatment : Treat seeds with talc formulation of Trichoderma virde @

4g/kg of seed (or) Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g/kg of seed (or) carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds.

• Soil application / drenching • Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of well

decomposed Farm yard manure /sand at 30 days after sowing for the control of root rot.

• Removal of yellow mosaic, leaf crinkle and leaf curl infected plants. • Removal of weeds. • Collect the seeds from disease free plants. • Vector management

Name of the disease Control measure

Yellow mosaic

Leaf crinkle

Leaf curl

Spray Monocrotophos @ 500 ml /ha or Methyl demeton @ 500 ml/ha and repeat after 15 days.

Powdery mildew Spray NSKE 5% or Neem oil 3% twice at 10 days interval from the initial disease appearance (OR) Spray Carbendazim 250 gm/ha or Wettable sulphur 2.5 kg/ha.

Rust Spray Mancozeb I kg (or) Wettable Sulphur 2.5 kg/ha Leaf spot Spray Carbendazim @ 250 g/ha

Cowpea :

Mosaic Virus • Rogueing out of affected plants in the early stage of growth upto 30

days • Spray Monocrotophos 500 ml/ha or Methyldemeton 500 ml/ha twice at

fortnightly intervals

Root rot • Spot drench Carbendazim 1 g/lit or soil application of Pseudomonas

fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM/sand at 30 days after sowing

Bengal gram

Wilt • Treat with T.viride culture @ 4 g/kg of seed and sown. • Soil application with P. fluorescens peat culture @ 2.5 kg/ha • Application of peat culture mixed with organic manure or sand along

with the rows at the time of sowing and at 30 and 60 days after sowing • Treat the seeds with P. fluorescens talc formulation @ 10 g/kg Reference

Ali,M.1998.Research,Development and management for production of pulses.

In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses, R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books Private Limited ,New Delhi. pp1–40.

Anonymous,1999.Crop Production Guide. Directorate of Agriculture,

Chennai 600 005. Pp 73–102. Banto,S.M. and F.F..Sanchez. 1972. The biology and chemical control of

Callasobruchus chinensis (Linn) (Coleoptera:Bruchidae) Philipp. Entomol. 2:167–182.

Gurdip Singh and Livinder Kaur Bhan. 1998. Disease of Mungbean and

Urbean and their management. In : IPM System in Agriculture. Vol. IV. Pulses. Upadhyay, R.K.Mukerji, K.G. and Rajak, R.L. (Eds.), Aditya Books Private Ltd., New Delhi, India. pp 311-371.

Lal,S.S.,C.P.Yadava and C.A.R.Dias, 1985.Assesment of crop losses caused

by Helicoverpa armigera, FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 33:27–35. Muthukrishnan, K., Arjunan, G. and Raguchander, T. 1995. Some pathological

studies on Macrophomina root rot of urbean. Indian Journal of Pulses Research, 8:162-165.

Raguchander, T. Rajappan, K. and Prabakar, K. 1995. Evaluation of tale based product of Trichoderma viride of the control of blackgram root rot. Journal of Biological Control, 9:63-64.

Talekar,N.S.1990. Agromyzid flies of food legumes in tropics . Wiley

Eastern Limited, New Delhi. Vidhyasekaran, P and Muthamilan, M. 1995. Development of formulation of

Pseudomonas fluorescens for the control of chickpea wilt. Plant Dis. 79:782-786.

Yadava,C.P. and S.S.Lal,1998.Major insect pests of chickpea and their

management. In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses , R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books Private Limited ,New Delhi. pp197–231.

MANGEMENT OF PODBORER COMPLEX IN REDGRAM

Dr. K. Gunasekaran*

Among the pulses, the redgram Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. is the most important dietary component of human beings. India is the largest producer contributing more than 90 per cent of the worlds production of redgram. Though the area has increased from 2.18 (1950–51) to 3.47 million ha (1998–99) and the production has increased from 1.72 to 2.77 million tonnes. However the productivity remains almost constant (788 – 799 kg/ha) (Anon, 2000). Owing to the increase in population the per capita availability has been reduced from 12.05 to 6.08 g/day (Durairaj, 1999). In Tamil Nadu redgram is grown under 1.41 lakh ha with a production of 1.22 lakh tonnes. The average productivity is 864 kg/ha (Anon,2000a).

Among the various constraints, insect pest is one of the major and

important one affecting the productivity of red gram apart from ecological and biological constraints. ICRISAT (1981) listed 19 important pests of redgram that are known to occur in India and the important pests are listed in Table 1. The level of damage caused by different pests either individually or jointly may vary with locations. Table 1. Important pests of redgram

S.No. Common Name Scientific Name Plant Parts damaged

1 Flower beetle Mylabris spp. Flower / pod 2 Spotted pod borer Maruca virtata Pod 3 Gram pod borer Helicoverpa armigera Pod 4 Plume moth Exelastis atomosa Pod 5 Blue butterfly Catechrysops cnejus Pod 6 Pod wasp Tanastigmodes

cajaninae Pod

7 Pod fly Melanagromyza obtusa Pod 8 Pod bug Clavigralla spp. Pod

* Associate Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Entomology, TNAU, Coimabtore

Among the eight pests, the gram pod borer and the pod fly are of major concern in the redgram growing areas. The intensity of damage caused by pod borers in different states of India is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Intensity of Pod borer damage in redgram growing areas of India

Damage (%) Grade States >20 High Punjab, Maharastra, Madhy Pradesh, Tamil Nadu 7–20 Moderate Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh <7 Low North Eastern States

Monitoring of Helicoverpa armigera

The trap catch is influenced by environment, crop, egg and larval population. The seasonal cycle of this pest varied in different parts of the country and also with cropping pattern. Studies so far conducted has indicated that these traps can be used as a monitoring device to design the management strategies against H.armigera.

Podfly Among the 20 species under the genus Melagromyza, only two species viz., M.obtusa and M.chalcosoma Spencer feed on redgram. M.obtusa is of economic importance only in the larval stages and is the major pest in medium and long duration varieties causing 60–80 per cent grain damage (Lal and Katti,1998). In Tamil Nadu the grain damage ranged from 2.5 to 51.0 per cent (Sheriff and Rajagopalan,1971; Rajagopalan and Devakumar,1965). The infected seeds do not germinate. Partially matured pods are used for egg laying than the tender or fully matured pods.

Monitoring All the immature stages remain within the developing pod and is very difficult to monitor without damaging the pod. Though several attractants and traps have been designed to monitor the adult flies, none of them are effective in the field (Sithanantham et. al.1981; Mohan et.al.,1994; Durairaj,1995). Hence, monitoring needs further research. Spotted pod borer The larvae cause extensive damage to floral buds and flowers. The characterestic symptom is webbing together of flowers, pods, and leaves with

frass often on pods and shoot tips. This is serious pest in early maturing varieties. Monitoring The adults can be monitored through light traps though there are variations in the catches in different months at various regions of the country. Plume moth The pest is active throughout the year depending on the availability of the host plants. Apart from redgram, it is also recorded in horse gram and lab lab. The average pod and grain damage was 8.95 and 4.02 per cent respectively (Bindra and Jakhmola, 1967) Blue butterfly It causes considerable damage to buds, flowers and tender pods compared to other pod borers. Cowpea, pea, and beans are also important hosts for this pest. Pod wasp This was first recorded in Patancheru during 1997 (Lateef, 1997). Many infested pods fail to develop and are either shed or retained in the plants. The adults emerge from these undeveloped pods. The basal locule is most commonly affected. The damage is to the extent of 16.3 – 49.7 per cent depending on the duration of the crop. Pod bug This is the most important sucking pest of pods. The adults mostly lay eggs on green pods or leaves. At times floral buds, developing pods and dough pods were also preferred for oviposition. Blister beetle The beetles are found to occur throughout the year in redgram, cowpea, green gram and black gram. Peak incidence was observed during September causing a maximum flower damage of 95 per cent.

MANAGEMENT

1. Host Plant Resistance This is the most important and widely adopted components in IPM. Several short, medium and long duration maturity groups have shown resistance or tolerance to gram pod borer and pod fly. Ten redgram selections viz., ICRISAT 16, 166–2–1, ICP 7946–1–3–3, ICP 127, SL 12–3–1, SL 41–3–3, PDA 88–2E–3–1, ICP 3401, ICP 7950 and ICP 12304 were promising (Lal,1996). Rabi red gram SL 21–6–2 was tolerant against pod borer and pod fly in many locations of the country (Anon,1996–97). Several resistant lines were identified (Table 3)from ICRISAT (Lateef and Pimbert,1990) The short duration entries ICPL 4, ICPL 2 and ICPL 88034 were tolerant pod borer complex (Durairaj et.al. 1997). In Tamil Nadu, the entries viz., PDA 88–2E and PDA 92–1E were tolerant to lepidopteran pests and pod fly (Durairaj and Ganapathy, 1997).

The cultivars with small pods, small dark coloured seeds and deep constrictions between seed locules were less preferred by pod fly. High level of trypsin inhibitors and linolool was recorded in resistant lines to gram pod borer (ICRISAT, 1989 &1990). 2. Cultural Practices

The effects of several cultural practices have been investigated on the incidence of pod borer complex. In north, the timely sowing saves the crop from the incidence of Helicoverpa (Sachan, 1992). 3. Biological control Though several parasites and predators have been recorded against Helicoverpa, they are less effective under field conditions (Durairaj, 1999). The pathogens like HaNPV @ 500 LE (3.0x 1012 POBs/ha) were effective under field conditions. There was high level (>80%) of parasitism by the larval – pupal parasitoid Ormyrus spp. on pod fly in Vamban (Durairaj,1998).

Table 3. Redgram genotypes identified as resistant to Helicoverpa armigera

Genotypes Mean Resistance Rating 1

Borer Damage range during 1979–90(%)

Short duration (Hissar) ICPL 1 ICPL 2 ICPL 269 ICPL 187–1 Control– Pant A1

3.7(7) 3.9 (8) 4.7 (6) 3.7 (7) 6.9(9)

5 – 32 6 – 45

11 – 29 8 – 29

14 – 58 Medium & Medium – Long Duration (ICRISAT Centre) ICP909 –F3 PPE 45–2 ICP 1811–F3 ICP 1903–F1 ICP 10466–F3

4.5 (11) 4.4 (11) 4.1 (11) 3.8 (11) 3.7 (11)

6 – 50 4 – 37 9 – 50

13 – 67 3 – 67

Controls ICP 1691 (Susceptible) BDN – 1 C –11 ICP 3615 ICP 5036

7.5 (11) 6.0 (11) 6.0 (11) 3.6 (11) 3.5 (11)

11 – 100 16 – 90 18 – 76 14 – 50 7 – 61

1. Rated on a 1 to 9 scale, where 1= Resistant and 9 = susceptible 2. Figures in parentheses indicate the number of years tested (After Lateef and Pimbert,1990) 3. Chemical control This is the most reliable and effective control measure and offer immediate solution to most of the problems. As the pod borer complex consists of more than one pest and their intensity of attack differs depending on the maturity of crop and geographical distribution, the type of insecticide and time of use vary according to the pest situation. Generally the lepidopteran borers and pod fly cause major damage and the control measure is decided based on the incidence of these two groups. The chemicals recommended for managing the pod borers are given below (Anon,1999).

Spraying can be taken up based on Economic Threshold (ETL).For example , Maruca 3 /plant, Exalastis 5/plant. Whenever H. armigera is predominant apply NPV 500LE/ha to control the pest in the early stage. Apply any one of the following insecticides at 25 kg/ha. Endosulfan 4% D; quinalphos 4% D; carbaryl 5% D or spray endosulfan 35 EC 1250 ml., monocrotophos 625 ml/ha. Spraying of NSKE 5% twice followed by triazophos 0.05% is also effective. Application of Neem oil 2% and phosalone 0.07% has controlled the

pod borers and increased the yield. Recent studies have indicated that following IPM methods have controlled the pest and increased the yield. 1. Use of tolerant varieties 2. Installation of bird perches @ 50/ha 3. H.armigera pheromone trap @ 10/ha 4. Collection and destruction of fully grown larvae 5. Spraying NSKE 5% at 50% flowering 6. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha at 15 days after first spray 7. Application of the following insecticides at 15 days interval depending

on the intensity of pest. Chlorpyriphos 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.04% The status of IPM in redgram is detailed in Table 4. Suitable manipulation of the available technologies could result in an effective IPM technology (Lal and Katti,1998). Table 4. The Status of IPM in redgram in India

Insect Pests S.No IPM componnents H.armigera M.obtusa Others I Pest Monotoring

Economic Thresholds Surveillance System Forecasting

ϑ

ϑ

ϑ

ρ

ρ

ρ

ρ

ρ

ρ II Host Plant Resistance

Ecological Resistance Genetic Resistance

4 ϑ

4 ϑ

ρ ρ

III Cultural Control Manipulation of sowing date Intercropping

ϑ ⎯

ϑ ⎯

ρ ρ

IV Chemical control Effective Insecticides Selective Insecticides Timing of Insecticide Application Minimum Effective Rates Use of Plant Products

4

4

4

ϑ

4

4

4

ƒ

4

4

4

ϑ V Biological control

Augmentation of Natural Enemies (NE) Prediction of NE effectiveness Importation of NE

ƒ

ƒ

ƒ

ƒ

ρ

ρ

ƒ

ρ

ρ

Use of Microbial Agents 4 ρ ρ 4 Component available for use ϑ Component available but more research needed for its effectiveness ⎯ Component available but incompatible with other management practices ƒ Component not available but research currently being conducted ρ Component neither available nor any research is being conducted

Reference Anonymous, 1999. Crop Production Guide. Directorate of Agriculture,

Chennai 600 005. pp 73–78. Anonymous, 2000. Project Co–Ordinator Report 1999–2000, All India

Coordinated Research Project on Pigeonpea. Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur –208 024. 9p.

Anonymous, 2000a. Pulse Production Technology, Centre for Plant Breeding

and Genetics, TNAU, Coimbatore. 9p. Bindra,O.S. and S.S.Jakhmola.1967.Incidence and losses caused by some pod

infesting insects in different varieties of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp.) Indian J.Agric.Scientist., 37:177–188.

Durairaj,C. 1998.Seasonal incidence of pupal parasitods of pigeonpea pod fly

in tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu. Indian J.Agric.Scientist., in Press. Durairaj,C. and N.Ganapathy.1997.Evaluation of pigeonpea entries for their

tolerance to pod borer complex in Tamil Nadu. Indian J.Agric.Scientist., 67(8):317–318.

Durairaj,C.,T.G.Shanower, V.R.Bhagwat, M.I.Khan and D.A..Dodia.1997.

Relationship between insect abundance, damage, and yield loss in short duration pigeonpea (report of work) ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.10p.

Durairaj, C.1995. Ecology and management of Tur pod fly Melagromyza obtusa

Mall.in pigeonpea.Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore. 120p. Durairaj,C. 1999. Integrated Management for Pigeonpea pod borer Complex.

Pestology, 100–115.

ICRISAT,1981. Annual Report for 1979–80. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India.342p. ICRISAT,1989. Annual Report for 1998. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India. ICRISAT,1990. Annual Report for 1989. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India. Lal,S.S. and G.Katti.1998.IPM of Pod borer complex infesting pigeonpea.

In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses , R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books Private Limited, New Delhi. pp 79–128.

Lateef,S.S.S1977. A new hymenopteran pest, Tanostigmodessp. (Hymennptera:

Tanostigmatidae) recorede on pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan Millsp.)at ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India.Tropical Grain Legume, 7:6–7.

Lateef ,S.S. and M.P.Pimbert.1990.The search for host plant resistance to

H.armigera in chickpea and pigeonpea at ICRISAT. Proc. First consultative Group Meeting on Host Selection behavior of H.armigera.5–7 May, 1990, ICRISAT centre, Patancheru, India.

Mohan,S. P.V.Subba Rao, and P.C.Sundara Babu. 1994. A new model trap for

monitoring pigeopea pod fly International Chickpea and Pigeonpea News Letter, 1:42.

Rajagopalan, C.K. and J.A.Paul Devakumar.1965. Preliminary studies on the

infestation of Agromyza obtusa Mall. In redgram (Cajanus cajan Linn.) Madras Agric.J. 58:345–346.

Sachan, J.N.1992.Present status of Helicoverpa armigera in pulses and

strategies for its management.In: Sachan, J.N.(ed.) Helicoverpa Management. Current and future strategies .Proc. of first National Workshop held at Directorate of Pulses, Kanpur, 30–31 August,1990.

Sheriff, M.N. and C.K.Rajagopalan.1971.A comparative study of the intensity

of infestation of the pod fly Melagromyza obtusa (Agromyzidae) Malloch on different varieties of the redgram (Cajanus cajan L.) Madras Agric.J.b 58:842–843.

Sithanatham,G., M.Balasubramanian and S.Chelliah. 1981.Cotrol of Heliothis

armigera on red gram with NPV and Insecticides. Madras Agric.J. 68:417–420.

