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Permeable pavement and stormwater managementsystems: a reviewH. M. Imran a , Shatirah Akib a & Mohamed Rehan Karim aa Department of Civil Engineering , Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya , KualaLumpur , MalaysiaAccepted author version posted online: 06 Mar 2013.Published online: 29 Apr 2013.

To cite this article: H. M. Imran , Shatirah Akib & Mohamed Rehan Karim (2013): Permeable pavement and stormwatermanagement systems: a review, Environmental Technology, DOI:10.1080/09593330.2013.782573

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Environmental Technology, 2013http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2013.782573

Permeable pavement and stormwater management systems: a review

H.M. Imran∗, Shatirah Akib and Mohamed Rehan Karim

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

(Received 1 November 2012; final version received 3 March 2013 )

Uncontrolled stormwater runoff not only creates drainage problems and flash floods but also presents a considerable threat towater quality and the environment. These problems can, to a large extent, be reduced by a type of stormwater managementapproach employing permeable pavement systems (PPS) in urban, industrial and commercial areas, where frequent problemsare caused by intense undrained stormwater. PPS could be an efficient solution for sustainable drainage systems, and controlwater security as well as renewable energy in certain cases. Considerable research has been conducted on the function ofPPS and their improvement to ensure sustainable drainage systems and water quality. This paper presents a review of the useof permeable pavement for different purposes. The paper focuses on drainage systems and stormwater runoff quality fromroads, driveways, rooftops and parking lots. PPS are very effective for stormwater management and water reuse. Moreover,geotextiles provide additional facilities to reduce the pollutants from infiltrate runoff into the ground, creating a suitableenvironment for the biodegradation process. Furthermore, recently, ground source heat pumps and PPS have been found tobe an excellent combination for sustainable renewable energy. In addition, this study has identified several gaps in the presentstate of knowledge on PPS and indicates some research needs for future consideration.

Keywords: permeable pavement; porous pavement; geotextiles; ground source heat pumps (GSHP); sustainable drainage

1. IntroductionClimate change and global warming are crucial problemsworldwide and, as a consequence, sustainable practices forboth energy and water are prominent issues at present. Thegeneral function of a permeable pavement is to collect, treatand filter surface runoff to enhance groundwater recharge.Traditionally, permeable pavement systems (PPS) havebeen used for light-duty pavement due to their insufficientstructural loading and geotechnical design considerations.[1,2] PPS are a simple and effective way to facilitate a struc-turally stable pavement for the use of pedestrian and vehic-ular traffic, as well as simultaneously address stormwaterrunoff infiltration, storage and dispersal. [3] PPS can providesustainable stormwater management by facilitating ground-water recharge, reducing surface runoff, reusing stormwaterand preventing the pollution of stormwater for a widerange of commercial, residential and industrial areas. Man-agement considerations for stormwater from urban areas,parking lots, footpaths, open marketplaces and highwayshoulders are important and integrated components in thedesign of these pavement systems. A permeable and porouspavement is capable of capturing water on the pavement sur-face and then allowing it to infiltrate into the subgrade layerand groundwater, which is one of the best stormwater man-agement systems. Conventional road pavement is generallyimpervious; consequently, it accumulates a large amount

∗Corresponding author. Email: ihosen83@gmail.com

of runoff water during a storm, which contains pollutantsfrom transportation and related activities. [4,5] A permeablepavement provides a better solution to reduce the signifi-cant pavement runoff volume and pollutants associated withrunoff water. [6–9]

Urban stormwater runoff and sustainable drainage sys-tems (SUDS), such as permeable pavement, have been amajor consideration in stormwater management practice.The sustainable drainage management of runoff is a greenapproach involving the collection, storage, treatment andreuse of stormwater runoff. Permeable pavement is a goodstormwater runoff management solution for a wide varietyof urban, commercial and industrial areas, and is designedfor light-duty and frequent use; however, the systems doallow for a wider range of uses. [10] Although the combinedapplication of permeable pavement and ground source heatpumps (GSHP) is commercially available, to date, thereis limited research. [11] Geothermal energy systems havebeen increasing in recent decades around the world, toreduce harmful gas emissions and provide a renewableenergy source. The sub-base of permeable pavement canbe used as a geothermal resource by applying appropriatetechnology and geothermal heat pumps, which enable theextraction or injection of heat to the subsoil at relatively lowtemperatures through heat exchange systems, usually filledwith water.

