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POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS: CHEMISTRY, METABOLISM AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Presenter: Dr DNYANESH AMLEModerator: Dr T. K. MISHRA
OVERVIEW
Lipids Fatty acids Fatty acid synthesis(in brief)
Unsaturated fatty acid sysnthesis Fatty acid catabolism(in brief)
Unsaturated fatty acid catabolism Essential fatty acids Eicosanoids Trans fatty acids
THE LIPIDS
Heterogeneous group of compounds
• Insoluble in water
• Soluble in nonpolar solvennt
• Eg: fats, oils, steroids, waxes & related
compounds
• Related more by their physical than by chemical
properties
THE LIPIDS
• Important dietary constituents: - Energy provision - Fat soluble vitamins - The essential fatty acids
• storage form of energy (high energy value)
• Thermal insulator
• Non-polar lipids – - electrical insulators in myelinated nerves - rapid propagation of depolarization waves
• Lipoproteins(lipid + protein): - Imp. cellular constituents :cell membrane, mitochondria - Transporting lipids in the blood
CLASSIFICATION
1. Simple lipids: Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols. a. Fats: fatty acids + glycerol. b. Waxes: fatty acids + higher mol wt monohydric alcohols
2. Complex lipids: fatty acid + alcohol + other groups
a. Phospholipids: fatty acid + alcohol + phosphoric acid + N
bases etc.
- Glycerophospholipids: F A + glycerol+ phosphoric acid
- Sphingophospholipids: F A+ sphingosine + phosphoric
acid
b. Glycolipids(glycosphingolipids):F A+ sphingosine +
carbohydrate
c. Other complex lipids: sulfolipids aminolipids.
3. Precursor and derived lipids: fatty acids Glycerol Steroids other alcohols fatty aldehydes and ketone bodies hydrocarbons lipid-soluble vitamins hormones
FATTY ACIDS
• Fatty Acids:Long hydrocarbon chains- varying lengths - varying degrees of unsaturation- terminated with carboxylic acid groups
• Occurrence:- Mainly as esters : Fats & Oils- Unesterified : free fatty acids
• Higher plants & animals predominant C16 and C18 species (palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and stearic acids)
• Fatty acids with <14 or >20 carbon : Uncommon
• Mostly even no.: biosynthesized by the concatenation of C2 units
NOMENCLATURE
The systematic name : Parent hydrocarbon Alkane :Octadecane (18 c)
No double bonds: e oic 18:0, Stearic acid , Octadecanoic acid , CH3(CH2)16COOH
1 double bonds : e enoic 18:1 , n–9 Oleic acid, 9-Octadecenoic acid
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
2 double bonds: e dienoic 18:2 , n–6 Linoleic acid , 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid CH3(CH2)4(CH=CHCH2)2(CH2)6COOH
3 double bonds : e trienoic 18:3 , n–3 -Linolenic acid , 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid CH3CH2(CH=CHCH2)3(CH2)6COOH
Saturated Fatty Acid Structure
omega end alpha end
degree of saturation: single carbon bond
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
H-C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C-C-OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS No Double Bonds Acetic acid (CH3-COOH) : first member , -CH2- is
progressively added saturated fatty acids zigzag pattern when extended ( ↓
temp.) highly flexible molecules free rotation about each of their C-C bonds assume a wide range of conformations fully extended conformation steric interference↓
ENEGRY↓ higher temperatures some bonds rotate chain
Shortening So bio-membranes become thinner with temperature
↓↑
computing
Presentation copyright © 2002 David A Bender and some images copyright © 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
Saturated fatty acidsno of Cno of C double bondsdouble bonds first C=Cfirst C=C shorthandshorthand
butyricbutyric 44 00 -- C4:0C4:0
caproiccaproic 66 00 -- C6:0C6:0
capryliccaprylic 88 00 -- C8:0C8:0
capriccapric 1010 00 -- C10:0C10:0
lauriclauric 1212 00 -- C12:0C12:0
myristicmyristic 1414 00 -- C14:0C14:0
palmiticpalmitic 1616 00 -- C16:0C16:0
stearicstearic 1818 00 -- C18:0C18:0
arachidicarachidic 2020 00 -- C20:0C20:0
behenicbehenic 2222 00 -- C22:0C22:0
lignocericlignoceric 2424 00 -- C24:0C24:0
Unsaturated Fatty Acids :≥ 1 Double Bonds
(1) Monounsaturated(monoethenoid, monoenoic) : one double bond
(2) Polyunsaturated(polyethenoid, polyenoic) : two or more double bonds.