RECENT TRENDS IN SEED PRODUCTION IN PULSES

Dr.V. Krishnasamy1, Dr.V.Palanisamy2 and Dr.P. Srimathi3

India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world

accounting for 33 per cent of the world area and 22 per cent of world production of pulses. The domestic demand and consumption, however is much more than production mainly because pulses are a major source of protein for a large section of the vegetarian population in the country. The cultivation of pulses also provides of large quantity of green fodder, which serves as the nutritious food for the livestock. Besides their high nutritional value, pulse crops have unique characteristics of containing and restoring soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation. In Tamil Nadu, area wise, blackgram occupies predominant place next to greengram and redgram. The following practices may be adopted in different agro climatic zones for enhancing the pulses seed production by better utilization of the available resources. Land requirement

The land should be fertile and should not have been grown with the same crop in the previous season. If grown, it should be the same variety, which was certified for the said class of seeds. The land should be free from volunteer plants. Seeds and sowing

The seeds should be obtained from authenticated source with tag and bill. The off colour seeds should be removed from normal coloured, since they record lower germination. Only graded seeds should be used. In greengram and blackgram the hard seed percentage may exceed to 10 per cent at a time.

At that time seeds should be scarified with commercial sulphuric acid

for 2 minutes and should be washed thoroughly and used for sowing. If the field is infected with Macrophomina sp. the seeds are to be treated with Trichoderma @ 4g kg-1. 1. Professor and Head, 2. Associate Professor, 3. Assistant Professor, Seed

Science and Technology, TNAU, Coimbatore Specific rhizobium strains (600 g ha-1 as seed treatment) may be used for all pulses for increasing the yield, for better nodulation and maintenance of

organic matter in the soil. Phosphobacteria @ 600 g ha-1 as seed treatment is recommended for increasing the phosphorus use efficiency.

The seeds have to be treated with thiram or captan @ 2.0 g kg-1 and

insecticide carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1 before sowing for early protection against diseases and insects. Seed hardening-cum-invigouration treatment of pulses

The process of seed hardening followed by invigouration is given as a pre-sowing seed treatment. This treatment enables (or) helps the pulses seed to germinate early with the available soil moisture. The hardened-cum-invigourated seeds will withstand besides drought much sowing better than untreated seeds.

The invigouration process accelerates seedling growth and suppresses

the weed growth. Better and early germination result in higher population per unit area and contribute for higher yield. Two seed management practices namely seed hardening and invigouration are combined in one process using cheap and easily available materials. The steps involved are:

Seed hardening - Pre-conditioning

The seeds are pre-conditioned by placing them in between two moist gunny bags for a period of 1 hr. The gunny bags are first soaked in water, then excess water is removed by squeezing and used for pre-conditioning. The seeds are spread to a depth of 1 to 2 cm on the gunny bag. After pre-conditioning the seeds are soaked in botanical solution as explained below: Soaking and drying

The pre-conditioned seeds are soaked in aquous botanical leaf extracts of prosopis and pungam using 1% solution each and taken in 1:1 ratio or mixed in 1:1 ratio. For example, to prepare 1 lit. of botanical extract weigh 10 g in each of prosopis and pungam fresh leaves, macerate it to a paste and make up the volume to 1 lit. of water. Soak the pre-conditioned seeds in this prepared solution using 1:0.3 ratio. That is for 1 kg of seeds 300 ml of leaf extract. Gently stir this seeds occasionally to enable uniform absorption. After 1 hr. drain the solution and dry the seeds in the shade.

Invigouration

Following seed hardening the seeds are treated with halogen formulation at 3 g kg-1 of seed. Halogen formulation is prepared by taking 5 parts of pure bleaching powder with 4 parts of finely powdered chalk powder and 1 part of arappu leaf powder and mixed in a closed container. This treatment can be given to the seeds at the time of drying (when the surface moisture is removed) and then dried back to safe moisture level.

The treated seeds can be sown immediately or can be stored upto 1 week

prior to sowing. Palanisamy and Jayaseelan (1998) found that pre-sowing seed treatments of redgram CV CO5 seeds with trichoderma @ 4 g kg-1 followed by Rhizobium culture inoculation at 24 hrs interval and subsequently pellating with ZnSo4 (100 mg kg-1) using gypsum (300 g) as carrier and maida 10% (50 ml) as adhesive resulted in higher germination, seedling group, vigour index and field emergence (Table 1).

Vijaya and Ponnusamy (1998) studied seed fortification and pelleting on

crop growth and yield in black gram CV CO BG 282/1 and found that black gram seeds fortified with ZnSo4 (0.2%) + NaSo4 (0.2%) + Na2Mo4 (0.1%) and subsequently pelleting with DAP @ 120g kg-1 of seed registered higher yield and quality. Table 1. Effect of seed treatment in redgram cv CO5

Treatments Germination (%)

Root Length

(cm)

Shoot Length

(cm)

Vigour index

Field emergence

(%) ZnSo4(100ppm)+Thiram (2g)+Rhizobium 87.5 17.1 28.4 3978 84.0

ZnSo4+Trichoderma+ Rhizobium 88.5 17.7 28.6 4096 85.0

Trichoderma+Rhizobium +ZnSo4 Pellating 98.0 18.2 31.4 4687 91.0

Control 84.0 17.0 28.7 3906 83.0 CD 3.50 2.20 4.70 250.0 3.16

Table 2. Seed fortification and pelleting in black gram

Treatment Number of seeds pod-1

Seed yield (g plant-1)

100-seed weight (g)

Seed recovery

(%)

Germination (%)

Control 5.7 4.8 3.60 90 94 Fortified with micro nutrient + pelleting DAP

6.3 5.6 3.80 94 96

CD 0.09 0.07 0.01 0.31 -

Mahaeswari (1996) found among the organic pelleting materials tested in soybean CV CO1, vermicompost @ 50 g kg-1 gave the best effect on germination, peedling growth, dry matter production and vigour index. The next best was the combination of vermicompost and pungam (Derris indica) leaf powder (1:1) @ 40 gkg-1. Table 3. Seed pelleting with Vermicompost in soybean

Treatment Germination (%)

Root length (cm)

Shoot length (cm)

Dry matter (mg SL-1)

Vigour Index

Impelleted 82 5.1 31.5 67 419

Vermicompost 98 11.6 27.2 109 1136

Vermicompost+Pungam leaf powder (1:1)

92 11.3 26.5 93 1039

CD 9.2 1.20 2.9 8.7 20.0

Maintenance of purity

To maintain the genetic purity and physical purity of seeds, rouging is to be done form vegetative phase to harvesting phase. The off types and volunteer plants are to be removed as and when they occur in the field based on leaf colour, stem colour, growth status, flower colour, pod colour, seed colour etc. In addition to the off types, the pest affected and mosaic virus affected plants should be removed. Irrigation

The crop should be irrigated immediately after sowing and the life irrigation is given on third day. Subsequently irrigate the crop once in 10-15 days depending upon soil and climatic conditions. The flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation. Water stagnation should be avoided at all stages.

Pre-harvest sanitation spray

To avoid bruchid (pulse beetle) infestation in the storage, the pulse crop should be sprayed with endosulfan or malathion 0.07 per cent two times at weekly interval before harvest. This treatment will minimize the egg laying by bruchid. Sasikala (1994) studied the effect of pre-harvest sanitation spraying of pesticides on seed yield and quality in cowpea CV CO4. The results revealed that pre-harvest spray of endosulfan (0.25%)+carbendazium (0.1%) two times that is at 30th and 45th after sowing recorded increased number of pods, pod yield, seed yield and seed quality. This treatment also recorded minimum bruchid incidence during storage. Table 4. Pre-harvest sanitation spray in cowpea cv CO 4

Treatments Pod

Number/plant

Seed Number/

pod

Pod yield / plant (g)

Seed Yield

(g/Plant)

Germination (%)

Control 6.1 14.2 14.9 10.1 87.3 Endosulfon (0.25%) 8.1 13.0 17.8 11.1 93.3 Malathion (0.1%) 10.1 15.3 23.0 17.2 91.7 Carbendazium (0.1%) 9.0 15.7 23.2 15.9 94.7 Endosulfon+Carbendazium 12.8 16.9 28.8 20.8 95.7 Malathion+ Carbendaszium

8.8 15.3 25.3 16.2 93.3

CD 1.01 NS 3.40 2.50 1.91 Patrick Jasper (1998) studied the effect of pre-harvest sanitation spray

on seed yield and quality in pea. The results showed that the seed yield and quality characters were found to be higher in the plots sprayed with endosulfon 0.1 per cent three times at 10 days interval before harvesting.

Table 5. Pre-harvest sanitation spray in peas

Treatment Seeds pod-1

Seed yield

g plant–1

Germination (%) Vigour index

Bruchid infestation

(%)

No spray 5.5 11.3 67 1102 11.3

Endosulfon 6.5 18.4 83 1197 1.7

CD 0.8 0.7 3.8 54.0 0.31 Harvesting

Harvest the pods when they attain the physiological maturity. The pod colour turns straw colour on the crop. Discard the terminal pods, as they invariably contain immature and diseased seeds. The seed moisture content at this stage will be about 15 per cent. Dry the pods to render them just brittle and flail them with pliable bamboo stick to separate the seeds. Rain at the time of harvest may enhance the occurrence of off coloured seeds and result in poor seed quality. These seeds are to be removed. Seed processing

The pods are dried to 12-13 per cent moisture content and then they are threshed and precleaned. The seeds should be size graded using recommended sieve for homogenising the seed lot. Seed treatment

The graded seeds can be further dried to 7-8 per cent moisture content and treated with following materials in the order of preference: • thiram or captan @ 2g + carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1 of seed for safe

storage. • Activated clay @ 1 kg 100-1 kg of seeds may be dry dressed for grain

cum seed storage use. Hybrid seed production in redgram for COPH 2

The tool employed for production of hybrid seed is by genetic male sterility system (GMS) where the male sterility is maintained in heterozygous stage. Following the test cross principle, these would be fertile and sterile plants in the ratio of 1:1 in male sterile production. COPH 1 and COPH 2 are the two redgram hybrids released from TNAU.

Planting ratio

For hybrid seed production in COPH 2, a ratio of 4:2 or 6:2 or 4:1 or male sterile; pollen parent is to be adopted depending upon the honey bee activity. If the honey bee activity is above normal, a ratio of 4:1 can be followed. If the honeybee activity is very less a ratio of 4:2 may be adopted. If the activity is moderate adopt 6:2 ratio.

Isolation distance An isolation distance 200 m for foundation class and 100m for certified

class is to be followed. Sowing

Both the parents are to be sown simultaneously. Sow two rows of pollen parent all around the entire plot. Sowing should be done during Ist fortnight of June or 1st fortnight of December. Rogueing In male sterile line or female parent,

1. Remove the off type plants 2. Remove the male fertile plant by examining the colour of the anthers

(yellow) at the time of first flower formation. The plants with translucent white anthers (sterile) alone are retained in the female rows. This operation should be completed in 7-10 days interval till completion of flowering by daily visit.

3. Remove the late flowering and early flowering plants

In male fertile line or pollen parent, 1. Remove all the off type plants 2. Remove the immature pods set in the plants from time to time to

induce continuous flowering and to aware the pollen availability.

Harvesting

Collect the pods from the female parent i.e., male sterile parent. This will give the hybrid seeds. Male and female rows can be identified by putting colour bamboo stakes.

Somu (1995) conducted experiments to standardize optimum planting

ratio and effect of pickings on seed yield and quality in redgram hybrid ICPH 8. The results revealed that pod set percentage, pod number seed yield per plant and per row were on par up to three rows adjacent to the male row on either side. The hybrid seed yield was significantly higher upto three female rows in either side of male row indicating that the optimum planting ratio for ICPH 8 pigeon pea hybrid seed production is 1:6 (male: female). The picking wise study revealed that the pod number, pod yield, seed yield and quality showed a decreasing trend from first to third picking.

Table 6. Optimum planting ratio for ICPH 8 hybrid

Female row (R) Seed yield Seed yield Germination

(g Plant–1) (g row-1) (%) R1 17.8 995 89 R2 17.4 991 89 R3 16.8 987 87 R4 10.9 692 86 R5 9.0 537 86 R6 4.7 294 86 R7 4.8 290 87 CD 1.3 20.0 NS

Vasantha (1995) studied the better of seed size on seed quality in pigeon

hybrid CoH1 and its parents. The results revealed that the pollen and seed parents, ICPL 87109 and MST 21, are large and small seeded genotypes while the hybrid is a medium sized seed. The seed lots of hybrid and its pollen parent can be processed using 12/64 “round perforated sieve while the seed parent with 10/64” sieve in order to get quality seeds with higher germination and vigour. Table 7. Seed certification standards for pulses Field standards Foundation class Certified class Isolation distance for redgram (m) 200 100 For others (m) 10 5 Specific requirements Off types 0.10% 0.20% *Plants affected by seed borne disease 0.10% 0.20% Seed standards factors Pure seed (minimum) 98.0% 98.0% Inert matter (maximum) 2.0% 2.0% Other crop seeds (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg Weed seeds (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg Other distinguishable varieties (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg Germination including hard seeds (minimum)

75% 75%

Moisture (maximum) 9.0% 9.0%

containers (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%

* Seed borne diseases are: Ashy stem blight (Macrophomina phaseoli), anthracrose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), scochyta blight, cowpea mosaic, Halo blight (Pseudomonas phasiolicola), Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas spp.)

Seed storage and treatment techniques in pulses

Storage is the basic preservation of material for further usage. This occupies special importance in seed since seeds are to be viable at the time of usage for sowing. Seeds undergo irreversible physical, physiological and biochemical deteriorative changes during storage. Seed treatments are the management practices, which can prolong the shelf life of seed by mitigating the deteriorative changes. The seed treatments employed for the said purpose can be broadly classified into pre-storage and mid-storage treatments.

I. PRE-STORAGE SEED TREATMENT

These treatments are given to seeds before storage for safe and protective storage of seeds. These treatments reduce the deterioration of seed caused by external and internal factors.

The factors influencing seed treatment are; 1. Moisture content of seed

2. Initial infestation of insects and fungi 3. Kind of seed 4. Selection of chemical 5. Storage environment and 6. Storage period. 1. Pre-sanitation spray

The treatment influence can be exalted by protecting the crop at field itself from bruchids by implementing the pre-harvest sanitation spray at field 10 days before harvest with 0.07% endosulphan as a preventive dose to storage insects especially the bruchids. 2. Seed treatment with activated clay

The seeds are treated with activated clay (Burnt China clay) @ 1:100 ratio as dry mix. Due to abrasive action the infestation by bruchids is minimized and seeds are protected from bruchids. 3. Seed treatment with botanicals

The seeds are treated with botanical leaf powder such as neem, notchi, pungam, sambangi, arappu @ 1:100 ratio as dry mix and are stored under ambient conditions. The leaf powders act as repellent to insects and their invasion is prevented. Sikkai and soapnut fruit rind are also used as a repellents for the storage of seeds. Vasambu and turmeric rhizome powder are also used for dry mixing with seed to protect against deterioration of seed by internal and external factors. It is a low cost and no cost indigenous technologies for short-term seed storage. 4. Seed treatment with red earth

Seed are coated or mixed with red earth @ 1:100 ratio and is used to prevent the insect emergence with preventive action. 5. Seed treatment with oils

Seeds are treated with neem oil, coconut oil, groundnut oil, castor oil, pungam oil @ 1:100 ratio as repellents. The slippery nature of oil gives 100% protection against insects. Among the oils, neem oil is the best. 6. Seed fumigation

Seeds are dried to below 10% moisture and fumigated with celphos @ 3 g/m3 for a period of 7 days. This prevents the primary and secondary infestations of bruchids. 7. Seed treatment with insecticides and fungicides

Seeds are dried to low moisture content (8-10%) and treated with fungicide and insecticides either alone or in combinations.

The fungicides used are thiram or captan or carbandazim. These are

mixed with seed @ 2 g kg-1 of seed either as dry mix or as slurry treatment. The fungicides are diluted with 5 ml of water per kilogram of seed, mixed with seed, shade dried and stored.

The insecticides such as monocrotophos, chloropyriphos are treated in

liquid form, where 2.4 ml of the insecticide is mixed with one kilogram of seed.

Carboryl 50% dust or carboryl 50% WP. is the insecticide commonly used as dry mix and slurry @ 200 mg kg-1 of seed along with fungicide to protect the seed both from storage fungi and insects.

Malathion and Decis is also used for seed treatment @ 0.06 and 0.04 ml

kg-1 of seed respectively (slurry) to protect the seed both from insects and fungi in addition to provide a check against natural deterioration.

8. Seed treatment with Halogen mixture

Seed treatment with chlorine and iodine based halogen mixture to protect the seed from free radicle formation, which is the deteriorative factor occurring in seed senescence and aging. This halogen treatments quench the

free radicle and slow down the natural deteriorative nature of the seed. Chlorine based halogen mixture is prepared by mixing Calcium chloride (bleaching powder), Calcium carbonate and arappu leaf powder in 5:4:1 ratio. The dosage for seed treatment is 3 g kg-1 of seed either as dry mix or as slurry treatment. 9. Repeated sun drying

Moisture content is the factor that influences the internal deterioration and external biotic organism in seed. By repeated sun drying of seed once in 2 months to keep the moisture content of seed to 7-8% will protect the seed. The storability can be extended to more than a year. 10. Seed storage godown sanitation sprays

The seeds are invaded by the insects as secondary infestation in the unhygienic seed storage. Spraying of bags and walls of storage godown with malathion and nuvan can prevent the secondary infestation and preserve the seeds for longer duration. 10. Selection of packaging material

The seeds devoid of primary infestation and dried to below 8 per cent can be stored for longer duration, when packed in moisture vapour proof containers. This type of storage protects the seed from external and internal deteriorating factors. The polyvinyl and 600 gauge polyethylene bags also give better protection against insects compared to gunny and cloth bags. II. MID-STORAGE CORRECTION TREATMENTS

The seeds stored in godown can also be checked for the storability / deteriorative nature in the middle and can be corrected by the adoption of any of the following methods.