© 2013 Taylor & Francis

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Figure 1. Some common types of permeable pavement systems.

2. Permeable pavement systemsPPS are a very effective management practice for a widerange of pollution control in stormwater (Figure 1). Theyfacilitate infiltration for large areas with a structurally safepavement for use by pedestrians, or shopping areas, parkareas and driveways as well as areas with moderate traf-fic use. [2] A common principal of permeable pavementin the case of stormwater management is the collection,treatment and infiltration of stormwater to support ground-water restoration. PPS are a good solution, particularly insustainable drainage systems, for recycling of stormwaterand control of contamination from harmful substances, suchas hydrocarbons and heavy metals. [12,13] The aggregatesize of the sub-base and base should be precise so that thepermeable pavement can quickly drain runoff and store thewater to avoid flash floods.

Hydraulic performance was assessed for a permeablehighway shoulder pavement to capture stormwater runoffonto the surface pavement. [14] HYDRUS software wasused to simulate the performance based on unsaturated flowtheory. The hydraulic properties of subgrade soil and pave-ment materials were used as input for the simulation, and thecritical thickness of layers of aggregates was fixed accord-ing to the simulation results to avoid overflow on the surfacepavement. Sensitivity analysis indicated that 1.5 m depthof aggregate was sufficient to capture the runoff withoutpooling on the pavement surface.

2.1. Concrete blocksPrecast grid or block-shaped concrete with open voids wasused for permeable pavement to allow infiltration. Installa-tion can be by hand or by a mechanical process. Generally,the voids of the block are filled with crushed gravel orstone, or topsoil and turf. Several common concrete blocks– Turfstone®, UNI Eco-Stone® and Unilock® – were usedto investigate the runoff volume. [12,15–17] The results

indicated that the runoff volume was significantly lowerthan for asphalt driveways.

2.2. Plastic gridsPlastic grids used for PPS have gained popularity in recentyears. These grids provide more void space for filling mate-rials than concrete blocks. Concrete block pavers are mostlyimpervious, whereas the plastic grids are mostly pervious.The voids of the grids are filled in the same way as con-crete blocks. Grasspave® and Gravelpave® plastic gridswere used by Brattebo and Booth, [12] in which topsoil andturf were used for Grasspave® grid, and crushed gravel wasused in the Gravelpave® grid. The monitoring data showedthat apparently no surface runoff was obtained at that site.Grassy Paver™ plastic grid showed 93% less stormwaterrunoff compared with the asphalt lots. [8]

2.3. Pervious/porous pavementPervious concrete is made by omitting the fine aggre-gate from the concrete mixture. Parking lots installed withpervious concrete have been used successfully in manyplaces. [18–20] Although there have been some problemswith the installation of the material, the pavement wassuccessful in allowing infiltration of stormwater runoff.Evaluation and comparisons were made on water storagecapabilities of different types of pervious pavement in 45places in Spain. [21] Pervious materials had a significanteffect on the behaviour of pervious pavement. In addition,the surface materials of pervious pavement made a greatercontribution to water management than a geotextile layer.Analysis of variance techniques were used to explain therelationship of storm runoff management capacity of dif-ferent pervious pavements with weather conditions. Thecorrelations of water management capacity were signifi-cant (86%) between the porous asphalt and porous concrete

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pavement, whereas the plastic grid pavers indicated poorcorrelation with other pavements.

Generally, porous pavements consist of a porous surfacefor the top layer, and drainage materials are placed beneathto filter the surface runoff. Porous pavement applications arelimited in some cases to fine-grained soils, due to its perfor-mance. The performance of porous pavement on clay soilswas investigated by Dreelin et al., [8] who compared theperformance between an asphalt parking lot and a porouspavement parking lot of grass pavers. The results showedthat the runoff of porous pavement was 93% less than theasphalt lot. Turbidity was significantly less and conductivitywas significantly higher for the porous pavement lot com-pared with the asphalt pavement lot. Moreover, metal andnutrient concentrations were significantly reduced by bothtypes of pavement.