(3) Eicosanoids:
-derived from eicosa- (20-carbon) polyenoic fatty acids,
- prostanoids (prostaglandins,
prostacyclins & thromboxanes)
- leukotrienes (LTs),
- lipoxins (LXs)
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID
- first double bond: between its C9 and C10 (Δ9-or 9-double bond)
omega end alpha end
One double bond
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
H-C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C=C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C-OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Monounsaturated Fatty Acid Structure
computing
Presentation copyright © 2002 David A Bender and some images copyright © 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
no of Cno of C double bondsdouble bonds first C=Cfirst C=C shorthandshorthand
palmitoleicpalmitoleic 1616 11 66 C16:1 C16:1 ωω66
oleicoleic 1818 11 99 C18:1 C18:1 ωω99
cetoliccetolic 2222 11 1111 C22:1 C22:1 ωω1111
nervonicnervonic 2424 11 99 C24:1 C24:1 ωω99
Monounsaturated fatty acids
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS (PUFA) :
double bonds at every third C toward the methyl
terminus (-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-)
almost never conjugated :Always a –CH2- between
two double bonds
Triple bonds rarely occur
Important classes : n – 3 (or ω– 3) & n – 6 (or ω–6)
fatty acids.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Structure
omega end alpha end
> 2 double bonds
H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
H-C--C--C--C--C--C=C--C--C=C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C-OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Polyunsaturated fatty acids computing
Presentation copyright © 2002 David A Bender and some images copyright © 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
no of Cno of C double bondsdouble bonds first C=Cfirst C=C shorthandshorthand
linoleiclinoleic 1818 22 66 C18:2 C18:2 ωω66
αα-linolenic-linolenic 1818 33 33 C18:3 C18:3 ωω33
γγ-linolenic-linolenic 1818 33 66 C18:3 C18:3 ωω66
arachidonicarachidonic 2020 44 66 C20:4 C20:4 ωω66
eicosapentaenoiceicosapentaenoic 2020 55 33 C20:5 C20:5 ωω33
docosatetraenoicdocosatetraenoic 2222 44 66 C22:4 C22:4 ωω66
docosapentaenoicdocosapentaenoic 2222 55 33 C22:5 C22:5 ωω33
docosapentaenoicdocosapentaenoic 2222 55 66 C22:5 C22:5 ωω66
docosahexaenoicdocosahexaenoic 2222 66 33 C22:6 C22:6 ωω33
Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated FA
Unsaturated FA : geometric isomerism around the
axes of double bondsdo not allow rotation
FA double bonds : almost always cis configuration
Rigid 30° bend in the hydrocarbon
Interferes with their efficient packing
Reduced van der Waals interaction
fatty acid melting points with their degree of ↑UNSATURATION
Lipid fluidity with the degree of unsaturation of ↑their component fatty acid residues.