1. Water flotation technique

When the seeds are infected with bruchids, they may be floated in water to assess the insect activity. They can be further minimized by fumigation or by seed treatment. 2. Moisture equilibrium technique

Pulse seeds which have the hydrophilic protein, can not respond to hydration-dehydration technique. Hence, seeds are moisture equilibrated to raise the moisture content above 20 per cent and then they are dried back to original moisture content. Seed may also be sprayed with water and dried back to original moisture

content. This helps in quenching of the free radicles present in the deteriorating seed. Halogen treatment can also be used as a mid-storage treatment where the halogen is utilized for quenching the free radicles.

Adoption of these seed treatment technique either individually or in

combination, can preserve the pulse seeds and prolong its life for longer duration.

References Maheswari,R.(1996). Seed production technology in soybean under rice fallow

and methods to control seed detenoration in soybean CV Co1 (Glycine max L.) Merrill) M.Sc. (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.

Palanisamy, V. and K.Jayaseelan (1998). Effect of pre-sowing seed treatments

on seed quality in redgram. MAJ.85(10-12): 612-614. Patrick Jasper (1998). Studies on seed production and storage aspects of pea

(Pisum sativum L.) M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3. Sasikala, K. 1994. Studies on the influence of pre-harvest spraying of pesticides

on seed yield and quality in cowpea CV Co4. M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.

Somu, G.(1995). Studies on certain aspects of seed production in pigeon pea (Cajanus

cajan (L.) Millsp.) hybrid ICPH 8 M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3. Vasantha, R. (1995). certain seed technological studies in the piegon pea

(cajanus cajan (L) Millsp) hybrid Co H1 and its parental lines M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.

Vijaya, J. and A.S. Ponnusamy (1998). Studies on seed fortification and

pelleting in blackgram. Madras Agric. J., 85 (10-12):549-552.

RHIZOBIUM AND PHOSPHOBACTERIA: AN AVENUE FOR

INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY IN PULSES

Dr.S.Gunasekaran1 and Dr.D.Balachandar2

Rhizobium: An introduction The average annual global nitrogen fixation is of 175 million tonnes/year, in which the legume nitrogen fixation accounted for about 40 per cent. Rhizobium, gram negative rod shaped bacteria, which invade into the roots of legume, forming nodules and fixing the atmospheric nitrogen through nitrogenase enzyme is the basic phenomenon of the BNF of pulses. Subba Rao (1995) quated that, clover fixes about 130 kg of nitrogen per ha and cowpea ranges from 62-128 kg/ha. The nitrogen fixed by other legume crops is given in Table 1. (Nutman,1974). Keyser et al. (1992) reviewed the following characters of Rhizobium to be used as inoculant for pulses. 1. Ability to form nodules and fix nitrogen; 2. Ability to compete, 3. Ability to fix N at different environmental range; 4. Ability to grow in the artificial media; 5. Ability to persist in soil for long time; 6. Ability to migrate; 7. Ability to colonize in the soil; 8. Genetic stability; 9. Compatability and 10. Ability to colonize in rhizosphere soil. Crop Response to Rhizobium The range of experimentally determined values of N2 fixation by temprate and tropical legumes reflects the inherent capacities of legumes to accumulate and fix N (Peoples, et al., 1995). The All India Coordinated Pulses Improvement Project trials results clearly indicated that the inoculation of Rhizobium with basal P fertilizer application is enough to get maximum nodules/plant, nodule weight, plant biomass and grain yield of blackgram, greengram and redgram (Table 2-3). (AICPIP, 1997; 1998 & 1999). It is clearly revealed that application of Rhizobium as seed inoculant is the most essential component in the integrated nutrient management system in pulses. (AICPIP, 1999). The results also clearly showed that atleast 25 per cent of nitrogen could be complemented by Rhizobium if included as a component in the integrated nutrient management system. 1. Associate Professor, 2. Assistant Professor, Microbiology, NPRC, Vamban

Limitations of Rhizobium - Pulses symbiosis

There are so many biotic and abiotic factors influencing the rhizobial colonization in pulses. These factors play an important role in the pulses production by altering the efficiency of Rhizobium. 1. Pulses varieties

Selection of a pulse varieties for more nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium is the basic step in the BNF of pulses. The pioneering work carried out by Lie and Mulocer (1971) and Philips et al (1971) reported that the phenotypic differences in nitrogen fixation are not fully due to plant genotypes or the Rhizobium genotypes but arise due to a lesser or greater extent from the collective action between specific individuals. Oblisamy et al. (1982) reported that the genotypes of blackgram and greengram varied with the response to Rhizobium inoculation (Table 4). Muthiah (1999) reviewed some practical methods to evolve the pulses for more Rhizobium response. 2. Soil abiotic factors a. Soil pH The soil pH plays are important role in the nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium in pulses. At acid pH, the non availability of phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, molybdenum and boran, which are key elements for Rhizobial nodulation and nitrogen fixation lead to poor performance. Moreover the toxicity of aluminia and manganese to rhizobial cells also the reason for the poor growth (Bushby, 1982). The aluminium of 50µ M and 200µ M of manganese are the minimum concentrations in soil solution to effect the rhizobial cells (Keyser and Munn, 1979). A trial conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban at different pH soils, the Rhizobium CRU 7 performed better nodulation and biomass production in blackgram at 6.5-7 pH, whereas the low pH of 4.5-5.0, there is significant decline in the nodule / plant, nodule and biomass production. As fig.2, the alkaline soils also tend to be high in sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium sulphate which are found to be highly toxic to the Rhizobial cells (Wilson, 1931). The effect of pH on the survival of rhizobia in soil was studied by Swaminathan and Prasad (1982) (Table 5).

The neutral soils are with more availability of P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mo, B etc. and with non toxic level of A1, Mn, NaCl leads to higher survival of Rhizobium in soil and better nodulation and nitrogen fixation in pulses (Prabakaran, 1999 and Hegde, 1999). b. Organic matter The organic matters act as a media to survive the Rhizobium in the soil when the host is not available. So, the organic matter of the soil leads a major role in the activity of Rhizobium (Gunasekaran, 1999). More over, when the organic matter content of soil declines the water holding capacity, becomes poor, nutrients status and soil hardening which lead to the poor survival of Rhizobium in the soil (Prabakaran, 1998). Bharwaj and Guar (1972) reported that humic and fulric acid fractions of soil appreciably improve the growth of Rhizobium meliloti. Prabakaran and Ravi (1996) reported that application of organic amendments such as sheep manure, biodigested slurry and farm yeard manure application significantly increased the Rhizobium efficiency by increasing the nodule number/plant, nodule weight and grain yield (Table 6). c. Moisture and aeration Optimum soil moisture and good aeration of soil are required for maximum nodulation. Both excess moisture and drought adversely affect the nodulation and symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Moisture content of 24% in alfisols and 45% in vertisols gave maximum nodulation in Chickpea (Hegde, 1999). Venkateswaralu (1997) reported that though the soil rhizobial population was low in the off season, but can return to normal population on the receipt of monsoon rains and soil rewetting. Balasundaram (1988) screened soybean Rhizobium tolerant to water stress. 3. Biotic factors i. Antogonistic organisms Jain and Rewari (1974) found that seed-borne bacteria and fungi are reported to be antogonistic to rhizobia. The bacterial genera, Bacillus, Alcaligenes, Erwinia, Aerobacter, Corynebacterium, Arthrobacter, Brevibacterium, Agrobacterium, Sarcina, Enterobacter and Micrococcus and the fungal genera, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Acrothecium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Curvularia, Pythium and Mucar were found to be autogonistic against rhizobia in soil (Subba rao, 1993). ii. Rhizobiophages

The phases which infect and kill the rhizobia are called as rhizobiophages. They possess DNA. They infect both slow and fast growing rhizobia. The presense of higher phage population in the soil reduce the activity of rhizobia and ultimately the crop yield. The selection of rhizobial strains resistant to rhizobiophages with higher nitrogen fixation is advisable (Murugesan, 1999). iii. Native Rhizobium Brockwell et al. (1982) reported that naturally occurring rhizobia often exist in populations of between 1.0 x 104 and 1.0 x 107 cells per gram of soil. This is equavalent to 1.5 x 1013 rhizobia per ha of soil (10 cm). If the introduced rhizobia are about 10 x 1010 cells per ha, the inoculant: native rhizobia ratio is about 1:250. It seems, therefore, in soils where there are large number of naturally occurring rhizobia, will result in to poor response of inoculated Rhizobium. It clearly indicated that the best way to establish a new strain of rhizobia against a naturally occurring population is to apply a heavy rate of effective, persistent inoculum placed straightly close the point in the soil where the legume roots will accept infections. As fig.2. explained, the biotic and abiotic factors of soil play a major role in the exploitation of Rhizobium for pulses production in sustainable agriculture. Phosphobacteria – An Introduction Phosphate solubilizing bacteria play a major role in the solubilization and uptake of native and applied soil phosphorus. Phosphorus, the key element is an essential plant nutrient required for early establishment and better plant growth. It accelerates tillering, flower initiation, good pod and seed setting. Most of the indian soils are deficient in available form of P and its requirement is met by the addition of phosphatic fertilizers but the use efficiency of applied phosphorus rarely exceeds 30 per cent due to its fixation as Fe and Al phosphates in acid soil and Ca and Mg phosphates in alkaline soils. In this context, phosphate solubilizing micro organisms plays an important role in the utilization of unavailable native phosphates as well as added phosphates. The bacteria, Bacillus megatrium, B. polymyxa, Pseudomonas striata, Micrococcus, Streptomyces are the important phosphobacteria commonly present in the soil. The population of these bacteria is more in the rhizosphere compared to non rhizosphere.

Mechanism of phosphorus solubilization The major microbiological means, by which insoluble phosphorus compounds mobilized, is by the production of organic acid which is accompanied by the acidification of medium. The acids are citric, furmanic, malic, lactic, 2 ketogluconic, gluconic, glyoxylic and x-ketobutyric acids (Illmer and Schinner, 1992). Apart from acid production, they produce phosphatase enzyme which cause the solubilization of P (Alghazali et al. 1986). Kapoor et al. (1989) reported that chelating compounds, mineral acids and siderophores also play the role of P solubilization (Fig.3). Crop response of phosphobacteria The experiments conducted on soybean (Natarajan and Gunasekaran, 1991), pea, french bean and ground nut (Natarajan and Subramanian, 1995) revealed the synergistic effect of phosphobacteria. The trials conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban reported that the application of phosphorus as rock phosphate at basal along with phosphobacteria inoculation recorded significant yield increase in the blackgram and greengram (Table 7& 8). Interaction of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria Nitrogen and phosphorus are the two major plant nutrients required for higher productivity and combined inoculation of nitrogen fixers and phosphate solubilizing micro organisms may benefit the plant better than individual inoculation. Natarajan and Gunasekaran (1991) reported the beneficial effect of combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing bacteria on soybean. Trials conducted at Coimbatore reported that combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with 50 per cent of N and P fertilizer recorded the equal yield of 100% N and P alone (Santhana krishnan, 1990). The same results are obtained at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban when tried with blackgram var. Vamban 1 and in horsegram also (Prabakaran et al., 1999) (Table 9). The above results clearly suggested that combined inoculation of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria will help the macro symbiont – pulses to get maximum quantity of N and P nutrients so as to get higher yield (Fig.4).

Future thrust to improve the dual inoculation Among the various sources of biological nitrogen fixation, symbiotic legume – rhizobia association contributes one of the major sources. To utilize the symbiotic nitrogen fixation effectively, there should be enough improved techniques available. The altering the environmental soil and biotic factors, the legume dual inoculation can be improved. 1. Macro and Micronutrients The failure of pulses – biofertilizers may be sometimes due to non-availability of macro and micronutrients which are essential for the nodualtion and nitrogen fixation in pulses. Application of organic amendments such as farm yard manure, compost, press mud and coirpith application gives enough nutrients for the biofertilizers both Rhizobium and phosphobacteria to survive in the soil when host is not available. More over, the organic manure application lossen the soil for better movement of rhizobial cells in the root region. As Prabakaran (1998) reported application of organic manure is most essential to improve the nodulation and grain yield in pulses by Rhizobium in acid soils. Similarly, foliar spray of phosphorus also recorded the higher nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium in blackgram. The experiments conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban revealed that both soil and foliar spray of phosphorus recorded the maximum nodulation and grain yield of blackgram. Most of the times, the failure of Rhizobium in pulses is due to non availability of micro nutrients such as Mo, Co, B and Fe. The experiment conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban confirmed that application of Mo, Co, B and Fe as foliar spray recorded maxim um nodulaion and grain yield in blackgram (Table 10). The research on requirement of macro and micro nutrients to create better environment for the maximum utilization of biofertilizers (Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria) is essential. 2. Genetic Improvement The following are the avenue for the improvement of Rhizobium to get maximum BNF in pulses.

• Improvement of sym gene – a plasmid / chromosomal gene which is involved in the symbiotic activities.

• Improvement of nod genes – nodulation factor

• Improvement of nif gene of Rhizobium – a plasmid gene which is responsible for nitrogen fixation in Rhizobium.

The Rhizobial strains could be improved by manipulating the genetic

triat of the above genes. To achieve these important characters, the rhizobia could be manipulated genetically by in vitro recombination through conjugation, transformation, transduction and mutations (Sundaram, 1999).

Apart from nodulation and nitrogen fixation improvement, the following

characters of Rhizobium are to be manipulated so as to get maximum efficiency. • Acid tolerant strains • Salt & water resistant strains • Herbicide resistant mutants • Temperature tolerant strains • Phage resistant strains • High competitive strains to native rhizobia

3. Antogonistic bacteria and Azospirillum The use of antogonistic bacteria, which is compatable to the Rhizobium and antogonistic to other soil pathogens could be another method to improve the nodulation and nitrogen fixation. The antogonistic bacteria - AB 3 was developed by Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore tested at AICPIP Centres. The results clearly proved that the Coinoculation of Rhizobium and antogonistic bacteria proved to be the best for enhancing the rhizobial nodulation and nitrogen fixation (Table 11). The exploitation of such bacteria and Azospirillum, which can improve the root growth for better nodulation and production of growth promoting substances is the next step in the improvement of pulses – Rhizobium symbiosis. 4. Improvement of legume host

It is now well known that number of host factors influence the nodulation as well as symbiotic nitrogen fixation directly or indirectly. The flavonoids produced by the legume trigger the induction of bacterial nodulation genes which is essential for the expression of plant genes for nodule morphogenesis. The genetic improvement of legume host is essential for production of flavonoids and nodulins is the future need to improve the nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium. 5. Inoculants for Dryland pulses

Nearly 90 per cent of pulses in India is cultivated under rainfed situation on marginal lands. Abiotic stresses significantly affect the BNF and P solubilization. Optimum environment for better biological nitrogen fixation and P solubilization are well known. But simple and practical agronomic techniques which can be adopted by small farmers are to be developed to overcome the soil stress in the field.