3. Sustainable drainage systemsIn conventional drainage systems, storm runoff waterreaches nearby watercourses, sewers and drainage sys-tems. SUDS provide facilities that reduce the peak flowrunoff, increase groundwater recharge, infiltration, and sub-sequently storage and recycling of the stormwater. The bestSUDS management practice is seen in the USA; however,SUDS developed in the UK have become a very efficienttool for urban runoff management since 1990. [4,22,23] PPSare considered a better solution than SUDS, [4] and providefacilities to operate the ground source heating and coolingsystems in urban, commercial and industrial applications.Moreover, PPS should be constructed with an impermeablelayer to protect the migration of contaminants into ground-water systems. In addition, PPS can be used as a tool forbest SUDS management practice to solve problems of flashfloods and water scarcity.

4. Design and construction4.1. Aggregate layers and durabilityDifferent types of aggregate can be used for PPS. Recycledmelted slags have also been used for permeable pavements.[24] The topmost layer generally uses various types ofblock paver except, for porous pavements. Permeable pave-ments generally consist of a layer of pavers at the top, andthen the base and sub-base layer. The durability of perme-able pavement is less than that of impermeable pavement.The life span is reduced by infiltration of runoff water,and subsequent stripping and loss of sufficient void space.The biggest problem associated with porous pavement isclogging, which can happen within three or four yearsof installation. Clogging is mainly caused by sediment inrunoff water, and collapsing pores resulting from vibrationscaused by traffic. [2] The different types of paver blockswere less prone to clogging compared with porous pave-ments, and were easy to maintain and clean for enhancinginfiltration.

Figure 2. Typical cross-section of permeable pavement systemsintegrated with geotextiles and ground source heat pump coil.

4.2. GeotextilesGenerally, a geotextile layer is set up between the beddinglayer and the base layer to help the biodegradation pro-cess and increase pollutant-attenuation capabilities, causedby organic pollution within the PPS. [25] This layer alsopromotes microbial activity for the better treatment of infil-trate water. Geotextile membranes also prevent the passageof fine particles from the bedding layer to a lower layer, asshown in Figure 2. The bedding layer generally consists offine sand, which is very effective in reducing the pollutantsfrom runoff. As a result, air pockets are created within thebed layer, which makes the surface structurally unstable. [3]

Total suspended solids (TSS) removal through PPS(UNI Eco-Stone and porous asphalt) in laboratory exper-iments indicated that the sieving action predominantlyoccurs at the geotextile layer, [26] which is contradictory tosome study findings [27,28] where the stated filtration pri-marily starts at the surface level of the pavement. This canoccur in the laboratory due to the influent characteristicsand the lack of crust formation resulting from the wettingand drying cycles, as well as the impact of vehicular trafficin the real environment of PPS. The combination of geo-textiles and permeable pavement has significant efficiencyin treating urban stormwater for reuse. In one study, a geo-textile was used at different layers in permeable pavementsto assess their pollutant-attenuation performance. [29] Theoutput of that study indicated that the combination of per-meable pavement and geotextiles was more effective inreducing contaminants from stormwater than conventionalpermeable pavement without a geosynthetic layer.

4.3. Heating and cooling systems/earth energy systemsEarth energy and PPS have been used in combination inpilot-scale operations in various places around the world.Earth energy systems are also defined as geothermal heatpumps, GSHP, or geo-exchange systems. Earth energy sys-tems are situated below the surface of the ground and usethe renewable energy stored in the ground. The systems useground energy to generate heat energy. [30] The system is anenvironmentally friendly technology which facilitates sig-nificant heating and cooling throughout the year, resultingin energy savings. [31] The systems use comparatively lessenergy than traditional heating and cooling systems, andcan significantly reduce the emission of global carbon and

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Figure 3. Ground source heat pump coil installation.

save fossil fuels. [31,32] At a certain depth of ground theearth has a relatively constant temperature, which is higherthan air in winter and lower than air in summer. GSHP areused to transfer ground heat to buildings during the winterand, conversely, transfer heat out of buildings during thesummer season. The heating and cooling coils, as shownin Figure 3, can be placed underground at a certain depth(Figure 2) and the coils absorb heat from ground, which canbe used to warm the building during the winter. [33]