Dietary Effects Of Fatty Acids
Dietary fatty acids regulate plasma LDL-C levels by affecting LDL receptor activity; protein, and mRNA abundance
Cholesterol-raising SFAs (12:0, 14:0, 16:0): decrease LDL receptor activity, protein, and mRNA abundance
Unsaturated fatty acids: increase these variables Mechanism: Dietary modification hepatocyte
membrane fluidity
PUFAs and their various metabolites can act at the level of the nucleus, in conjunction with
nuclear receptors and transcription factors affect the transcription of a variety of genes
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)-4alpha liver X receptor (LXR) sterol-regulatory element binding protein (SREBP) nuclear factor-kappaB (NFkappaB).
critical to the regulation of several key genes of lipid metabolism
PPARα :important role in the regulation of cellular uptake,
activation and β-oxidation of FA natural, preferentially-binding ligands : long chain
unsaturated fatty acids arachidonic acid, linoleic acid, and oleic acid
ligand-activated PPARα binds to PPR Element of DNA & up-regulates transcription of genes involved in lipid catabolism and lipoprotein metabolism
long chain FA sensor : autoregulation of long chain fatty acid metabolism
decreasing tissue content of lipids and minimizing lipotoxicity
may affect body weight improve insulin sensitivity
PPARγ : natural ligands : unsaturated FA (oleate, linoleate,
eicosapentaenoic and arachidonic acids) Adipocytes: PPARγ increases the expression of numerous
genes involved in lipid metabolism and uptake induces adipocyte apoptosis negatively regulates transcription of several genes that
impair insulin action eg. TNFα and leptin ↓proinflammatory cytokines produced by adipocytes and
associated with insulin resistance induce differentiation and apoptosis in various cancer cells
American Heart Association recommends: Total Fat intake < 25-35% of total calories
Saturated FA intake not > 10% of total calories
MUFA intake – 10-15% of total calories
PUFA intake upto 10% of total calories
Ditary reccomendations
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS(LIPOGENESIS)
Occurs in cytosol liver,kidney, brain, lung, mammary gland,
adipose tissue etc. cofactor : NADPH, ATP, Mn2+ , biotin, and HCO3
(as a source of CO2). Acetyl-CoA PalmitateSYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS
Acetyl CoA is transferred from mitochondria to the cytoplasm, and the reducing potential of NADH is concomitantly converted into that of NADPH by this series of reactions.
Citrate+ 1ATP+1CoA+1H2O → acetyl CoA+1ADP+ Pi+1 oxaloacetate
HOW TO TRNSFER ACETY COA TO CYTOSOL?
Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids
Biosynthesis of malonyl-CoA. (Enz, acetyl-CoA carboxylase.)
Production of Malonyl-CoA : Initial & Controlling Step in Fatty Acid Synthesis
Two steps:(1)carboxylation of biotin involving ATP(2)transfer of the carboxyl to acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA.
Biosynthesis of long-chain FA.Details of how addition of a malonyl residue causes the acyl chain to grow by 2 c atoms.(Cys, cysteine residue; Pan, 4′-phosphopantetheine.)The blocks shown in dark blue:Initially : C2 unit derived from acetyl-CoASubsequently: Cn unit formed in reaction 5.
Monounsaturated FA: Synthesized By Δ9 Desaturase System
Several tissues responsible 1 st double bond introduced:nearly always Δ9
Unsaturated FA in mammals: derived from either palmitoleate (16:1), oleate (18:1), linoleate (18:2), or linolenate (18:3).
No. of C atoms from ω end of a derived unsaturated fatty acid to the nearest double bond identifies its precursor
SYNTHESIS OF POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Higher Animals: Double bonds can be intro-duced at ∆4, ∆5,
∆6, and ∆9 positions additional double bonds are introduced
between the existing double bond and the carboxyl group
linoleic (ω6) or α-linolenic (ω3) acids required for the synthesis of the other members of the ω6 or ω3 families
Must be supplied in the diet
SYNTHESIS OF PUFA :INVOLVES DESATURASE & ELONGASE ENZYME SYSTEMS
Biosynthesis of the ω9, ω6, and ω3 families of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Each step is catalyzed by the microsomal chain elongation or desaturase sys-tem: 1, elongase; 2, ∆6 desaturase; 3, ∆5 desaturase;4, ∆4 desaturase.