Table 1. Average nitrogen fixed by legumes

Sl.No. Legumes N fixed (kg/ha) 1. Pigeonpea 41-90 2. Soybean 17-124 3. Cowpea 73-240 4. Grams 31-121 5. Groundnut 33-111 6. Chickpea 41-270 7. Cluster bean 37-196 8. Peas 46 9. Fenu greek 44 10. Lentil 41-90 11. Stylo 30-190 12. Leucerne 164 13. Clover 23-260

(Nutman, 1974)

Table 2. Average nodulation by Rhizobium at different pulses

Nodule No./ plant Treatments 1997 1998 1999 Average Per cent increase

over fertilizer conrol

I. Redgram i. Control 2.2 2.1 2.0 2.1 ii. Rhizobium 5.9 5.7 6.7 6.1 15.15 iii. 20 kg N/ha 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.3 II. Blackgram i. Control 10.00 10.11 10.07 10.06 ii. Rhizobium 18.41 16.47 16.21 16.38 17.00 iii. 20 kg N/kg 13.71 15.17 13.13 14.00 III. Greengram i. Control 12.17 10.31 10.41 11.96 ii. Rhizobium 17.47 15.22 15.42 16.04 19.79 iii. 20 kg N/kg 13.17 14.14 12.27 13.39

(Source: Annual Reports of AICPIP)

Table 3. Grain yield increase by Rhizobium strains in pulses

Grain yield (kg/ha) Treatments 1997 1998 1999 Average Per cent increase

over fertilizer conrol

I. Redgram i. Control 271 231 255 252 ii. Rhizobium 315 314 309 312 18.6 iii. 20 kg N/ha 374 256 255 263 II. Blackgram i. Control 327 371 301 333 ii. Rhizobium 525 619 507 550 34.80 iii. 20 kg N/kg 397 433 394 408 III. Greengram i. Control 354 339 341 345 ii. Rhizobium 556 528 525 536 41.79 iii. 20 kg N/kg 370 388 376 378

(Source: Annual Reports of AICPIP)

Table 4. Genotype variation in blackgram on rhizobial inoculation Nodule No. / plant Germplasms

Inoculated Uninoculated H 21 117 147 P 133 73 118 H.21.40/22 43 148 VZM 189 117 46 CO 2 52 72 H.21.40/28 152 158 P 58 122 104 H.21-50-4 40 206 NO 55 137 202 PLS 364 87 223 T 9 71 114 H.21 191 91 M 3 204 174 Musiri 117 127 H21-40/30 166 149 Pusal 181 131

(Oblisami, et al., 1982)

Table 5. Survival of Rhizobium at various soil pH

pH Population ( X 106 /g) 20th day 40th day 80th day 100th day Mean

7 24.0 19.0 14.0 10.0 15.3 8 20.0 29.0 18.0 12.0 20.1 9 23.0 34.0 33.0 13.0 28.4

10 23.0 30.0 17.5 8.0 18.5 Table 6. Influence of organic amendments on nodulation and grain yield of blackgram

Treatments Nodule No./plant

Grain yield (kg/ha)

%Increase over control

Control 4.0 835 - Rhizobium 25.0 995 22.6 Biodigested slurry 17.0 970 16.1 BDS + Rhizobium 22.0 1060 26.9 Sheep manure 15.0 965 15.2 SM + Rhizobium 22.0 1015 21.6 FYM 1.0 940 12.5 FYM + Rhizobium 23.0 1005 20.1

(Prabakaran & Ravi, 1998) Table 7. Influence of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with fertilizer N and

P on nodulation in blackgram (Vamban 1)

No. of noduels / plant Nodule dry weight

(mg/plant)

Treatments Rabi 1998

Kharif 1999

Rabi 1998

Kharif 1999

T1 – Uninoculated control 3.80 3.67 16.13 16.33 T2 – Rhizobium 8.20 8.27 16.67 16.67 T3 – Phosphobacteria 5.53 5.20 16.67 17.00 T4 – Rhizobium + Phosphobacteria 12.27 11.87 24.00 24.67 T5 – 50% N + 50% P + R 15.20 15.00 27.63 31.67 T6 – 50% N + 50% P + PB 12.07 11.17 27.67 27.00 T7 – 50% N + 50% P + R + PB 30.33 31.00 65.67 64.67 T8 – 50% N + 50% P 16.47 16.33 25.33 32.33 T9 – 100% N + 100% P 17.17 15.87 40.00 33.67 SEd 1.24 1.40 1.90 2.04

CD 2.62 2.97 4.04 4.33 R – Rhizobium, PB – Phosphobacteria (NPRC, Vamban) Table 8. Influence of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with fertilizer N and

P on grain yield of blackgram (Vamban 1)

Rabi 1998 Kharif 1999

Treatments

Grain yield (kg/ha)

Per cent increase

over control

Grain yield

(kg/ha)

Per cent increase

over control

T1 – Uninoculated control 353 - 293 - T2 – Rhizobium 415 17.56 334 13.08 T3 – Phosphobacteria 373 5.67 304 2.80 T4 – Rhizobium + Phosphobacteria 441 24.93 370 25.23 T5 – 50% N + 50% P + R 525 48.73 430 45.33 T6 – 50% N + 50% P + PB 531 50.42 428 44.86 T7 – 50% N + 50% P + R + PB 580 64.30 596 101.40 T8 – 50% N + 50% P 512 45.04 427 44.39 T9 – 100% N + 100% P 561 58.92 567 91.59 SEd 9.30 20.45

CD 19.73 43.35 R – Rhizobium, PB – Phosphobacteria (NPRC, Vamban) Table 9. Effect of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria

different P levels on growth, nodulation and grain yield in CO 1 horsegram

Treatments

Plant biomass

Nodules (No./pl.)

Nodule biomass

Grain yield

Per cent increase

(g/pl.) (mg/pl) (kg/ha) over control

T1 – Uninoculated control 2.01 4.0 13 550 - T2 – Rhizobium (R) 3.06 19.6 69 690 25.4 T3 – Phosphobacteria (PB) 2.78 14.0 47 630 14.5 T4 – R + PB 3.14 21.6 77 715 30.0 T5 – SP (40 kg P2O5 /ha) 2.76 19.0 64 665 20.9 T6 – SSP + R 3.11 23.0 83 705 28.3 T7 – SSP + PB 3.01 21.0 73 690 25.4 T8 – SSP + R + PB 3.26 25.6 89 735 33.6 T9 – ½ SSP (20kg P2O5/ha) 2.29 15.0 49 620 12.7 T10 – ½ SSP + R 2.66 20.6 79 675 22.7 T11 – ½ SSP + R + PB 2.79 22.6 84 700 27.3

SEd 0.93 2.89 3.07 5.61 CD (0.05) 1.94 6.03 6.4 11.7

(Prabakaran, et al., 1999)

Table 10. Influence of micronutrients spray on plant growth, nodulation and grain yield of Vamban 1 blackgram

Nodules per plant Nodule weight (mg/pl) Grain yield (kg/ha) Sl. No

Treatments Kharif

'98 Kharif

'99 Kharif

'98 Kharif

'99 Kharif

'98 Kharif

'99 1. Mo 15.00 14.00 33.67 32.33 384 361 2. B 14.33 13.67 31.67 31.33 360 397 3. Co 15.33 14.67 30.33 31.67 374 358 4. Fe 16.00 14.00 27.00 32.67 358 385 5. Mo + B 17.00 17.33 32.00 35.33 427 434 6. Mo + Co 17.67 16.67 37.33 36.00 453 458 7. Mo + Fe 17.00 17.67 27.33 33.67 485 460 8. B + Co 17.67 16.00 28.00 36.33 425 450 9. B + Fe 17.33 17.17 30.33 35.00 425 434 10. Co + Fe 17.00 17.67 32.00 34.67 434 466 11. Mo + B + Co 17.33 17.67 45.67 44.67 437 581 12. Mo + B + Fe 17.00 16.33 46.00 45.00 435 540 13. Mo + Co + Fe 18.33 16.67 43.67 43.17 449 531 14. B + Co + Fe 19.33 18.33 40.33 48.33 445 578 15. Mo + B + Co + Fe 23.34 24.60 56.47 57.33 555 590 16. Rhizobium alone 13.34 12.67 26.87 24.00 355 333 17. Uninoculated

control 12.67 11.17 21.47 22.17 341 312

SEd: 0.74 0.98 0.65 1.43 14.10 14.07 CD: 1.51 1.99 1.32 3.54 28.76 28.71 Table 11. Synergistic effect of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and antogonistic bacteria on the grain yield of greengram (CO 5)

Grain yield (kg/ha) Treatments 1996 1997 1998

Uninoculated control 653 628 646 Rhizobium (R) 829 800 760

Azospirillum (Az) 732 700 703 Antogonistic bacteria (AB) 755 720 715 Rhizobium + Azospirillum 778 845 781 R + AB 842 888 815

A + AB 737 745 728

R+AZ+AB 787 900 840

(Source: AICPIP report)

6. Thrust on Extension activities Besides above research and technological thrusts, equal thrust is needed on developmental, extension and policy making level also. Quality control of biofertilizer is also an serious issue which is to be worked out at national level. Conclusion This millenium is bound to depend on the sustainable and environmentally safe agriculture. The cost of chemical fertilizers, dwindling fossil fuels, environmental pollutions, awareness of quality foods, awareness of organic farming produces and sustainability in agriculture are some of the reasons for the dependency of fiofertilizers. So, creating suitable environment, genetic improvement and newer agronomic techniques for the Rhizobium and phosphobacteria will have greater oportunity to get the maximum pulses production. Reference

Alghazali, R., S.H. Mustafa and K. Mohammad. 1986. Some observations on P solubilization by aerobic microorganisms isolated from sediments of Alkhar river. J. Bio. Sci. Res., 47: 157-172.

All India Co-ordinated Pulses Improvement Project, 1997. Annual Reports of Pigeonpea and MULLAaRP.

All India Co-ordinated Pulses Improvement Project, 1998. Annual Reports of Pigeonpea and MULLaRP.

All India Co-ordinated Pulses Improvement Project, 1999. Annual Reports of Pigeonpea and MULLaRP.

Balasundaram, V.R. 1988. Performance of Rhizobium japanicum strains tolerant to high temperature and low moisture. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 58: 776-778.

Baradwaj, K.K.R. and A.C.Gaur. 1971. Zentral Bakteriol. Hygine, 126: 649-99.

Bushby, H.V.A. 1982. Ecology In: Nitrogen fixation vol. II. Rhizobium (ed.) W.J.Brohghton, Oxford Publ., US. p.35-75.

Gunasekaran, S. 1999. Importance of Rhizobium in legume production. In: Symbiotic nitrogen fixing Microorganisms, Dept. of Microbiol, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, India, p.1.

Hegde, S.V. 1999. Ecology of legume Rhizobium symbiosis in: Recent Advances in Microbial Inoculants, Dept. of Agrl. Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, p.21.

Illmer, P. and F. Schinner. 1992. Solubilization of inorganic phosphates by micro organisms isolated from forestry soils. Soil Biol. Biochem., 24: 389-395.

Jain, M.K. and Rewari, R.B. 1974. Isolation of seed borne microflora from leguminous crops and their antogonistic effect on Rhizobium. Curr. Sci., 43: 157.

Kapoor, K.K., M.M. Mishra and K.Kukreja. 1989. Phosphate solubilization by soil Micro organisms. Ind. J. Microbiol., 129: 119-127.

Keyser, H.H. and D.N. Munns. 1979. Soil Sci. Soc. AM. J., 43: 519-523.

Keyser, H.H., P.Somasekaran and B.B.Bohool. 1992. Rhizobial ecology and Technology. In: Soil Microbial Ecology: Application in Agricultural and Environmental Management (ed.) W.B. Meeting and J.M.Dekkar, New yark. pp.205-226.

Lie, T.A. and E.G. Mulder. 1971. Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Natural and Agricultural habitat. Plant Soil (Special volume): 590.

Murugesan, R. 1999. Rhizobiophages and their influence in nodulation process. In: Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixing Microorganisms, Dept. of Agric. Microbiol., Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, India, p.24-26.

Muthaiah, A.R. 1999. Enhancing the crop legume nitrogen fixation through selection and breeding. In: Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixing Microorganisms, Dept. of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, p.54.

Natarajan, N. and S.Gunasekaran. 1991. Coinoculants for soybean. Abst. XXXI. Annual Conf. AMI., TNAU, Coimbatore. p.127.

Oblisamy, G., K.Balaraman and T.Natarajan. 1982. Nodulation pattern in certain germplasm of blackgram and greengram. In: Aspects of Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Univ. Agric. Sci., Banglore, India. p.15.

Peoples, M.B., J.K. Ladha and D.F. heraidge. 1995. Enhancing legume nitrogen fixation through plant and soil management. Plant Soil., 174.

Phillips, D.A., J.G. Torrey and R.H. Burries. 1971. Extending symbiotic nitrogen fixation to increase the mans' food supply, Science, 174; 169-171.

Prabakaran, 1999. Rhizobial inoculants for problem soil. In: Reason Advances in Microbial inoculant. Dept. of Agrl. Microbiol., Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ. Coimbatore, India, p.18.

Prabakaran, J. 1998. Effect of pressmud and sheepmanure on the growth and yield of redgram in alfisols. Madras Agric. J., 85: 303-304.

Prabakaran, J. and K.B.Ravi. 1996. Response of soybean to Rhizobium and organic amendments in acid soil. Madras Agric. J., 83: 132-133.

Prabakaran, J., D. Balachandar and P.Nagarajan. 1999. Influence of dual inocualtion of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria at different levels of P in horsegram. Legume Res., 22: 183.

Subba rao, N.S. 1993. Rhizobium and legume root nodulation. In: Biological Nitrogen Fixation (eds.) N.S. Subba rao, et al., Indian Council of Agric. Res., New Delhi. p3-40.

Subba rao, N.S. 1995. Biofertilizers in Agriculture and forestry, Oxford & IBH, Publications, Bombay, p.240.

Sundaram, S.P. 1999. Genetic upgradation of cowpea rhizobia. In: Symbiotic nitrogen fixing Micro organisms, Dept. of Agric. Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, India, p.21.

Swaminathan, R. and N.N. Prasad. 1982. Effect of pH moisture and temperature on the survival of Rhizobium in sterile soil. In: Aspects of Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Univ. Agric. Sci., Banglore, India, p.53.

Venkateswaralu, B. 1997. Water stress and biological nitrogen fixation in legumes. Ind. J. Dryland Agric. Res. Dev., 12: 51-53.

Wilson, J. 1931. Aus. J. Agric. Res., 21: 571-82.

Fig.3. Mechanism of P solubilization by phosphobacteria

Phytins Phospholipids Nucleic acid

Inorganic

Acid soil Fe Phosphates Al

Alkali soil Ca Phosphates Mg

Organic acids Phosphobacte

Rock phosphate

Soluble Phosphate (H2PO4-)

Plants

Fig.4. Mechanism of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria for pulses

m P

C

Rhizobiu

Narbohydrate

Phosphobacteria

Pulses

P

Root exudates

(Carbohydrates)

Fig.2. Biotic and abiotic factors influencing the Rhizobium in soil

Weedicides & Inorganic fertilizers

Antogonistic Organisums

Rhizobiophages

Native Rhizobia

Pests

SOIL Soil pH

Organic matter

Macro & Micro nutrients

Moisture Temperature

Fig.1. Influence of soil pH on the Rhizobium nodulation

pH 14

• Non availability of P,K,Mg, Ca, Mo & B

• Toxicity of Al & Mn

Good survival of Rhizobium in

soil

Availability of all the essential nutrients at optimum level

Poor survival of Rhizobium in

soil

• Non availability of water Non availability of Fe

• Toxicity of NaCl & NasSO4 • Poor survival of

Rhizobium in soil

Poor nodulation & Nitrogen

Good nodulation & Nitrogen

Poor nodulation & Nitrogen

pH 1

pH 4

pH 6

pH 7

pH 8

pH 10

TAGGING GENE(S) FOR MUNGBEAN YELLOW MOSAIC RESISTANCE IN MUNGBEAN - A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH WITH AVRDC

Dr.A.Manickam*

Mungbean / green gram (Vigna radiata L.Wilczek) is an important food grain legume in south and southeast Asia. It ranks fifth among over ten different food legumes in India. The grains are consumed in different forms- cooked with vegetables and curry (sambar), boiled, deep-fried (vadai), roasted and/or sprouted. It contains 22% - 28% total protein, mostly water-soluble and easily digestible. The powder is used as an ingredient in some cosmetics as well as infant bathing powder. The global annual production of mungbean is estimated at 2.9 x 106 tons from 5.7 x 106 ha with an average yield of 0.5 t / ha. India accounts for about 60% of the world's mungbean area; she harvests 47% of the world production (Jickoo and Satyanarayana, 1998). China leads in the yield level with an average of 1.1 t / ha. India is the largest grower in terms of area but, alas, harvests only 0.4 t/ha. There is, therefore, greater scope for increasing the mungbean productivity in the country. Among various states in our country, Tamil Nadu ranks 8th in mungbean production with a harvest of 63,200 tonnes which is 4.6% of the national production level during 1995-96. Although, the mungbean production has improved in the past two decades, it is not yet substantial when compared with many other grain legumes despite the best efforts of mungbean breeders. There are many factors responsible for low mungbean yield. These range from plant type (due to low inherent capacity) to biotic and abiotic stresses, neglected cultivation, low input and so on. Post-harvest storage problem of the grains, competition with other food grain legumes, consumer preference and marketprice of the produce also indirectly influence the mungbean production. * Professor & Head, Dept.of Biotechnology, TNAU, Coimbatore - 641 003