GSHP have been used in China, Japan, North Americaand European countries. [34–36] The coils of the pumpscan be used horizontally or vertically, and are looped intothe ground. The length and width of the loop depends on theground conductivity, soil type, geology and available landarea where the loop is installed. The main thermal carrierthrough the coils is a mixture of water and de-icing agent.The coefficient of performance (COP) in a heating cycle andthe energy efficiency ratio (EER) in a cooling cycle wereevaluated by Singhal et al. [37] to investigate GSHP per-formance. The mean values of COP and EER were between2–4.5 and 3–5, respectively. The combination of GSHP andPPS showed optimum performance for both heating andcooling cycles, and this was also a very attractive technol-ogy for renewable energy and stormwater reuse. [33] GSHPare widely used for sustainable renewable energy, and theseareas of research interest are increasing. [36]

4.4. Neural network modellingArtificial intelligence techniques such as neural networksare often used for modelling highly variable and non-linearphysical phenomena in the water and environmental sec-tors. These modelling tools can be used to assess urbanrunoff water issues. Water resource variables have beenpredicted [38,39] and forecast by the feed-forward neuralnetworks method. [40–42] Neural network techniques havealso been used to predict water quality based on algal species

abundance. [43] Neural networks are composed of sim-ple neuron-like operating elements (neurons) and weightedconnections between these elements. Network functionis determined largely by the connections between neu-rons. A biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and dissolvedoxygen model was developed by Chaves and Kojiri [44]using fuzzy neural networks. Neural network models fora membrane microfiltration plant [45] and thermodynamicefficiency of GSHP consider the coefficient of performance[46] for permeable pavement. Urban stormwater qualitywas investigated using a back-propagation artificial neuralnetworks model at an unmonitored catchment. The modelanalysed a number of water quality constituents, and theresults indicated that the artificial neural network modelwas more time consuming to construct, and less transpar-ent. Consequently, the model was not a viable technique topredict urban stormwater quality at an unmonitored catch-ment. [47] Another study was carried out by Tota-Maharajand Scholz [48] for the use of back-propagation neuralnetworks and testing of the Levenberg-Marquardt, Quasi-Newton, and Bayesian Regularization algorithms. In thiscase, the neural networks were statistically evaluated fortheir effectiveness in prediction based on BOD, ammonia-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, and ortho-phosphate-phosphoruswith the help of numerical computation of the mean abso-lute error, root-mean-square error, mean absolute relativeerror and the coefficient of correlation, where the predic-tion was compared with the corresponding measured data.Three models were used to precisely assess the simulationperformance of the runoff water quality parameters accord-ing to different types of permeable pavement investigated.The models’ performances were satisfactory in predict-ing all key parameters, with few statistical errors and highcorrelation coefficients.

5. Water quality and reusePPS have a good track record for improving stormwa-ter quality by significantly removing potential pollutantsfrom the stormwater when it infiltrates the systems. Theeffects of faecal matter in runoff and its remediation pro-cess within PPS were assessed. [49] The results showedthat the potentially pathogenic organisms were efficientlyremoved. Stormwater recycling potential and its treatmentefficiency through the permeable pavement were greatlydependent on the pollutant load. [3] The permeable pave-ment acted as a filtration device in which the removalrates were 87% for chemical oxygen demand and 50–90% for BOD; however, NO3-N, NH3–N and NH2-N hadalmost been completely removed by the pavement systems.[29] Indigenous microbial biomass was more efficient thana commercial microbial mixture for the oil-biodegradingprocess through the permeable pavement by providing suffi-cient nutrients. Scanning electron microscopy showed that acomplex community structure, which had high biodiversity,was built within the permeable pavement. [50] Pathogenic

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organisms were able to survive at variable temperaturesin PPS. High microbial activities were found on geotex-tiles and surrounding lower parts of the sub-base, althoughlow oxygen concentration was found in the space aroundthe geotextiles. BOD and ammonia-nitrogen-removal effi-ciency were found to be around 99% and 95%, respectively.[49] Total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci,heterotrophs, fungi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Lep-tospira were often analysed for the pollution potential ofstormwater. It was not possible to predict the peak point ofcontamination.