FATTY ACID OXIDATION
FATTY ACIDS BETA OXIDATION ACETYL CoA FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS
not the simple reverse entirely different process taking place in a separate compartment FA oxidation: mitochondria allows each process to be individually controlled
& integrated as per requirements
ACTIVATION OF FATTY ACIDS : 1ST STEP
Fatty acids have to be converted to an active intermediate
Only step requiring energy from ATP Acyl-CoA synthetases : found in the ER,
peroxisomes, & inside and on the outer membrane of mitochondria
CAT
IntermembraneSpace
OUTERMITOCHONDRIALMEMBRANE
Cytoplasmpalmitoyl-CoA
AMP + PPiATP + CoA
palmitate
palmitoyl-CoA
Matrix
INNERMITOCHONDRIALMEMBRANE
CPT-I [2]
ACS[1]
CPT-II
Figure 3 (bottom). Mitochondrial uptake via of palmitoyl-carnitine via the carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase (CAT) (step 5 in Fig. 2).
Matrix
INNERMITOCHONDRIALMEMBRANE
Intermembrane Space palmitoyl-carnitinecarnitine
CoApalmitoyl-CoA
CAT [3]
palmitoyl-carnitineCPT-II
carnitine
CoApalmitoyl-CoA
[4]
CPT-I
CAT
IntermembraneSpace
OUTERMITOCHONDRIALMEMBRANE
palmitoyl-carnitine
CoA
carnitine
Cytoplasmpalmitoyl-CoA
AMP + PPiATP + CoA
palmitate
palmitoyl-CoA
Matrix
INNERMITOCHONDRIALMEMBRANE
[3]
palmitoyl-carnitinecarnitine
CoApalmitoyl-CoA
[4]
CPT-I [2]
ACS[1]
CPT-II
OXIDATION OF UNSATURATED FA: MODIFIED ß-OXIDATION PATHWAY
degraded by the enzymes normally responsible for β-oxidation until either a ∆ 3 -cis -acyl-CoA compound or a ∆ 4 -cis -acyl-CoA com-pound is formed depending upon the position of the double bonds
isomerized (Δ3 cis → Δ 2 -trans-enoyl-CoA isomerase) to the corresponding ∆ 2 -trans –CoA
subsequent hydration and oxidation
Any ∆ 4 -cis -acyl-CoA is then metabolized
Essential fatty acids
Mammals lack the enzymes to introduce double bonds beyond C-9 in the fatty acid chain
Hence cannot synthesize linoleate (18:2 cis-∆9,12) and linolenate (18:3 cis- ∆ 9,12,15)
Essential: must be supplied in the diet because they are required can’t be synthesized by organism itself
starting points for the synthesis of a variety of other unsaturated fatty acids
FUNCTION OF EFAS
Formation of healthy cell membranes Proper development and functioning of the brain
and nervous system Production of hormone-like substances called
Eicosanoids Thromboxanes Leukotrienes Prostaglandins
Responsible for regulating blood pressure, blood viscosity, vasoconstriction, immune and inflammatory responses.
Linoleic Acid (LA): C18:2, n-6 or ω-6. Essential Fatty Acid
Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA): C18-3, n-3 or ω-3. Essential Fatty Acid
Good source: Flaxseed
Arachidonic Acid (AA): C20:4, n-6 or ω-6.
Good source: Liver, Beef.