Crop improvement by plant breeding has been the main focus all the time. Systematic efforts to improve the mungbean plant by breeding have been continuously made by the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center and National Agricultural Research Systems either independently or collaboratively as well as through 'shuttle breeding' between these institutions (AVRDC 1998a). The mungbean varieties with specific improved traits released around the world have been compiled (Shanmughasundaram, 1984 and 1998). The major abiotic stresses in mungbean production include drought/water stress, salinity etc. while major biological stresses include susceptibility to various fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens and insect pests. Diseases are the major constraints to yield in most of the mungbean growing countries. Among them, mungbean yellow mosaic, powdery mildew and Cercospora leaf spot continue as major diseases on mungbean plant especially in Asian countries. The devasting disease among these three varies from country to country, season to season and region to region within the country. The mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) is the serious and most devastating biotic stress in Indian subcontinent and perhaps co-evolved with the mungbean. It was first reported by Nariani (1960). The disease is widely prevalent in all countries of south Asia. The disease occurs at any season especially during summer. It is caused by MYMV transmitted by whitefly (Bemicia tabaci). Depending upon the stage of infection of the plant, the yield loss could be up to 85% (AVRDC, 1998). Breeding efforts continue to evolve new varieties with resistance to the vector, resistance to the virus as well as to increase the yield potential. Although many new genotypes have been developed with tolerance/resistance to MYMV (Green et al., 1998, Singh et al., 1997), they are either unstable or resistance breaks down at different locations / seasons. Therefore, there is a need to develop genotypes that carry durable resistance to MYMV, if yield level is to be raised in the subcontinent. Attempts to develop resistant lines have also been made through inter/intraspecific hybridization and mutation by deriving resistance from 3 species of Vigna: radiata, mungo and umbellate (Tickoo and Satyanarayana, 1998). Although many of phenotype characters are known genetically, the molecular

aspects governing MYMV resistance in the host plant is not yet understood. Such a knowledge would help develop biotechnology tools for improving mungbean with MYMV resistance. Mungbean is a mandatory crop in Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre's (AVRDC) research activity. AVRDC, Taiwan has evolved many varieties with improved plant traits including higher yield potential as well as for certain disease and insect resistance. Initiatives were made by AVRDC to breed MYMV resistant mungbean lines through 'shuttle breeding' with Pakistan and found an improved elite variety (NM 92) with MYMV resistance. However, the performance of these varieties especially with respect to longer disease endurance has been a point of focus. Recently, AVRDC embarked with molecular research initiatives to understand the MYMV resistance mechanism as well as to develop plants through biotechnological means. In this context, a collaborative molecular research was established between TNAU and AVRDC. The results generated during a short term training period of the author is as follows: • Three oligonucleotide primers based on the conserved P-loop and

nucleotide-binding site of plant disease resistance (R) gene products were designed and used

• Forty mungbean DNA were examined for the presence of R-gene related sequences by PCR

• Amplification of Taq DNA polymerase using primer set III resulted in 5-7 products; the product at 500 bp size was the most abundant. In most of VC lines, a strong band of 1100 bp was observed. The product pattern slightly differed between VC and south Asian mungbean genotypes

• Primer set II amplified 7-9 products (size 200 - 1000 bp) with similar band pattern in agarose gels

• Primer set I generated 4-6 products almost similar in electrophoresis pattern between mungbean genotypes; amplification of MYMV immune ricebean DNA showed an additional band of 1.3 kb size

• The PCR products of NM 92 amplified using primer set III by Taq DNA polymerase were cloned in pGEM-T Easy vector. Four groups of clones based on the insert size were isolated and sequenced. The inserts of 500 bp

size showed homology to short regions of conserved sequences of NBS in soybean and potato

• Many of these clones were identified homologous to N (tobacco), RPS2 (Arabidopsis), RLG (soybean) and Osr (rice) R genes

• Altogether, 16 clones of different candidate R-gene sequences of mungbean have been isolated. These clones were used on suitable near-isogenic lines as molecular probes, to identify the diseases to which they confer resistance

• Preliminary RFLP experiments using some of these candidate R gene sequences (1.3.12 and 1.3.14) as probes revealed variant bands between mungbean such as MYMV-susceptible Pusa Baisakhi and V. sublobata TC 1966

• Dra I and clone 1.3.12 combination detected a polymorphic band between MYMV resistant and susceptible F7 lines of NM92 x TC 1966 cross.

Similarly, these sequences can be used as probes to study fungal and bacterial diseases of mungbean. Biotechnology can be applied to develop MYMV resistant mungbean from three different approaches: 1. Manipulating viral genome including antisense RNA technology to contain

virus multiplication in the host plant 2. Identifying host plant genes responsible for whitefly resistance either from

mungbean or from any other (whitefly-host) plants and then utilizing such genes in mungbean improvement

3 (a) Developing molecular markers to identify MYMV resistance and deploying

them for marker aided selection in breeding program and (b) Cloning of host plant MYMV resistant gene from any Vigna Sp. and then introducing it into mungbean

We need substantial research money to intensify our efforts towards addressing MYMV resistance through biotechnology We have already submitted

research plan proposals to the McKnight Foundation, USA and Competitive Grant Project under ICAR. The following experimental activites have already been initiated: - phenotyping of promising lines at different locations for MYMV resistance - collecting seed materials from other Institutes for study - Biochemical and molecular laboratory experiments and - developing mapping population. It is hoped that these initiatives will bring a greater understanding of MYMV problem and help increase mungbean productivity. References AVRDC : 1994. Annotated bibliography of mungbean yellow mosaic virus.

AVRDC Library Bibliography Series 6, Tropical Vegetable Information Service. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Publication no.94-418, 920.

AVRDC : 1998. Diseases and insect pests of mungbean and blackgram : a

bibliography. Shanhua, Tainan : Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, 1998. VI, 254p.

AVRDC : 1998a. International Consultation Workshop on Mungbean : Proc. Of

the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p.

Green SK Kim DH Chiang BT Maxwell D 1998. Mungbean yellow mosaic virus

in the AVRDC mungbean improvement program. In : International Consultation Workshop on Mungbean : Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p.

Nariani TK 1960. Yellow mosaic of mung (Phaseolus aureus L.). Indian Phytopathol. 13, 24-29.

Shanmughasundaram S. 1984. A catalog of mungbean cultivars released around

the world AVRDC, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 20p. Shanmughasundaram S. 1998. Summary of improved mungbean varieties released

in the region. In : AVRDC, 1998. International consultation workshop on mungbean; Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-II Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p.

Singh, G., Brar, J.S., Sharma, Y.R., Kaur, L. 1997. Enhancement of mungbean

yellow mosaic resistance through inter / intraspecific hybridization and mutations. In : International consultation workshop on mungbean. Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997. New Delhi, India. AVRDC, Shanhua, Taiwan, 198p.

Tickoo, J.L. and Satyanarayana, A. 1998. International Consultation Workshop on

Mungbean : Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p.

ROLE OF PULSES IN HUMAN DIETS

Dr.A.Susheela Thirumaran1 and S.Kanchana2

Pulses occupy a prominent place in our diets and the Indian agricultural economy, since they are major protein sources for the people. In India pulses are recognised as one of the most important sources of edible vegetable proteins, which are taken in the form of dhal. Legumes provide the protein supplement to the diet which primarily consists of carbohydrates. The complementary nutritive value of cereals and pulses suggests that the most practical means of eradicating the wide spread protein calorie malnutrition in several areas of the world, is to increase the supply of cereal pulse mixtures for human diets.

Legumes are important sources of proteins, carbohydrates including fibre, certain minerals (Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc, Iron, Potassium and Phosphorous) and ‘B’ complex vitamins. Legumes are consumed by human in many forms. The nutrient bio availability from legumes depend on the nutrient content and factors such as post harvest handling, processing methods and conditions.

In developing countries, legumes are the most important high protein foods and play the role, which is played in rich countries by meat and other animal products. Though the share of calories from the pulses only 67 per cent a very substantial portion of protein is obtained from the pulses.

Functional properties

For processing of pulses into value added products the various functional properties of the pulses known like water absorption, emulsion capacity and nitrogen solubility index should be known.

1. Dean, 2. Assistant Professor, Home Science College and Research Institute, Madurai.

Table 1. Chemical composition of pulses

Sl.No Name of the foodstuff Moisture Protein (Nx6.25) g.

Fat g. Minerals g.

Fibre g. Carbo hydrates g.

Energy Kcal.

Calcium mg.

Phosphorus mg.

Iron mg.

28 BENGAL GRAM, Whole

9.8 17.1 5.3 3.0 3.9 60.9 360 202 312 4.6

29 BENGAL GRAM,dhal 9.9 20.8 5.6 2.7 1.2 59.8 372 56 331 5.1 30 BENGAL GRAM.

Roasted 10.7 22.5 5.2 2.5 1.0 58.1 369 58 340 9.5

31 BLACK GRAM, dhal 10.9 24.0 1.4 3.2 0.9 59.6 347 154 385 3.8 32 COW PEA 13.4 24.1 1.0 3.2 3.8 54.5 323 77 414 8.6 33 FIELD BEAN, dry 9.6 24.9 0.8 3.2 1.4 60.1 347 60 433 2.7 34 GREEN GRAM,

whole 10.4 24.0 1.3 3.5 4.1 56.7 337 124 326 4.4

35 GREEN GRAM, dhal 10.1 24.5 1.2 3.5 0.8 59.9 348 75 405 3.9 36 HORSE GRAM,whole 11.8 22.0 0.5 3.2 5.3 57.2 321 287 311 6.77 37 KHESARI , dhal 10.0 28.2 0.6 2.3 2.3 56.6 345 90 317 6.3 38 LENTIL 12.4 25.1 0.7 2.1 0.7 59.0 343 69 293 7.58 39 MOTH BEANS 10.8 23.6 1.1 3.5 4.5 56.5 330 202 230 9.5 40 PEAS green 72.9 7.2 0.1 0.8 4.0 15.9 93 20 139 1.5 41 PEAS dry 16.0 19.7 1.1 2.2 4.5 56.5 315 75 298 7.05 42 PEAS roasted 10.1 22.9 1.4 2.4 4.4 58.8 340 81 345 6.4 43 RAJMAH 12.0 22.9 1.3 3.2 (4.8) 60.6 346 260 410 5.1 44 REDGRAM,dhal 13.4 22.3 1.7 3.5 1.5 57.6 335 73 3.4 2.7 45 REDGRAM (tender) 65.1 23.8 1.0 1.0 6.2 16.9 116 57 164 1.1 46 SOYABEAN 8.1 43.2 19.5 4.6 3.7 20.9 432 240 690 10.4

Table 2. Essential amino acids for pulses and legumes Name of the Foodstuff

Approximate total N g/100 gms.

Argi nine

Histi dine

Lysine Tryp tophan

Phyny lalanine

Tyrosine Methi onine

Cystine Thre onine

Leucine Lsole ucine

valine

mg. per gm N

BENGAL gram (whole)

2.74 570 160 440 050 360 180 080 080 220 580 320 310

BLACK GRAM dhal

3.84 520 170 400 070 310 140 090 080 220 500 340 310

COWPEA 3.86 420 200 430 070 320 230 090 080 230 480 270 310 FIELD BEAN

3.98 530 180 500 030 330 -- 040 080 250 550 360 310

GREEN GRAMwhole

3.84 500 170 460 060 350 100 080 060 200 510 350 320

HORSE GRAM

3.52 530 190 520 070 380 -- 070 130 230 540 370 390

KHESARI dhal

4.51 490 160 470 050 260 -- 030 070 140 410 410 250

LENTIL 4.02 540 160 440 060 270 200 050 070 220 470 270 310 MOTH BEANS

3.78 -- 210 340 040 280 -- 060 030 -- 420 310 200

PEAS 1.15 570 130 400 060 250 220 060 080 240 380 290 290 PEAS (dry) 3.15 570 130 440 060 280 170 050 070 240 430 280` 300 RAJMAH 3.66 370 180 460 060 340 100 060 040 270 470 300 330 REDGRAM dhal

3.57 360 250 480 040 460 130 060 060 200 450 250 260

SOYA BEAN

6.91 450 150 400 080 300 210 080 100 240 480 320 320

Digestibility by Proteolytic Enzymes

The proteolytic enzymes both pepsin and pancreatin have a lower digestibility value than by casein.

Mixing properties

Replacing 5% or 10% of the wheat flour with mungbean flour improve the mixing properties of the dough and produce good acceptable bread. Water absorption, oil absorption, emulsion capacity and nitrogen solubility index (NSI) are the indices to determine quality of the pulse flour. Flatulence Factor

The ability of legume seeds to stimulate gas been recognized for many years and is one of the main reasons why people limit their consumption of legumes. A number of huma and animal investigations have demonstrated that the oligosaccharides, raffinoses and stachyoses are the principal causes of flatulence.

Germination Effect on Nutritional Quality

Legumes have to be cooked for a prolonged period of time to make them digestible and palatable. Due to the interlay of enzymes, germination, however, increases the digestibility, shortens the time needed for cooking and enhances the nutritive value of the legumes as revealed by several studies conducted earlier.

Chandrasekhar and Chitra (1978) reviewuated the protein quality of mungbean (raw and sprouted forms) supplemented with skim milk at 5% level and sulphur-containing amino acids, methionine and cystine on albino rats. The results revealed that the diet with sprouted mungbean and skim milk + 0.5% methionine was the best. Jaya and Venkataraman (1980) reported that germination up to 48h improved the carbohydrate digestibility while the 96h germination had no effect. Digestibility was better when the legumes were treated with α-amylase than when they were treated with α-amylase. When starches isolated from chickpea were treated with α-amylase, the relative proportion of crude products was altered as a result of germination, whereas, in the case of mungbean the relative proportion of end products was not altered. Germination can be considered as process for improving the digestibility of mungbean. Giri et al. (1981) studied the effect of

germination of mungbean, among others, which indicated that ash content decreases during germination and mineral content (total iron and calcium) remains constant. Calcium decreased and the available iron and protein content increased with progressive germination stages. The increase in the available iron may be due to the release of protein-bound iron. The pectin content increases in mungbean and the phytin content decreases. Chavan et al. (1983) reported that soaking legume seeds such as mungbean and black gram in a solution for 12h at 250Cimproved the water uptake of the resultant dhal during cooking and decreased cooking time by 50% to 75%. However, soaking dry dhal in water for 1h prior to cooking was essential.

Thirumaran and Devadas (1994) formulated weaning food mixes using malted ragi (finger millet) Elusine coracan, thenai (foxtail millet) Setaria italica the staple food of the population in developing countries and grain amaranthus-Amaranthus hypochondriacus-the under utilized high protein pseudo-cereal as a base. The processed weaning food mixes were studied for acceptability, nutritive value, packaging and shelf life. The Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER), True Digestibility (TD), Biological Value (BV) and Net Protein Utilization (NPU) of the mixes were also studied.

Acceptability

Among the six combinations tried the malted grain amaranthus + roasted Bengal gram had significantly higher values acceptability than all the others and was on par with ragi + roasted Bengal gram flour.

Nutritive Value

The energy value of the weaning food mixes ranged from 371 to 395 kilocalories per cent, protein 13.38 a per cent, calcium 120 to 760 mg/g, iron 136 to 503, copper 10 to 20, zinc 19 to 44 and manganese 14 to 63 in g/g.

Shelf life

There was an increase in moisture level of the weaning food mixes in HDPE packing after a period of 60 days without the development of free fatty acids and microbial load.

Biological assay

Compared to the PER of the diets formulated with roasted Bengal gram significant difference between ragi and thenai (0.05 per cent level) was found, the ragi being highest. There was no significant difference between the diets with green gram. The nitrogen balance studies were conducted with ragi and grain amaranthus base with roasted Bengal gram which had high PER, and compared with casein diet. The TD of the foods had significant differences, the highest for casein, followed by malted grain amaranthus and ragi base respectively. The difference in BV of malted grain amaranyhus base diet and casein diet were significantly different from malted ragi base diet. The NPU of the casein diet and malted grain amaranthus base were on par and significantly higher than that of malted ragi based diet.

It is clear from the above studies that germination is a simple method of food processing which results in increased nutritive value. It decreases the phytin phosphorous level and increases the availability of iron and calcium. An increases in the pectin level in mungbean may increase the cooking time.

Nutritional Quality

Reeta-Goel and Verma (1980) conducted a study with mungbean, black gram and lentil (Lens culinaris). In all three of these pulses, bacteria fermentation increased the total sugar content.

Easwaran et al. (1972) reported the protein quality for two selected vegetable protein mixtures based on maize, chickpea, mungbean and groundnut, through growth and the protein efficiency ration (PER), hepatic nitrogen and nitrogen balance using albino rats. It was found that the protein quality of vegetable protein mixture based on maize, chickpea and groundnut was comparable to that of skim milk, while the maize, mungbean and groundnut mixture was nearly as efficient as the other two.

Chandrasekar et al. (1981) used chickpea, mungbean and horse gram (Kerstingiella uniflora (Lam.)Lackey) in three forms: raw ground form; roasted at 100-1100C for 5 min and ground into a fine powder; and autoclaved at 6.8 kg pressure for 20 min, cooked, dried, powdered and analyzed for the amino acid pattern. It was found that processing improved the protein quality of legumes in general. Supplementation with the limiting suplhur-containing amino acids further

enhanced the protein quality, especially in the autoclaved legumes.This observation is of great value in that autoclaving (common pressure cooking) is commonly-used household method and would improve the diet of the common people.

Vallidevi et al. (1972) estimated the thiamine, riboflavin and nicotine acid contents in four dhal varieties, viz. Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), black gram and mungbean dhal, as well as precooked dehydrated dhal prepared from these varieties and stored over a period of one year under ambient conditions. It was observed that a vitamin loss, in the order of 20% to 35% takes place during processing. A further loss of about 10% to 15% also occurred during the storage and reconstitution of these dhals. On the above basis, the net availability of these vitamins ranges from 35% to 50% of the crude form.

Devadas et al. (1979) carried out a study to investigate the availability of folic acid from selected germinated cereals and pulses on adolescent girls. The cereals selected were finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and the pulses were chickpea and mungbean.