PPS are also able to treat stormwater runoff contami-nated with heavy metals and hydrocarbons, if a geomem-brane is present. Asphaltic permeable pavement can signif-icantly reduce the levels of copper, zinc and lead as wellas motor oil in stormwater. Copper and zinc infiltrationof stormwater had a dramatic effect on water quality byincreasing the toxicity through the asphaltic pavement sur-face. Grasspave® and UNI Eco-Stone paver were able tocontinuously reduce the copper concentration in stormwa-ter. [12] Hydrocarbons and heavy metals can pollute thesoil and groundwater due to an insufficient biodegradationprocess during the infiltration of stormwater runoff throughthe permeable pavement. [11–13]

Concrete block pavers had significant efficiency inimproving infiltrate runoff water quality and reducing theconcentration of Cu, Zn, TSS, NO3-N, NH3-N, TKN, TPand Pb. [12,15] Pervious concrete pavers with grass swalehad the capability of reducing TSS, NO3-N, NH3-N, andTN by 91%, 66%, 85%, and 42%, respectively, and by morethan 75% for Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Zn, [18] in which the TP loadsonly reduced 3%. [17,51,52] The pH of effluent shows thatthe buffer capacities of the concrete are very high, so thatthere is no danger of mobilization. Generally, the pH ofstormwater was acidic to neutral. The permeable pavementcould buffer the stormwater due to the presence of cal-cium carbonate and magnesium carbonate in the pavementmaterials. [11]

Stormwater runoff quality and quantity were assessedfor three permeable pavements made using asphalt, paverand crushed stone. [15] The runoff volume and contam-inants load were significantly lower for the pavers thanthe asphalt pavement. The infiltration rate was alwayshigher for pavers and crushed stone, although the ratedecreased over time. Water quality parameters includingTSS, nitrate-nitrogen, ammonia-nitrogen, phosphate, cop-per, zinc and lead were considered. TSS concentrationswere <100 mg/L, 4–25.2 mg/L and 23.3–111 mg/L forthe asphalt, paver and crush stone pavement, respectively,where the concentrations were significant depending onthe seasonal variation, while the nitrate-nitrogen concen-tration was nearly 0.65 mg/l for all types of pavement. Thephosphate concentration was around 0.24 mg/L, which waslower than that found in the study by Bannerman et al.[53] in asphalt runoff. Copper concentrations were abovethe USEPA [54] freshwater aquatic toxicity thresholds of

13 (acute) and 9 mg/L (chronic) for asphalt and crushedstone pavements, respectively, while lead and zinc concen-trations for all the driveways were lower than the acuteaquatic toxicity threshold of 65 and 120 mg/L, respectively.[54] In addition, TSS, ammonium-nitrogen and copper con-centrations were higher in crushed stone than in paverrunoff.

Sediment particle size and loading has a significanteffect on the filtration system of stormwater in PPS. Sedi-ment retention performance was assessed for different filtermedia (crushed greywacke, 10% sand with greywacke, lay-ered greywacke and sand–greywacke mix). The experimentwas carried out in the laboratory using column and box-shaped moulds. Sediment of 0.00–6 mm was applied at aconcentration of 460–4200 mg/L, with water flow ratesof 100–900 mL/min. [37] The column test results indi-cated that the sediment retention efficiency was significantlyhigh, between 96 and 91%. Furthermore, the retention ratedecreased between 55 and 89% when the size of the sus-pended particles was <38 μm. At the same time, the box testresults showed a similar result, with the average retentionbeing 93% and decreasing to 84–88% when the sedimentparticle size was <38 μm. The results indicated that the top20 mm thickness of filter media was the most important forsediment retention, whereas sediment loading had a lowerindirect effect. The shape of the mould had no effect on theprocess.

An investigation was carried out by Boving et al. [55]to assess the impact of organic and inorganic pollutantson water quality for a permeable asphalt parking lot. Watersamples were collected from low and high-traffic areas. Thestudy showed that a geotextile layer provides a restrictionfor vertical percolation. Heavy traffic areas were greatlyaffected by clogging compared with low-traffic areas. Themulti-species tracer test indicated that permeable asphaltpavements were able to reduce 90% of heavy metals, and27% of nutrients, although there were no bacteria or BOD.