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA): C20:5, n-3 or ω-3. Essential Fatty Acid. Good source: Fish oil
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA): C22:6, n-3 or ω-3. Essential Fatty Acid. Good Source: Fish oil
ω -3 FATTY ACID
Primarily from fish oil
Also found in canola or soybean oil
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are related
Metabolized to form eicosanoids
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID- ω -3 (Α -LINOLENIC ACID)
omega end alpha end
1st double bond is located on the 3rd carbon from the omega end
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
H-C--C--C=C--C--C =C--C--C=C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C-OH
H H H H H H H H H H H
Α-LINOLENIC ACID (ALA)
∆9,12,15-octadecatrienoicacid (18:3n–3, an –3 fatty acid)
Precursor to EPA(∆ 5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid; 20:5n–3) DHA(∆ 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid; 22:6n–3)
polyunsaturated –ῳ3 fatty acids Important dietary constituents present in fish oils Improve cognitive function and vision protection against inflammation and
cardiovascular disease
DOCASAHEXANOIC ACID
DHA; ῳ3, 22:6 Source:
Synthesized from α-linolenic acid Fatty Fish oil (albacore, tuna, mackerel,
salmon, sardines)
High conc. In cerebral cortex retinal rod outer segments,testies,sperm
Needed for devlopment of brain and retina
Deficiency of these ῳ –3 PUFA in brain: associated with memory loss and diminished cognitive function,retinitis pigmentosa
ω -6 Fatty Acid
Found in vegetable oils Only need ~ 1 tablespoon a day Arachidonic acid can be made from omega-6 Metabolized to form eicosanoids
Essential Fatty Acid- Omega-6 (linoleic acid)
omega end alpha end
1st double bond is located on the 6th carbon from the omega end
H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
H-C--C--C--C-- C--C =C--C--C=C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C--C-OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Linoleic acid Abundant in most vegetable oils animals on a fat-free diet : ultimately fatal
condition characterized by poor growth poor wound healing dermatitis
important constituent of sphingolipids functioning as the skin’s water permeability barrier
LINOLEIC 18:2 α-LINOLENIC 18:3 ∆ 6-desaturase
γ-Linolenic 18:3 Octadecatetraenoic 18:4 elongase
Dihomo-γ-linolenic 20:3 Eicosatetraenoic 20:4 ∆ 5-desaturase ARACHIDONIC 20:4 EICOSAPENTAENOIC 20:5 elongaseAdrenic 22:4 Docosapentaenoic 22:5 elongaseTetracosatetraenoic 24:4 Tetracosapentaenoic 24:5 ∆ 6-desaturase Tetracosapentaenoic 24:5 Tetracosahexaenoic 24:6 β-oxidation Docosapentaenoic 22:5 DOCOSAHEXAENOIC 22:6
n-3 fatty acids
Synthesis Of Essential Fatty Acids
n-6 fatty acids Enzymes
Benefits Of Omega-3s
Anti-inflammatory Lower triglyceride and cholesterol levels Cancer prevention Renal maintenance Increase insulin sensitivity Enhance thermogenesis and lipid metabolism Benefits vision and brain function Decrease Skin inflammation Inhibit platelet adhesion Lower PG2s
Benefits of ω -6 Fatty Acids
ω-6 fatty acids with ↑ GLA content may help to
Relieve the discomforts of PMS, endometriosis,
and fibrocystic breasts.
Reduce the symptoms of eczema and psoriasis.
Clear up acne and rosacea.
Prevent and improve diabetic neuropathy.