The results revealed that the during germination the folic acid content in cereals and pulses increases up to a period of time after which it declines. In chickpea, mungbean and pearl millet the maximum folic acid content was observed at 72h and in finger millet at 69h after germination. The absorption of folic acid was found to be higher from pulses than from cereals, but because there were wide individual variations the differences in availability among the four foods were not statistically significant.

Rao and Tulpule (1980) analysed 18 foods for vitamin B6 content. Among the legumes analyzed pigeonpea dhal, blackgram dhal, chickpea dhal and groundnut were found to be rich sources of vitamin B6 with an average of 5 mg/100 g.

Their significance in the improvement of the protein quality of the predominantly cereal based diets have been well recognised. Two major problems which limit the use of pulses are (i) the presence of anti-nutritional factors in them and (ii) the long period of time required for cooking.

Legumes are prepared for consumption in several ways such as whole legumes, dehusked split legumes known as dhal in India and by grinding the dhal in a flourmill and is utilised in many common Indian preparations.

Compared to animal foods, legume foods have only secondary nutritional value and low utlisation. This has been partially attributed to (i) inherent presence of beany flavours (ii) prolonged preparation and cooking prior to consumption (iii) deficiency of sulphur containing amino acids particularly methionine (iv) presence of several heat stable and heat labile anti-nutritional and toxic factors including enzyme inhibitors, phytohemagglutinins, cyanogenic glucosides, lathyrogens, supenins, estrogens allergens, antivitamins, favism factors and polyphenolic compounds and (v) presence of phytic acid and flatulence causing oligosaccharides. Reduction or elimination of these factors would make grain legumes more acceptable as a source of inexpensive nutritious proteins and maximise their utilisation in human food.

Pulses form an important part of the diet in the underdeveloped and the developing countries like India and a number of attempts have been made to improve their nutritional value. Practically all legumes are consumed only after they have been subjected to some form of processing such as heating, roasting, soaking sprouting, boiling and pressure cooking. All these methods are known to improve their palatability and digestability, decrease anti-nutritional factors and convert vital constituents of the pulse into simpler compounds which are ultimately beneficial nutritionally.

The legumes generally used in our diets are redgram, blackgram, Bengal gram and greengram. All these legumes provide 18 to 23 percent of protein. Now a days soybean is gaining importance which has 40 percent of protein content and it is an ideal supplement for Protein Calorie Malnutrition because of its high protein and fat contents.

Research conducted on Utilisation of Pulses in the Home Science College and Research Institute

1. Extrusion characteristics fo cassava based noodles 2. Visco-amylograph studies of ‘soynoodles’ and rice ‘idiappam’ blends 3. Protein quality of cassava based detatted soy flour noodles 4. Studies on soy incorporated papads 5. Preservation of idli-a south indian fermented food 6. Contamination of idli batter with pathogens during fermentation and

preparation of idli

7. Processing of soymilk yogurt 8. Processing of soya curd and its utilisation 9. Studies on the utilisation of soybean 10. Processing of soymilk chum-chum 11. Effect of incorporation of cereal and pulse flour on the characteristics of

chapaties suitable for diabetic patients 12. Quality characteristics of pre-release cultures 13. Studies on increasing storage stability of pulses-cow pea 14. Studies on utilisation of soybean in human diet

Soybean is superior to most other plant proteins and its essential aminoacid composition compares favorable with that of milk and meal. Soybean which contains 40% protein and 20% oil also contains an unusually large number of biologically active components which are to be eliminated prior human consumption. Most of them are easily digested by heat treatment. The soybeans are processed into various products. By virtue of soybean high and balanced protein contact, soybean should be a better choice than any other pulses. Though soybean is consumed fairly in many oriental countries, numerous attempts to introduce it in the indigenous foods have not succeeded in our country because of the unpleasant beany flavours, difficulty in cooking and the several anti nutritional factors present in the soybean. Research is being conducted to utilise the ‘wonder bean’ ‘golden bean’ in our Indian diet.

Soybean Processing Technologies Developed in TNAU

Soya

Soybean Dhal flour Puffed soya Protein isolate Fried foods Milk, yoghurt, shrikand Podi (Rasam parruppu) vadagam Malted soybean Appalam Sprouted: weaning food Extruded products Bakery products Milling of soybean into dhal

Soybean was cleaned and conditioned with 1% water for one minute and rested in a hot sand bath maintained at 120°C for one minute and sieved. The bean was then milled in a minidhal mill and winnowed to separate husk. The dhal was used for further study and milled into soy flour (Full fat).

Utilization of Soybean for product development : Puffed Soya

The soybean was soaked in 5% salt and 3% sodium bicarbonate for a period of 3 hours. The excess water was drained off and puffed in a hot sand bath maintained at 250°C for 3 –5 minute. The puffed bean was sieved and dehusked manually by rubbing the bean. It was winnowed and used.

Puffed soya

Soybean

↓

Soaking in chemical solution

↓

Draining

↓

Puffing at 250° C for 3 – 5 min

↓

Sieving

↓

Dehusking

↓

Winnowing

↓

Puffed dhal

During soaking and puffing treatments the anti nutritional factors are destroyed and it provide 38.4 g % of protein. This puffed dhal can be used for the preparation of toffee.

Malting of soybean

Malting also reduces antinutritional factors and the digestibility value is improved. This product can be suggested for children and malted bean could be used for preparing weaning food. A study was conducted utilising malted soya and avocado fruit and weaning food was developed.

Soybean

↓ Soaking (6 hrs)

↓ Draining

↓ Germinating (36 hrs)

↓ Drying

↓ Roasting

↓ Removal of shoot in root

↓ winnowing

↓ malted Soya

↓ Milling

↓ Malted Soy flour

Soymilk / Soy shrikand / soy yoghurt

Soy milk was prepared using soybean and the milk was innoculated with different stains like streptococcus lactis and Lacto bacillus acidophilius and yoghurt was prepared with different fruit flavours and fruit pieces. The nutritive value specially B Vitamins are increased and the product was highly acceptable.

Soyadhal – Utilisation in Indian foods : Soybean protein isolate

Soybean which is having 40% protein, could be utilised to isolate the protein. The starch is removed and protein is isolated by altering the PH condition and this could be incorporated in the preparation of idli, vadai and other products.

Soy podi

The soydhal can be utilised in the preparation of Paruppu podi, Rasa podi, Sambar podi upto 50% level.

Soyflour utilisation in Indian diet

Soyflour both fullfat and defatted could be utilised in the traditional foods (fried foods), vadagam, appalam, extruded products and bakery products. In the traditional foods, soyflour could be incorporated upto 50% level beyond that level perceptible flavour of soybean is pronounced. The traditional foods include, murukku, kharaboondhi, vadai, thatai, karasev, omapodi, idli and dosai.

In the preparation of vadagam and appalam only upto 25% is acceptable.

Since the starch content of soybean is less the product quality was not obtained beyond. To prevent the browning, protussium metabisulphite of 350 ppm is added to the appalam. Soy appalam could be prepared on commerical basis.

Extruded Products

Various extruded products like noodles, idiappam, spaghetti, macroni are now fetching importance in the Indian markets. These could be processed with defatted soy flour as convenience foods.

Processing of noodles

Refined wheat flour + Defatted Soy flour

↓ 2 % Salt

↓ Steaming for 10 min

↓ Kneading into dough

↓ Extruding through extruder

↓ Drying

↓ Packing

Bakery Products

Bakery products like biscuits, bread, bun and wafers were prepared using soy flour. Both defatted and full fat soy flour were incorporated in the bakery products. To mask the beany flavor different flavoring agents viz, mint, onion and ginger extract were added. A high protein, Vitamin Soy biscuit was also developed in the department. The wafers which is preferred by many school children was also prepared incorporating with defatted Soy flour.

Reference

Chandrasekhar, U., B.Lalitha and R.P.Devadas, 1981. reviewuation of protein quality of raw, roasted and autoclaved legumes supplemented with sulphur containing aminoacids. Indian J.Nutr. Diet. 18:283-288.

Devadas, R.P., S.Premakumari and C.Moorthy.1979. availability of folic acid from selected germinated cereals and pulses. Indian J.Nutr. Diet. 11:257-263.

Easwaran, P., G.Srilatha, S.Jamala and R.P.Deadas.1972. reviewuation of the protein of the selected vegetable protein mixtures using albino rats. Indian J.Nutr.Diet. 9:327-330.

Gopalan,C., B.V.Ramasastri and S.C.Balasubramanina.1980. Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. National Institute of Nutrition, Ind. Coun. Med. Res., Hyderabad.p.63.

Rao,B.S. and P.G.Tulpule.1980. Vitamin B6 content of some Indian foods and regional diets and effect of cooking on the vitamin content. Indian J.Nutr. Diet.18:9-14.

Thirumaran,A.S. and Devadas, R.P.1994. Processing and reviewuation of malted millet and pseudo cereal based weaning food mixes. 5th ASEAN Food Conference, Kuala Lumpur.137-139.

STATUS OF PULSE MILLING TECHNIQUES

Dr. V. V. Sreenarayanan 1 and Dr. CT. Devadas 2

INTRODUCTION The total food grain production of India is 203 million tonnes in the year 1998-99. Out of this, the total pulse production alone is 14.85 million tonnes (Anonymous, 1999). Pulses contain 20-30% protein, which is almost three times higher than that found in cereals. Therefore, pulses offer the most practical means of solving protein malnutrion in the diet of the people of the country, where majority of people are vegetarian. The availability of protein for consumption has gone down steeply on account of inadequate availability of pulses(Anonymous, 1997). Pulses are mainly consumed in the form of dehusked split pulses. There are about 4000 pulses mills (Dhal mills) in India. The average processing capacities of pulses mills in India vary from 10 to 20 tonnes/day. Milling of pulses means removal of outer husk and splitting the grain into two equal halves. Generally, the husk is much more tightly held by the kernel of some pulses than most cereals. Therefore, dehusking of some pulses poses a problem. The method of alternate wetting and drying is used to facilitate dehusking and splitting of pulses. In India the dehusked split pulses are produced by traditional methods of milling. In traditional pulses milling methods, the loosening of husk by conditioning is insufficient. Therefore, a large amount of abrasive force is applied for the complete dehusking of the grains, which results in high losses in the form of brokens and powder. Consequently, the yield of split pulses in traditional mills is only 65 to 70 per cent in comparison to 82 to 85 per cent potential yield. 1. Dean, 2. Professor and Head, Dept. of Agrl. Processing, College of Agrl. Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 3

It is, therefore, necessary to improve the traditional methods of pulses milling to increase the total yield of dehusked and split pulses and reduce the losses. Varieties, Composition and structure Green gram, red gram, Bengal gram, horse gram, cluster bean, filed pea, arhar are some of the common types of pulses. The botanical name of Arhar is Cajanas cajan. Its chemical composition and structure are: Moisture - 10.35 per cent Protein (Nx6.25) - 24.19 per cent Ether extract - 1.89 per cent Ash - 3.55 per cent Crude fibre - 1.01 per cent Carbohydrate - 59.21 per cent The average percentage of husk and endosperm in arhar is 15 per cent and 85 per cent respectively. TRADITIONAL PROCESSING AND UTILISATION OF PULSES Milling of pulses In India there are two conventional pulses milling methods: wet milling method and dry milling method. The latter is more popular and used in commercial mills.

Pulses

Cleaning Chaffs, dirts etc.

Soaking

Mixing with red earth

Conditioning

Dehusking and splitting (Mixture of husk,

small broken and powder)

Grading Brokens

Dehusked split pulses (Grade 1 pulses)

TRADITIONAL DRY MILLING METHOD ('DHAL' MILLING) There is no common processing method for all types of pulses. However, some general operations of dry milling method such as cleaning and grading, rolling or pitting, oiling, moistening, drying and milling have been described in subsequent paragraphs (Chakravarthy, 1998). Cleaning and grading Pulses are cleaned from dust, chaff, grits, etc., and graded according to size by a reel type or rotating sieve type cleaner. Pitting The clean pulses are passed through an emery roller machine. In this unit, husk is cracked and scratched. This is to facilitate the subsequent oil penetration process for the loosening of husk. The clearance between the emery roller and cage (housing) gradually narrows from inlet to outlet. As the material is passed through

the narrowing clearance, mainly cracking and scratching of husk takes place by friction between pulses and emery. Some of the pulses are dehusked and split during this operation, which are then separated by sieving. Pretreatment with oil The scratched or pitted pulses are passed through a screw conveyor and mixed with some edible oil like linseed oil (1.5 to 2.5 kg/tonne of pulses). Then they are kept on the floor for about 12 hours for diffusion of the oil. Conditioning Conditioning of pulses is done by alternate wetting and drying. After sun drying for a certain period, 3-5 per cent moisture is added to the pulses and tempered for about eight hours and again dried in the sun. Addition of moisture to the pulses can be accomplished by allowing water to drop from an overhead tank on the pulses being passed through a screw conveyor. The whole process of alternate wetting and drying is continued for two to four days until all pulses are sufficiently conditioned. Pulses are finally dried to about 10 to 12 per cent moisture content. Dehusking and splitting Emery roller, known as Gota machine is used for the dehusking of conditioned pulses. About 50 per cent pulses are dehusked in a single operation (in one pass). Dehusked pulses are split into two parts also, the husk is aspirated off and dehusked, split pulses are separated by sieving. The tail pulses and unsplit dehusked pulses are again conditioned and milled as above. The whole process is repeated two to three times until the remaining pulses are dehusked and split. Polishing Polish is given to the dehusked and split pulses by treating them with a small quantity of oil and/or water.

Dry milling of Tur The dry milling of tur is generally practised in M.P. and U.P.

Raw Tur

Chaff and other foreign materials

Grading

Different grading of Tur

Pitting

Scratched Tur

Application of oil in worm

Scratched and oil coated Tur

Sundrying and overnight tempering for 2 to 4 days

Addition of about 5 per cent water by spraying and overnight moisture

equilibration

Dehusking and Splitting

Aspiration (Husk+Powder)

Husked and unhusked whole grains Sieving

'D

Cleaning

hal'

Wet milling of Tur The flow diagram of the wet milling of Tur is given below ( Kurian, 1979).

Raw Tur

Soaking in water for 3-12 hours

Mixing of soaked pulses with wet earth (5 per cent)

Conditioning overnight for moisture diffusion and equilibration

Alternate sundrying and tempering for 2-4 days

Red earth Separation of red earth from the mixture by sieving

Husk and powder Dehusking and splitting of dried pulses by a disc sheeler 'chakki'

Unhusked and husked

whole grains

'D

MODERN CFTRI METHOD OF PUSLES MILLING ( Sahay and Singh, 1994) Cleaning Cleaning is done in rotary reel cleaners to remove all impurities from pulses and separate them according to size. Preconditioning The cleaned pulses are conditioned in two passes in a dryer (LSU type) using hot air at about 120°C for a certain period of time. After each pass, the hot pulses are tempered in the tempering bins for about six hours. The preconditioning of pulses helps in loosening husk significantly.

Size separation by sieving

hal'

Dehusking The preconditioned pulses are conveyed to the Pearler or Dehusker where almost all pulses are dehusked in a single operation. The dehusked whole pulses (gota) are separated from split pulses and mixture of husk, brokens, etc. (chuni-bhusi) and are received in a screw conveyor where water is added at a controlled rate. The moistened gota is then collected on the floor and allowed to remain as such for about an hour. Raw pulses

First conditioning and tempering

Second conditioning and tempering

Husk Husk and powder Pearling, aspirating

(Grade II)

Water Mixing Lumped pulses Lump breaking

Unsplit Pulses Splitting and sieve grading

'Dhal' (Grade I)

Lump Breaking

Cleaning and Grading

Dhal Polishing Dhal

Pearled pulses

Conditioning in LSU type aerator

Some of the moistened gota form into lumps of varying sizes. These lumps are fed to the lump breaker to break them. Conditioning and Splitting After lump breaking the gota is conveyed to LSU type of dryer where it is exposed to hot air for a few hours. The gota is thus dried to the proper moisture level for splitting. The hot conditioned and dried dehusked whole pulses are split in the emery roller. All of them are not split in one pass. The mixture is graded into Grade I pulses, dehusked whole pulses ands small brokens. The unsplit dehusked pulses are again fed to the conditioner for subsequent splitting. PEARLER FOR PULSES The pearler consists of a series of cylindrical abrasion stones (6numbers each 1.9 cm thickness), which are mounted on a horizontal shaft without any gap between them. The rotor so formed is mounted in a metal case with a clearance of 1.5 cm is provided at the inlet end of the shaft. An aspirator is provided at the outlet end, so that the fine particles formed during abrasion are automatically removed by the system. Grains are fed into one end of the pearling unit at a uniform rate and collected at the opposite end through an adjustable overflow outlet. The level of grain in the unit is adjustable such that more than 50% of the rotor is covered during operation. Under such conditions, the grains get rubbed and move through the adjustable gate opening. This cycle of operation has to be repeated depending upon the hull/seed coat removal ( Anonymous, 1994). Specification: 1) Speed of the abrasion roller: 1500 rpm 2) Power required: 1Hp electric motor 3) Capacity: 25 Kg/h 4) Approximate cost: Rs.10, 000 MINI DHAL MILL:

The dhal mill consists of a feed hopper with feed regulating mechanism. The feed material will pass through a screw auger, which in turn sends the pulses grains in between two abrasion discs. The abrasion discs are housed along the same axis of the screw auger and one of which is rotated by means of 1.0 H.P. electric motor and another is stationary. When the pulses grains pass through in between the abrasion discs by means of shearing action they split in two halves and fall down through the outlet chute. All the pulse grains require premilling treat-ment before milling. The machine can be used for flour making from any grain by replacing the stationary rubber disc into cast iron serrated disc. The breakages of dhal can be minimised by adjusting the clearance between the abrasion discs by means of a screw with handle. The dhal recovery from the mill is about 80 percent the case or red gram and around 92 percent in the case of other pulses (viz. black gram, green gram and horse gram, which inclusive of husk content. The capacity of the machine is 30 kg/h of dhal and the approximate cost of machine is Rs.10, 000/- (with 1 HP motor). By using this machine a small farmer can process his produce himself and get a better return by eliminating the share that goes go to the middlemen (Anonymous, 1994).