6. Proposed permeable pavement structureThe proposed PPS consist of five components: permeablepaver unit, bedding course, filter course, base course and anoptional geotextile layer, all of which can be constructed ona permeable natural sub-base layer, as shown in Figure 4.The permeable paver unit thickness ranges from 60–80 mmat the top-most layers. The bedding course typically consistsof a 200–250 mm coarse sand layer. The filter course rangesbetween 50–100 mm, consisting of crushed aggregate thatprovides filtering capabilities and also acts as a platform forthe pavement. A 350–400 mm base course is constructedwith comparatively large size aggregates to provide strongsupport for the paving as well as enough space for a storagefacility. An additional geotextile layer can be provided atthe bottom of the permeable pavement section for the bet-ter treatment of stormwater. The new layer, which is the

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Figure 4. Proposed typical permeable pavement structure.

focus of this pavement section, is the filter course, and spe-cial aggregates are recommended for use to significantlyimprove water quality by facilitating the biodegradationprocess. These aggregates can be collected from locallyavailable cheap materials or waste materials. For exam-ple, in Malaysia, a locally available cheap material – oilpalm shell – can be used as a supplementary aggregate forthe filter course as well as the base course. Alternatively,waste tier chips can be used as an effective supplementaryfiltering media for the better treatment of stormwater. Bothmaterials provide a suitable environment for the biologicalprocess and have good capability to improve water quality.The waste materials used as aggregates lead to a possiblesolution for the environmental problem, as well as reducingthe negative environmental impact.

7. Further research needsThe uses of permeable pavement are manifold. It can beused as light-duty pavement in pedestrian, parking, urban,industrial and commercial areas, as well as a source ofrenewable energy. Many studies have been conducted onthe improvement of PPS designs as well as on enhance-ment of stormwater quality. Recently, GSHP have beenincorporated with PPS to make use of renewable groundsource energy. Some studies have used different types ofaggregate for the sustainability of pavement systems andto improve stormwater quality. Further studies are neededto demonstrate the best techniques for the beneficial use ofPPS. In this context, the following research gaps have beenidentified for further research on PPS.

• Further study could be carried out to understand theimportance of the species composition, dispersal andcolonization rate for the biodegradation process.

• The removal efficiency of nutrients through PPScould be investigated .

• Research could be carried out to evaluate the mostsuitable environment for the biodegrading process fordifferent combinations of microorganisms.

• For public health risk assessment, molecular microbi-ological techniques of Escherichia coli (an importantindicator for faecal pollution in aquatic environ-ments) can be undertaken for further research.

• Temperature has a significant impact on the growthpattern of micro-organisms. The correlation shouldbe established between the temperature variation,

biodegradation process and micro-organism growthcycles through the PPS.

• Different media mixtures can be installed and theacceleration of the bio-retention process can beinvestigated.

• The performance of filter media into sumps incorpo-rated at the bottom of the PPS can be investigated.

• Although some studies have been carried out on theprocess of attenuation of phosphorus from stormwa-ter through PPS, extensive research should be con-ducted to explain the leaching and removal mecha-nism of phosphorus.

8. ConclusionsThe following important conclusions can be drawn from thereview of the function of PPS:

• PPS play a vital role in reducing contaminants frominfiltrating stormwater runoff and provide great facil-ities for storage and the reuse of stormwater as wellas in preserving the hydrologic function of a site.Moreover, PPS can be applied to reduce the increasedpressure on groundwater extraction.

• SUDS, such as permeable pavement technology, isa green approach to collecting, storing, treating andreusing stormwater from residential, industrial andcommercial areas.

• Asphaltic pervious pavement is very efficient atremoving organic carbon and metal from stormwater,but less effective in reducing nitrogen and ammonia.

• Geotextile membranes demonstrated mechanical fil-tration and microbial action to reduce pollutants,and were especially effective in retaining phosphates,nitrates and ammonia from infiltrate stormwater.

• PPS act as a sustainable drainage system, and canassist in countering flash flooding and water scarcityproblems.

• GSHP are very effective, environmentally friendlyand provide significant sustainable energy savingsfor cooling and heating system operations, and canbe installed with the PPS. The simultaneous use ofGSHP and PPS is a new research area in recent years.

• Heating and cooling systems operation or GSHP didnot show any adverse effect on water quality andmicrobial activities through the PPS.

AcknowledgementsFinancial support by the University of Malaya (UM), KulaLumpur, Malaysia under the UMRG research grant number RG170/12 SUS is gratefully acknowledged.

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