Dietary EPA (ω3) Dietary linoleic acid (ω6) (essential)
After Babcock et al. Nutrition 16:1116-1118, 2000
Arachidonic acid
(+)(-)
Prostaglandins / Eicosanoids
ProinflammatoryCytokines (IL-1,TNF)
AA
Omega-6 Vs Omega-3
Relative excess omega-6 (PUFA) and a very high omega-6/omega-3 ratio has been shown to promote the pathogenesis of many diseases:-cardiovascular disease
-cancer-Inflammatory and autoimmune diseases
Table - Three 20-carbon FAs and the eicosanoid series derived from them
DietaryFatty Acid
AbbrFormulaω carbons :double bonds
Eicosanoid product series
TXPGPGI
LK Effects
Gamma linolenic acid via Dihomo gamma linolenic acid
GLADGLA
ω-6 18:3ω-6 20:3
series-1 series-3Anti - inflammatory
Arachidonic acid AA ω-6 20:4 series-2 series-4Pro - inflammatory
Eicosapentaenoic acid
EPA ω-3 20:5 series-3 series-5Anti - inflammatory
Omega-6 Vs Omega-3
Differing characteristics ω-3 and ω-6 Essential Fatty Acid Deficiencies
Omega-3 (α-Linolenic Acid) Omega-6 (Linoleic Acid)
Clinical Features
Normal skin, growth, reproductionReduced learningAbnormal electroretinogramImpaired vision
Growth retardationSkin lesionsReproductive failureFatty liver
Biochemical markers
Decreased 18:3 ω-3 and 22:6 ω -3
Increased 22:4 ω-6 and 22:5 ω 7
Increased 20:3 ω-9(only if ω -6 also low)
Decreased 18:2 ω-6 and 20:4 ω-6
Increased 20:3 ω-9 (only if ω -3 also low)
Guthrie H, Picciano, Mary. Human Nutrition. Lipids p128 1995
RECOMMENDATIONS
WHO recommends:
PUFA/ Saturated FA ratio – 0.8 to 1.0
Linoleic acid (ω6)/ Linolenic acid (ω3) ratio- 5 to 10
EFA Deficiency Sign-Symptoms
hemorrhagic dermatitis skin atrophy scaly dermatitis dry skin
weakness impaired vision tingling sensations mood swings edema
high blood pressure high triglycerides hemorrhagic folliculitis hemotologic disturbances (ex: sticky platelets) immune and mental deficiencies impaired growth
EFA Deficiency Sign-Symptoms
Who Are At Risk For Deficiency?
Long-term TPN patients without adequate lipid
Cystic Fibrosis
Low Birth Weight / Premature infants
Severely malnourished patients
Patients on Long-term MCT as fat source
Patients with fat malabsorption
Crohn’s disease
Cirrhosis and alcoholism
At RISK:
Acrodermatitis Enteropathica
Hepatorenal Syndrome
Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome
Multisystem neuronal degradation
Reye’s Syndrome
18:2 linoleic
18:3
20:3
20:4
oleic 18:1
18:2
20:2
20:3
Increased triene/tetraene plasma ratioindicates essential fatty acid deficiency
∆ 9
delta 6 desaturase
Eicosanoids
Arachidonate :major precursor of several classes of signal molecules Eicosanoids
prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes
A prostaglandin is a 20-carbon fatty acid containing a 5-carbon ring
modified by reductases and isomerases to yield nine major classes of prostaglandins, designated PGA – PGI
called eicosanoids because they contain 20 carbon atoms
Arachidonic Acid (ω6)
cyclooxygenase (COX) lipoxygenase
ProstaglandinsThromboxanes
HPETEHETELeukotrienesLipoxins
Prostacyclin and throm-boxanes : generated by prostacyclin synthase and thromboxane synthase, respectively from nascent prostaglandins
Arachidonate can be converted into leukotrienes by the action of lipoxygenase
local hormones: short-lived alter the activities both of syn-thesizing and of
adjoining cells by binding to 7TM receptors
The major side effect of HYDROGENATION –
Production of TRANS FATTY ACIDS
Cow. Milk and meat from cows and other ruminants contains naturally occurring trans fats in small quantities
TRANS-UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Influences physical properties of cellular membranes
↑ presence of cis = more fluid membrane(B). ↑ presence of trans = less fluid membrane(A). Cis is the most prevalent arrangement in fatty
acids in foods & human body.
Trans Fatty Acid Influence on Metabolic Operations
Influence:
Operation of several lipid enzymes Trans isomers that decrease PG synthesis :
↑linoleic requirement for PG synthesis
Trans isomers devoid of EFA
↓ activity of ∆6 and ∆9 Impair microsomal desaturation and chain
elongation of both linoleic acid and linolenic acid. Gestational development: trans fatty acids cross
the placental barrier AND are also secreted into breast milk.