Salient features: 1. Suitable for splitting all kinds of pulses/grains into dhal at the rate of 30 kg/h 2. Capable of dry milling rice, wheat, jowar, ragi and bajra into flour like rava,

suji etc. 3. Smooth running, easy to operate and run by 1.0 H.P. electric motor. 4. Compact, elegant, lightweight and easy for transport. 5. The approximate unit cost Rs.10, 000/-.

CONCLUSION Traditional method of pulse milling requires more abrasive force due to improper preconditioning. also the yield by traditional method is only 65 to 70 % in comparison to 82 to 85 % potential yield. Modern method of pulse milling viz., CFTRI method and mini dhal mill increases the yield and also minimises the brokens. Preconditioning before splitting also has significant effect on grade of dhal. REFERENCES Anonymous, 1999. The Hindu, Survey of Indian Agriculture. Anonymous, 1977. analysis of FAO survey on post harvest crop losses in

developing countries (AGPP. Misc./ 27). Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nation, Rome.

Anonymous, 1994. Research Digest (1972 - 1990). Published by Dept. of Agrl.

Processing, TNAU, Coimbatore - 3. Chakravarthy, A. 1995. Post harvest technology of cereals, pulses and oil seeds.

Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Kurien, P.p. 1979. Pulse milling in Food Industries, CRTRI, Mysore. pp. 3.1- 3.20. Sahay, S.M. and K.K. Singh. 1994. Unit operations in Agrl. Processing. Vikas

publishing house pvt. Ltd. New Dlhi.

TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY FOR INCREASING PULSES PRODUCTION

Dr.S.Uthamasamy1 and Dr.S.Palaniswamy 2

The setting

Pulses are an important component of Indian diet in the predominantly vegetarian society. Besides being rich source of protein, they are also important for sustainable agriculture, enriching the soil through biological nitrogen fixation. Pulses are a rich source of protein required for human health. The average requirement of protein per capita per day for each kg of body weight of human being is 1 g. Accordingly, an adult man would require about 60 g and adult women 50 g of protein per day. Against requirement of 60 g protein per day, the availability of protein from pulses is around 8 g per capita per day, the balance coming from other sources like cereals, eggs, milk, fruits etc. All sections of the people, from different income groups belonging to both rural and urban locations consume pulses at varying levels. However, per capita availability of pulses has been declining consequent to the rapid growth in population and relatively lower pulses production. Pulse crops are equally important for maintaining soil health and sustainability of different cropping systems. Introduction of pulses in cereal - cereal - based cropping systems such as rice-wheat will add to the sustainability of these systems by ensuring both nitrogen economy and improved soil health. An estimated amount of 30 to 147 kg/ha nitrogen can be fixed by different pulse crops in the soils in which they are grown. The crop production technologies generated during the green revolution period in the mid-sixties had revolutionised Indian agriculture, leading to a record food grain production of 202.54 million tonnes during 1998-99 compared to 72.3 million tonnes in 1965-66. However, application of new technologies did not result

1. Director of Extension Education, TNAU,Coimbatore-641 003 2. Deputy Director (Extension), DEE,TNAU,Coimbatore-641 003.

in similar impact on all crops. For example, the productivity of rice increased from 862 kg/ha in 1965-66 to 1905 kg/ha in 1998-99 and that of wheat increased from 827 to 2595 kg/ha, whereas that of pulses increased from 438 to 622 kg/ha only during the same period. India has the largest acreage and production of pulses accounting for 37% of the area and 27% of the world production. About 90% of the total global pigeonpea, 65% of chickpea and 37% of lentil area falls in India with corresponding production of 93,68 and 32% of global production respectively. The production of pulses has increased at a relatively much slower rate than desired in the last two lecades. As a result, the per capita availability of pulses has declined from 60.7 g during 1951 to 40 g/day/capita during 1998 due to increased population. However, the total production falls short of the requirement. The prospects of import of pulses not being bright, the domestic demand will have to be met by increasing production of pulses. In India, the productivity of pulse crops is low because of several constraints. These include inadequate availability of quality seed of improved and high yielding varieties, cultivation of crops in the poor and marginal lands under rainfed conditions without recommended input application, high-risks with severe price fluctuations , pest menace and inadequate promotional/development efforts. The farmers are reluctant to increase the area under pulses because of uncertainity about the market prices and fluctuations in production from year to year. Considering the importance of pulses for the sustainability of various cropping systems and their role towards household nuitrition security, efforts are required to raise their domestic production sustainability. While there appears to be good scope for the expansion of area under pulses, the major thrust required now is to improve productivity. To achieve this, research, extension and other developmental activities will have to be accelerated on a mission mode approach.

Transfer of Technology Activities of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univesity The Directorate of Extension Education of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University is primarily responsible for expeditious transfer of the latest technologies emanating from various research programmes of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University to the farming community and extension personnel through the Transfer of Technology Centres (TOT) such as Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Plant Clinic Centres, Communication Centre, Training Division etc. The salient TOT activities are as follows : Communication Centre The Communication Centre at Coimbatore disseminates the innovations of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University through mass media like radio, dailies, farm magazines, publications, video programmes and Doordarshan. It also conducts distant learning programme like farm school on All India Radio and Correspondence Courses on various subject matter areas for the benefit of farming commutity. Farm School on All India Radio The Farm School on All India Radio programme for a duration of 3 months is regularly conducted on agriculture and allied topics in collaboration with All India Radio Stations in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. In all the crop oriented topics of farm School on All India Radio, adequate emphasis is given on Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), Integrated Water Management (IWM) etc., to inclucate knowledge among the farmers. So far, 132 lessons on various topics were organised for the benefit of more than 37,500 farmers. Correspondence Courses

In the correspondence courses, topics for a duration of 3 months on various aspects of agriculture and related sciences are regularly offered for the benefit of farmers. Nearly 12 - 15 courses per year on various topics are conducted. So far, 193 correspondence courses were conducted for the benefit of 11,000 farmers. Topics for the farm school on All India Radio and Correspondence Courses were finalised based on the interaction meeting with University scientists, media persons, progressive farmers, etc. to suit the changing scenario in agriculture. Audio cassette lessons Audio cassette lessons in agriculture and allied topics are regularly prepared and sold at a nominal cost for the benefit of farmers. Audio cassette lessons on more than 35 topics were produced and distributed for the benefit of farming community. Video library Production and distribution of video cassettes in agriculture and allied sciences to needy farmers is done since 1987. Development departments and NGOs avail this technology. Many important topics on pest and disease control measures in different crops, IPM, biocontrol agents, biopesticides, farm implements, crop varieties, horticulture etc. were produced and sold to the farmers. So far, more than 100 video lessons were produced. Agricultural Information Service The Agricultural Information Service established at the main campus is mainly responsible for finalishing messages relevant to the season for dissemination to farming community through various mass media. This centre also issue press notes highlighting the on - going research programmes, findings of completed research projects and TOT activities. Training to extension personnel

The Training Unit of the Directorate of Extension Education is actively engaged in training of extension functionaries of development departments, input agencies, NGOs, nationalised banks on various topics of state and national importance. State level and national level training programmes on biocontrol agents, IPM, organic farming etc. are offered periodically. So far, 734 trainings were conducted by the Training unit for the benefit of 13877 participants. Training to farmers Krishi Vigyan Kendras The Krishi Vigyan Kendras located at Coimbatore, Madurai, Sirugamani, Vridhachalam and Sandhiyur facilitate the process of dissemination of technology through Monthly Zonal Workshops, training programmes, skill demonstrations, kisan melas, village meetings, seminars, campaigns, front line demonstrations, model village adoption etc. Plant Clinic Centres The Plant Clinic Centres located at Bhavanisagar, Virinjipuram, Tirur, Killikulam and Srivilliputhur are engaged in TOT activities in solving field problems, identification of pest and diseases and suggesting remedial measures, on-farm testing of pre-release cultures, management practices and plant protection methods, surveillance work for forecasting pests and disease ourbreak etc. The Plant Clinic Centre are located at the research stations with scientists from plant protection disciplines. In the TOT activities of the Plant Clinic Centre, much emphasis is on the IPM concept on control of pest and diseases with use of bio-control and biopesticides. Joint Diagnostic Team The joint diagnostic team constituted with scientists and officials of development departments in each district visits the farmers fields and render effective farm advisory services and remedial measures for field problems including plant protection aspects. Publications

The TNAU Newsletter published during the first week of every month, highlights the research and extension activities carried out in various research stations and TOT centres of the University. The TNAU Seithi Madal in Tamil is brought out on 1st of every Tamil month. Seasonal and location based messages including pest and disease outbreak, plant protection aspects etc, are disseminated regularly for the benefit of farmers.

Valarum Velanmai, a tamil monthly is published with the inclusion of articles of location specific and seasonal importance for the benefit of the farmers. In all articles on crop production technologies, adequate emphasis is given to include plant protection practices with IPM technologies.

Mushroom Seithi Madal, a quarterly newsletter in tamil published by the centre for Plant Protection Studies for the benefit of progressive farmers and entrepreneurs engaged in mushroom cultivation on commercial basis. Uzhavar Thunaivan, a bi-monthly farm journal published by the Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai for the benefit of Southern Tamil Nadu. Frontline Demonstration on Pulses The ICAR sponsored frontline demonstrations are being conducted on Pulses through the five Krishi Vigyan Kendras of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural Universtiy located at Coimbatore, Madurai, Sirugamani, Vridhachalam and Sandhiyur with a view to demonstrate the production potentialities of the important pulses in the farmers field by adoption of recommended practices. During 1999-2000, the Krishi Vigyan Kendras had organised the Frontline Demonstrations on pulses as indicated below :

Crop S.No.

Centre Greengram Blackgram

Area (ha)

No. of Demons- trations

Area (ha)

No. of Demons- trations

1. KVK, Coimbatore 10 11 10 15 2. KVK,Madurai 5 10 - - 3. KVK,Sirugamani - - 5 12 4. KVK,Vridhachalm 5 9 5 5

TOTAL 20 30 20 32

Yield increase was noticed in all the pulse crop as against the local variety to the tune of 40 to 60%. Thus, the FLD enabled the farmers to obtain additional income by way of cultivating pulses in their fields. Success stories of the farmers were published in local dailies and farm magazines to show the utility of the FLD.

Strategies of transfer of technologies Keeping the importance of increasing pulses production in the state, the extension mechanism should adopt the following stragegies to promote the technology transfer efforts to user pulses production. • Identification and popularisation of appropriate, need based and location

specific pulses production technologies. • Organising more number of skill oriented demonstrations and technology

based off-campus trainings on technologies of pulses production in the villages to ensure more participation of farmers, farm youths, farm women etc.

• Strengthening the linkage among state development departments, NGOs, input agencies, farmers organisations etc. to promote the percolation of production technology for pulses.

• Refinement of technologies on pulses should be taken up as and when needed based on feedback from farmers.

• Case study and feedback analysis on the impact of pulses production technologies among the farmers are to be undertaken periodically and results communicated to the research system.

• More number of front line demonstrations on pulses are to be conducted through KVKs of SAUs to show the efficacy of pulses technologies.

• Success stories of the farming community on adoption of pulses production technology should be periodically published in leading farm journals and dailies for creation of awareness and wider dissemination of technologies.

• Farmers clubs in all the districts are to be established to facilitate interaction and quick technology transfer.

• Effective use of modern and electronic gadgets in the dissemination of pulses technology should be ensured.

• More number of farmers discussion groups in the rural areas are to be established to promote exchange of ideas among them.

PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The State Level Seminar on “Increasing Productivity of Pulses in Tamil Nadu” was organized by TNAU at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban on 22.09.2000. Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan, Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore–3 presided over the seminar. Th.K.Seerangan, Additional Director of Agri.(Inputs), Chennai was representing the Director of Agriculture. A total of 33 delegates consisting of 26 scientists from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and 7 delegates from the Department of Agriculture participated in the seminar. (Annexure).

Dr.S.Ramanathan, Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute Aduthurai welcomed the gathering.

Dr.M.Subramanaian, Director of Research, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore in his inaugural address said that satisfactory progress could not be made in the productivity and production of Pulses as that of cereals and oilseeds. He has stated that from an area of 9.5 lakh hectares under pulses in Tamil Nadu a meager production level of 4.08 lakh tones of pulses only could be produced annually with a productivity level of 450 kg/ha. He said that the low productivity level of pulses was due to their cultivation in marginal and submarginal lands, under rainfed conditions and low adoption levels of improved technologies. He was of the opinion that the area expansion of pulses was not recorded even though a lot of improved pulses varieties are made available, therefore he said that pulses area should be increased with new high yielding varieties particularly under irrigated conditions. He also emphasized the need for intercropping of pulses in tapioca, cotton, sugarcane crops, and expansion of pulses cultivation under rice fallow which would produce more pulses in the State. He said that out of 21 lakh hectares available under rice fallows in Tamil Nadu, only 2.8 lakh hectares are cultivated with rice fallow pulses. He wanted ADT 3,4 blackgram and ADT 1,2,3 greengram should be cultivated under rice fallows and ADT 5 blackgram under irrigated conditions during summer. He highlighted that use of poor quality seeds with poor germination and prolonged North East monsoonic showers in the initial stage, low level adoption of DAP foliar spary,

problems associated with plant protection and the increasing area of cash crops like cotton under rice fallows were the main reasons for reduced production from rice fallow pulses.

Mr.K.Seerangan, Additional Director (inputs) in his address, thanked the Vice-Chancellor for having organized “Pulses Seminar” at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban, which is very important currently to discuss the various issues on pulses production. He told that rainfed pulses occupied 50% of total pulse area in Tamil Nadu followed by rice fallow pulses (30%) and irrigated pulses (20%). He lauded the efforts of Scientists of TNAU in developing improved pulse varieties suitable for different agro-climatic zones of Tamil Nadu. He felt happy to pointout that Vamban 1 redgram is performing better under irrigated conditions during summer and farmers are willing to grow this variety as pure crop, and ADT3 blackgram and ADT 3 greengram varieties are also performing well, He also said that under rice fallow conditions, folair spary of DAP had pronounced effect in increasing the yield and he requested the Joint Director of Agricultures to widely propagate this technology through effective extension methods.

Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan, the Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, in his presidential address pointed out that pulses production in the state remains stagnated over years because of many reasons, of which growing pulses largely in marginal lands and less than 20% of pulses area alone under irrigation prone to pests and disease, and wilting due to severe drought, tendency to have more vegetative growth under high moisture conditions and lack of proper seed storage facilities are very important.

Prof.S.Kannaiyan, Vice-Chancellor said that a holistic approach is needed to harness the yield potential of pulses. In the case of greengram he suggested that new varieties like CO 6 and Pusa Bold should be promoted for large scale cultivation and horsegram, which is grown in about 1.23 lakhs in Coimbatore and Dharmapuri districts has good potential in other districts also. The Vice-Chancellor stated producing and distributing good quality seeds at correct season should be given importance. He also suggested that in case of rice fallows and rainfed conditions, seed rate should be increased to maintain optimum plant population and correct time of sowing (January 15- February) should be followed, along with

foliar sparying of DAP at the time of flowering. In redgram, the Vice-Chancellor observed that spraying NAA@ 40 ppm and salicylic acid @ 50 g/500 lit /ha prevented flower dropping and induced synchronized flowering. He is of the opinion that consumer value addition to the products from the pulses should be given due attention to increase the consumption level of pulses to alleviate malnutrition.

In the technical session, twelve theme papers were presented. Dr.M.Subramanian, Director of Research , in his presentation, informed about various edible pulse crops in the country and also high lighted that (i) more than 78% of area of pulses under rainfed conditions (22.39 m.ha) (ii) Low level of fertilization (iii) Uncertainity in weather conditions (iv) high incidence of pests and diseases (v) poor crop care by farmers and (vi) poor seed storability were the main reasons for low production of pulses in Tamil Nadu.

While elaborating on pulses varieties he said that TNAU has evolved many short, medium long, perennial and pigeonpea cultivars which are largely under cultivation in Tamil Nadu. Vamban 1 and APK 1 redgram he said, are the early varieties (105 days duration), CO 5 medium in duration (125 days) variety and CO6 and Vamban 2 are long duration types, (180 days). He informed that BSR 1 perennial redgram is best suited for bund cropping with an yield level of 2 kg plant. He also pointed out that the hybrid pigeonpea COPH 2 is well suited for all seasons with an yield potential of 1050 kg/ha. He told that (i) poor seed viability (ii) temperature sensitivity – as the crop tends to wilt beyond 34° C at reproductive phase (iii) excess vegetative growth (iv) susceptible to MYMV (v) non dibbling of seeds and (vi) paucity of residual moisture in rice fallows are the main reasons for the failure of soybean in the State

He stressed the need for using good quality seeds, correct time of sowing (January 15 – February 15), maintaining optimum plant population, foliar spary of DAP at flowering stage, seed hardening to overcome drought and need based plant protection for the successful cultivation of rice fallow pulses, and highlighted the following aspects as important thrusts for pulse improvement. • Pulse varieties responsive to high inputs • Early varieties suitable for specific situations & multiple cropping

• Stepping up seed production levels in hybrid pigeonpeas • Exploiting biotechnological approaches for YMV and SMD resistance • Utilizing marker aided selection procedures and identification of CMS

lines in developing pulse hybrids • More research on physiological and nutritional aspects • Research on post-harvest technology • More use of bio-fertilizers and emphasis on Integrated Nutrient Management

Dr.S.Ramanathan, Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthuari, in his address stressed the need for the importance of “Integrated Nutrient Managament” in rice fallow pulses of Cauvery Delta Zone. He is of the opinion that though better performing rice fallow and summer pulses like ADT 3, ADT 4, ADT 5 blackgram varieties and ADT 1,2,3 greengram varieties are available Breeders’ / Nucleus seed indent for these varieties was very low. While highlighting the problems associated with rice-fallow pulses cultivation, he said that flower dropping in pulses remains a major problem because of cleistogamy in blackgram and greengram, and wanted early detection of Cyto-plasmic Male Sterile lines for hybrid seed production in pigeon pea. Since field – levelling is not given proper attention, the Director TRRI said that seed germination and crop stand are poor under rice-fallow system. He suggested that increasing pod length and seed numbers through genetic manipulation could increase productivity. He also pointed out that, labour shortage for harvesting the rice fallow pulses is currently on the increase, therefore utilization of machinery for the purpose is the need of the hour. He observed that use of quality bio-fertilizers is very minimal and foliar spray of 2% DAP is also adopted only on a low scale due to water scarcity at the time of flowering in rice-fallow pulses. He requested that combined foliar spray of 2% DAP, 1% MOP and 40 ppm NAA has been found to be effective in enhancing the grain yield by 20% in pulses and this practice needed promotion. He said that if rockphosphate / Udaipur phosphate is used in the proceeding rice crop instead of Single Super phosphate, residual phosphorus may be available more to the succeeding pulses which will increase seed set. He pointout that the length of rice stubbles has a profound effect on pulses seed germination, stubbles with 4” height and fallow pulses sown in that condition would improve germination compared to 6” long stubbles. In order to increase the seed-fall to the ground, he suggested that the pulse seeds may be pelletted with clay before sowing which indirectly enhances

seed germination. The Director TRRI, Aduthurai pointout that though prodenia incidence is common, it can be controlled with the help of pheromone traps and insecticides and also wanted that identified Pod borer resistant blackgram cultures viz., ADB 2027, ADB 2045, COBG 593, VBG 52 and VBG 55 need to be popularized for large scale cultivation.

Dr.T.M.Thiyagarajan, Director, Soil and Crop Management Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore in his talk on ‘Dryland Technology for Pulses Production” outlined the need for judicious utilization of the rainfall and conserving moisture through management practices like compartmental bunding. In the case of redgram, he said that foliar spray of salicylic acid (100 ppm) on 30th and 50th day alongwith NAA 40 ppm arrests vegetative phase and stimulate flowering. He also said that foliar spray of 1% Kcl found to increase yield in pulse under drought. He advocated the basal application of ‘K’ only for deficit soils.

Dr.MohanaSundaram, Professor and Head, National Pulses Research Centre Vamban highlited the research efforts on the varietal improvement of pulses. Dr.A.R.Muthiah, Professor and Head, Department of Pulses, Tamil Nadu Agricultual University, Coimbatore gave a brief account on the prospects of summer irrigated pulses in Tamil Nadu. He advocated ADT 5 blackgram and CO 6 greengram for irrigated condition in summer. Under irrigated conditions he pointed out that CO 12 and CO 13 (bush type) garden bean varieties with an yield potential of about 10-13 tonnes (fresh wt.) / ha have good prospects for further promotion.

Mr.D.Balachander, Assistant Professor (Micro.) spoke in detail about the bio-fertilizers and said that biofertilizer alone could replace about 50% applied fertilizers and dual inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria has a profound effect on enhancing the pulses stand and yield. He also pointed out that the limitations such as the non-availability of Rhizobium responsive genotypes, non availability of micronutrients like Cobalt, Iron, Molydbdenum and Boran under acidic soils, thermosensitivity of Rhizobium under extreme temperature (maximum 35°C), and rapid movement under high moisture regimes, presence of native Rhizobia which hinder the activity of applied Rhizobium and lower level of

nodulation under high soil nitrogen status should be overcome through intensive research. He wanted, the future thrust should be more on genetic improvement of Rhizobium, acid , salt, temperature, water, herbicide and phage tolerant rhizobia with high amount of competitiveness against native microflora.

Dr.Krishnasamy, Professor and Head, Department of Seed Science and Technology emphasized the importance of seed hardening technique using KCl, Prosophis leaf extract 1% or Pungam 1% by soaking the seeds of black gram for 6 hrs, and then pelleting with gypsum or DAP before sowing which enhanced germination and yield. He observed that bold seeded greengram had no hard seeds unlike small seeds. He highlighted the concept of ‘Seed Village’ for maintaining the quality and purity of pulses seeds.

Dr.A.Manickam, Professor (Bio-Chem.) gave a detailed account of tagging genes for MYMV resistance in greengram using PCR technique. Dr.K.Guna sekaran, Assistant Professor (Ento.) in his speech emphasized the need for IPM i.e; use of pheromone traps, bird perhes, NPV and botanicals in Pulses. Dr.T.Raghuchander, Assistant Professor (Path.) had said that use of resistant varieties, seed treatment with Trichoderma virdie and Psuedomonas flourescens, cultural practices like barrier cropping against ‘YMV’ and use of botanicals like neem oil and NSKE 5% are the most important components in Integrated Disease Management.

Dr.Mrs.Susheela Thirumaran, Dean, College of Home Science, Madurai presented a detailed lecture on the role of pulses in alleviating malnutrition. She said that germinated greengram has a greater role as a rich protein supplement both as child and weaning food alongwith malted ragi.

The technical session was followed by group discussion among the delegates to formulate strategies for enhancing pulses productivity. Finally Mr.Muthukumaran, Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukkottai proposed the vote of thanks.

Minutes of Group discussion

Constraint Suggestion 1. Under rice fallow system • Seed germination, crop stand and grain

yields are low in pulses • Foliar spray of DAP 2% using H/V sprayer

poses practical difficulties.(Joint Director of Agriculture Thanjavur).

1. Use of higher seed rate (30 kg/ha) 2. Use of 2 kg of sprouted seeds as supplement3. Clay pelleting of pulse seeds before sowing 4. Maintaining the stubble height as low as 4” w possible in paddy crop 5. Promoting the use of Rock phosphate in

Single Super Phosphate for paddy crop to en availability of residual phosphorus to the su pulse crop

6. Giving supplemental irrigation at pod form arrest pod dehiscene and allowing the pulse second flush of pods (in another 25-30 days a 5 blackgram)

7. Foliar spray of DAP 2% may be attempted volume sprayer using about 60 lit. spray experimental basis before large scale r dation. (Director of Research; Director, Soil Management Studies, Tamil Nadu Agrl. U Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Aduthruai).

2. MLT of rice fallow pulses may be conducted in all potential areas in the State. Bengalgram and Pea may be promoted in Conoor and Theni belts

(Vice-Chancellor, TNAU)

This request will be taken care of (Director of Tamil Nadu Agrl. University, Coimbatore)

Constraint Suggestion 3. Area specific Rhizobia may be supplied

fromTNAU research stations under strict quality control (Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukkottai)

Steps will be taken to fulfill this demand (Vice-Chancellor, TNAU)

4. The ident for Breeders’ Seeds of pulses from State Department of Agriculture is now very low for the recently released pulses varieties and it should be increased every year

This will be given due consideration and attention (Joint Director of Agriculture, Pulses, Chennai)

(Director of Research, TNAU, Coimbatore) 5. Long duration blackgram, greengram and

cowpea varieties are also needed for seasons under inclement weather conditions (Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukottai)

Since pulses are largely grown as rainfed crops, much focus is given for shortening their duration sowater requirements were also minimal (Vice-Chancellor, TNAU, Coimbatore) The following long duration pulses are available Greengram (CO 3) – 85 days Greengram (Paiyur 1) – 90-95 days Cowpea (Paiyur 1) – 90-95 days (Dr.A.R.Muthiah, Professor and Head, Pulses,Coimbatore and Dr.Suresh, Assoc. Prof. (Breed), Research Staion, Paiyur)

State level Seminar Pulses Production Technology held on 22.09.2000 at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban

Recommendations on Pulses production techniques S.No

. Technologi

es Crops Irrigate

d Rainfed Rice

fallow Intercroppin

g 1. Varieties Blackgra

m ADT, CO 5, Vamban1, 2 and 3

Vamban1, Vamban 2, APK 1, Vamban 3, CO 5

ADT3, ADT 4

BSR 1 Redgram + Turmeric BSR 1 Redgram as border crop

Greengram

CO 6 CO 6, Paiyur1, Vamban1

ADT 3, Pusabold

Tapioca + KM 2

Redgram COPH 2, CO 5, APK 1, Vamban 1

Vamban 2 BSR 1 (Perennial)

-- Greengram + Sorghum K1 Greengram + Cotton APK 1 Blackgram + Cotton Vamban 1 Redgram + Groundnut

Cowpea CO 6 CO 6, Vamban 1, CO 2, Vamban 2 (Vegetable)

-- --

Soybean CO 1, CO 2 -- ADT 1 -- Seed rate Blackgram 20 kg/ha 30 kg/ha 30 kg/ha --

and Greengram

supplemental seed rate of 2 kg/ha sprouted seeds (Seeds soaked in water for 6 hours allowed for sprouting)

Redgram Short duration

25 kg/ha 25 kg/ha -- --

Long duration

10 kg.ha 10 kg/ha -- --

Cowpea 20 kg/ha 20 kg/ha -- -- Soybean 80 kg/ha -- 80 kg/ha --

S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed

2. Seed treatment

For all pulses

Pelleting with DAP 40 g/kg + Gypsum 250 g/kg, maida 10% as sticking agent 150 ml/kg seed + Bio-fertilizer one packet each of specific Rhizobium culture Antagonistic bacteria and Phospho bacteria for every 10 kg of seeds + bio-control Pseudomonas flurescence 10 g/kg, Trichoderma viride 4 g/kg of seeds

a) Pre-conditioning Spreading the seeds on a moist gunny bag and covering with moist gunny bag for one hour b) Soaking for one hour with one Kg seed in 300 ml solution of one per cent prosopis fresh leaf extract c) Shade drying d) Pelletting with DAP 40 g/kg + Gypsum 250 g/kg, maida 10% as sticking agent 150 ml/kg

Procedure : A coating of sticker followed by a layer of gypsum then sticker then remaining gypsum, again sticker followed by bio-fertilizers and bio control agents

seed + Bio-fertilizer one packet each of specific Rhizobium culture Antagonistic bacteria and Phospho bacteria for every 10 kg of seeds + bio control Pseudomonas fluescense 10 g/kg, Trichoderma viride 4g/kg of seeds Procedure : A coating of sticker followed by a layer of gypsum then sticker, powered DAP, sticker then remaining gypsum, again sticker followed by bio-fertilizers and bio-control agents

S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed Rice fallow

3. Spacing Blackgram 30 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm Broadcasting Greengram 30 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm Broadcasting Redgram – long

duration 90 x 30 cm 90 x 30 cm --

Redgram shortduration 45 x 20 cm 45 x 20 cm -- Cowpea CO2, CO3 &

Vamban 2 45 x 15 cm 45 x 15 cm --

Cowpea – other varieties

30 x 15 cm 30 x 15 cm --

Soybean CO 1 30 x 10 cm -- Broadcasting Soybean CO 2 30 x 5 cm -- Broadcasting

4. Gapfilling 2 kg of sprouted seeds

5. Organic manure (Basal application)

Blackgram, Greengram, Redgram, Cowpea

12.5 t/ha 12.5 t/ha --

6. Nitrogen -- 25 kg/ha 12.5 kg/ha -- Soybean 20 kg/ha --

7. Phosphorus Blacgram, Greengram, Redgram, Cowpea

50 kg/ha 40 kg/ha --

Soybean 80 kg/ha -- -- S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed Rainfallow

8. Potash Blackgram, Greengram, Redgram, Cowpea

20 kg/ha 20 kg/ha --

Soybean 40 kg/ha -- -- 9. Gypsum All pulses 111 kg/ha 111 kg/ha -- 10. Zinc sulphate All pulses 25 kg/ha -- -- 11. Foliar

spraying

DAP 2% + MOP + NAA 40 ppm (At first flowering and again at 15 days after)

--

12. Weed Management

All pulses Preplant incorporation / pre-emergence : Fluchloralin 1.51 / ha Intercropping with sorghum : Metolachlor 2.01/ha Herbicide application followed by hand weeding with in 30 days after sowing

--

S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed

13. Intercropping -- a) Sugarcane + Blackgram b) Turmeric + Redgram c) Cotton + Blackgram

a) Groundnut + Redgram b) Groundnut + short duration Redgram (4:1) c) Sorghum + Blackgram / Greengram d) Redgram + Blackgram / Greengram (2:1) e) Semi-dry rice + Blackgram / Greengram (4:1)

14. Pest

Management Redgram 1. Erecting bird perches @

50/ha 2. Installation of phermone traps for Helicoverpa @ 12/ha 3. Spraying Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5% at 50% flowering 4. Spray dichlorvos 76 SC 500ml/ha for blister beetle and Maruca testtulalis 5. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha 6. Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 625 ml or endosulfan 35 C 1250 l/ha 7. Spraying chlorphyriphos 0.05% (if warranted)

1. Erecting bird perches @ 50/ha 2. Spraying Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5% at 50% flowering 3. Application of any one of the following dusts at 25 kg/ha a. Endosulfan 4% b. Quinalphos

15. Insect Pest Stemfly management

Blackgram, Greengram, Cowpea

Apply carbofuran 30G (30 KG) or aldicarp 10g (10kg)/ha in the soil at the time of sowing or spray endosulfan 35 EC 500 m/ha a week after germination and again at 10 days after

Seed pelleting with dimethoate 5ml/kg followed by spraying of endosulfan 35EC 500 ml/ha

Seed pelleting with dimethoate 5 ml/kg followed by spraying of endosulfan 35EC 500 ml/ha

16. Sucking pests management

- do - If sucking pests are noted spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml/ha

--- If sucking pests are noted spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml of dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml or monocrotophos 36 WCS 500 ml/ha

17. Pod Borers management

- do - Spray endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml/ha or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml/ha

To protect inflorescence and pods apply any one of the following at 25 kg/ha. Quinalphos 4% dust Endosulfan 4% dust Phosalone 4% dust

---

18. Disease control Sterility mosaic

Redgram Vector control Monocrotophos 500 ml/ha on noticing the symptom and repeat after a fortnight

19. Root rot/wilt management

- do - Seed treatment with carbendazim @ 2g/kg or Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg Pseudomonas florescens (10g/kg) before sowing

20. Yellow mosaic, Leaf crinkle, Leaf curl

Pulses other than redgram

a) Use resistant varieties b) Rouging of infected plants upto 30 days of sowing at weekly interval c) Virus vecror control : Moncrotophos @ 500 ml/ha or Methyl demeton @ 500 ml/ha at the appearance of disease and repeat at 10 days interval or spraying NSKE 5% or spray dimethoate 500 ml/ha.

21. Leaf spot “ Carbendazim 50 WP (0.1%) may be sprayed 22. Powdery

mildew / rust “ Wettable sulphur 2.5 kh/ha or Mancozeb 1.0 kg/ha

23. Root rot/wilt All Pulses Seed treatment with Carbendazim @ 2g/ha or Trichoderma viride @ 4g/ha

24. Pre-harvest sanitation spray against bruchid

All Pulses Endosulphan 0.07% + Carbendizem 0.1% at 10 days before harvest

25. Drying of grains

All Pulses 10% moisture

26. Grain storage for seed purpose

All Pulses a. Thiram 75% WP (2.0 g/kg + Carbaryl 50% WP (200 mg/kg) in 5 ml water or b. Activated clay @a (10 g/kg) or c. Neem Oil 910 ml/kg) of seed Malathion dust 10 g/kg, Thiram 2g + Carbaryl 200 mg/kg of seed)

27. Grain storage for consumption

All Pulses TNAU Neem Oil formulation (10 ml/kg) or Neem Oil (10 ml/kg)