Trans Fatty Acids: emerged as the most detrimental type of fat relative to increased risk for CHD increasing
plasma LDL-C, TFAs decrease plasma HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) may increase lipoprotein (a)
HEALTH RISK ASSOCIATED WITH TRANS FATTY A
TRANS FATTY ACID
CORONARY HEART DISEASE
COLON & BREAST CANCER
INCREASE INSULIN RESISTANCE- TYPE
2 DM
ALLERGY
ALZIEMER’S DISEASE
OBESITY
Recommendations
Governments around the world to phase out partially hydrogenated oil if trans fat labeling alone doesn't spur significance reduction in their intake
Trans fatty acids consumption < 1% of total daily energy intake.
DENMARK became the first country to introduce laws strictly regulating the sale of many foods containing trans fat - a move which effectively bans partially hydrogenated oil
Priming reactions(1) condensation(2) reduction(3) dehydration(4) reduction
2 enzymes involved1. acetyl-CoA carboxylase2. Fatty Acid Synthase Complex
1. acetyl-CoA carboxylase
multienzyme protein variable number of identical subunits, each containing
biotin biotin carboxylase biotin carboxyl carrier protein transcarboxylase regulatory allosteric site.
2. Fatty Acid Synthase Complex
Multi enzyme functional unit dimer comprising two identical monomers each containing all seven enzyme activities of
fatty acid synthase on one polypeptide chain ACP contains the vitamin pantothenic acid of
(4′-phosphopantetheine)
Advantages compartmentalization without permeability
barriers- encoded by a single gene : synthesis of all
enzymes in the complex is coordinated
Fatty acids : synthesized in the cytoplasm acetyl CoA : mitochondria Mitochondria : not readily permeable
acetyl CoA.
HOW TO TRNSFER ACETY COA TO CYTOSOL?
The barrier bypassed by citrate: carries acetyl groups across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Elongation of FA : Mainly in Endoplasmic Reticulum
Microsomal System elongates saturated and unsaturated fatty acyl-
CoAs (from C10 upward) elongation by two C malonyl-CoA as acetyl donor NADPH as reductant catalyzed by microsomal fatty acid elongase
system of enzymes
Mitochondrial elongation less active acetyl CoA as source of two C units
Main Source of NADPH:PPP
NADPH :donor of reducing equivalents reduction of the 3-ketoacyl & 2,3-unsaturated acyl
derivatives oxidative reactions of PPP: chief source (6) tissues specializing lipogenesis : active PPP both metabolic pathways in cytosol : no barriers
against the transfer of NADPH
Other sources :
Malate malic enzyme (NADP malate dehydrogenase) Pyruvate(8)
extramitochondrial isocitrate dehydrogenase reaction
• Long-chain acyl-CoA (or FFA) will not penetrate the inner membrane of mitochondria
• Carnitine (β-hydroxy-γ-trimethylammonium butyrate)
• widely distributed • particularly abundant in muscle.
ß-OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS
two carbons at a time are cleaved from acyl-CoA molecules
starting at the carboxyl end
chain is broken between the α(2)- and β(3)-carbon atoms—hence the name β-oxidation
two-carbon units formed are acetyl-CoA
thus, palmitoyl- CoA forms eight acetyl-CoA molecules.
cyclic reaction sequence generates FADH2 & NADH
“fatty acid oxidase” found in the mitochondrial matrix or inner membrane catalyze
the oxidation is coupled with the phosphorylation of ADP TO ATP
Numbering : Carboxyl carbon C1 C adjacent to carboxyl C no.2,3 & 4 α, β & γ C respectively Terminal methyl carbon ω or n C Δ9 double bond between C 9 and 10 ω9 double bond on the 9th carbon counting from the ω-
carbon
Oleic acid. n − 9 (n minus 9) is equivalent to ω9.
Δ9
ω9