PUB DATE 93 NOTE 29p.; - ERIC · characters of the bilingual child develop simultaneously....
15
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 387 283 RC 020 228 AUTHOR Garcia, Eugene E. TITLE Bilingualism, Second Language Acquisition, and the Education of Chicano Language Minority Students. Chapter 4. PUB DATE 93 NOTE 29p.; In: Chicano School Failure and Success: Research and Policy Agendas for the 1990s; see RC 020 224. PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Bilingual Education Programs; *Bilingualism; Bilingual Students; Cognitive Processes; Educational Legislation; Educational Policy; Educational Practices; Educational Theories; Elementary Secondary Education; English (Second Language); Language Acquisition; *Language Research; *Mexican American Education; Mexican Americans; *Second Language Learning; Social Influences; *Spanish Speaking IDENTIFIERS *Chicanos; Hispanic American Students; 'Language Minorities ABSTRACT This chapter addresses the theoretical and empirical knowledge bases related to bilingualism and second language acquisition in Chicano children. Research concerning bilingual acquisition has found that the linguistic, cognitive, and social characters of the bilingual child develop simultaneously. Furthermore, all three areas of development are interrelated and directly influence the acquisition of linguistic and cognitive repertoires. Research indicates that second language acquisition is influenced by native language linguistic structures and rules of discourse, may be influenced by the motivation to learn a second language, and is related to various social factors. Educational programs serving language minority students can be differentiated by the way they utilize the native language and English during instruction. For example, a survey of 333 school districts serving over 80 percent of language minority students revealed that the use of English predominated in 93 percent of programs, both the native language and English were utilized during instruction in 60 percent. and 30 percent reported minimal or no use of the native language during instruction. The remainder of this chapter overviews federal and state legislative initiatives related to the education of language minority students, and policy and practice implications education. Contains 98 references. (LP) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are lhe best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** for
Transcript of PUB DATE 93 NOTE 29p.; - ERIC · characters of the bilingual child develop simultaneously....
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 387 283 RC 020 228
AUTHOR Garcia, Eugene E.TITLE Bilingualism, Second Language Acquisition, and the
Education of Chicano Language Minority Students.Chapter 4.
PUB DATE 93
NOTE 29p.; In: Chicano School Failure and Success:Research and Policy Agendas for the 1990s; see RC 020224.
PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Bilingual Education Programs; *Bilingualism;
Bilingual Students; Cognitive Processes; EducationalLegislation; Educational Policy; EducationalPractices; Educational Theories; Elementary SecondaryEducation; English (Second Language); LanguageAcquisition; *Language Research; *Mexican AmericanEducation; Mexican Americans; *Second LanguageLearning; Social Influences; *Spanish Speaking
IDENTIFIERS *Chicanos; Hispanic American Students; 'LanguageMinorities
ABSTRACTThis chapter addresses the theoretical and empirical
knowledge bases related to bilingualism and second languageacquisition in Chicano children. Research concerning bilingualacquisition has found that the linguistic, cognitive, and socialcharacters of the bilingual child develop simultaneously.Furthermore, all three areas of development are interrelated anddirectly influence the acquisition of linguistic and cognitiverepertoires. Research indicates that second language acquisition isinfluenced by native language linguistic structures and rules ofdiscourse, may be influenced by the motivation to learn a secondlanguage, and is related to various social factors. Educationalprograms serving language minority students can be differentiated bythe way they utilize the native language and English duringinstruction. For example, a survey of 333 school districts servingover 80 percent of language minority students revealed that the useof English predominated in 93 percent of programs, both the nativelanguage and English were utilized during instruction in 60 percent.and 30 percent reported minimal or no use of the native languageduring instruction. The remainder of this chapter overviews federaland state legislative initiatives related to the education oflanguage minority students, and policy and practice implicationseducation. Contains 98 references. (LP)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are lhe best that can be madefrom the original document.
***********************************************************************
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lIT
I P1
RIG
,
Cha
pter
4
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
eA
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd th
e E
duca
tion
ofC
hica
no L
angu
age
Min
ority
Stud
ents
Eug
ene
E. G
arci
a
Our
und
erst
andi
ng o
f la
ngua
ge c
ontin
ues
to e
xpan
d in
its
utili
zatio
n of
div
erse
theo
ries
of
lingu
istic
s, c
ogni
tion,
and
soc
ializ
atio
n(A
ugus
t and
Gar
cia,
198
8).
Wha
t was
onc
e co
nsid
ered
the
stud
y of
hab
itsan
d st
ruct
ure
(Cho
insk
y, 1
959;
Skin
ner,
195
7), h
as b
ecom
e to
day
an in
terl
ocki
ng s
tudy
of
lingu
istic
, psy
chol
-og
ical
, and
soc
ial d
omai
ns, e
ach
inde
pend
ently
sign
ific
ant,
but c
onve
rgin
g in
a si
ngle
atte
mpt
to r
econ
stru
ct th
e na
ture
of
lang
uage
. It i
s th
ism
ultif
acet
edph
enom
enon
whi
ch c
onfr
onts
an e
duca
tor
whe
n ad
dres
sing
the
educ
atio
nal
appr
opri
atio
n of
kno
wle
dge
in c
lass
room
s. F
or th
e ed
ucat
orof
Chi
cano
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
s as
a c
onst
ituen
cy, t
he is
sue
ofla
ngua
ge b
ecom
es p
artic
ular
lyim
port
ant.
With
in th
e la
st f
ew y
ears
, res
earc
h in
lang
uage
acqu
isiti
on h
as s
hift
ed f
rom
the
stud
y of
one
lang
uage
(B
row
n, 1
973;
Gon
zale
z,19
70)
to th
e co
mpa
rativ
est
udy
of c
hild
ren
from
div
erse
ling
uist
ic s
ocie
ties
(Bow
erm
an, 1
975;
Bra
ine,
1976
) an
d to
the
stud
y of
chi
ldre
n ac
quir
ing
mor
e th
an o
ne la
ngua
ge (
Gar
cia,
1983
; Hak
uta,
198
6; H
akut
a an
d G
arci
a, 1
989;
Kra
shen
, 198
4; M
cLau
ghlin
,19
84).
The
fol
low
ing
disc
ussi
on in
trod
uces
the
theo
retic
alan
d em
piri
cal k
now
-le
dge
base
s re
late
d to
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
bili
ngua
lism
and
seco
nd la
ngua
geac
quis
ition
in C
hica
no c
hild
ren.
In
doin
gso
, bili
ngua
l and
sec
ond
lang
uage
acqu
isiti
on w
ill b
e ad
dres
sed
as th
ey r
elat
eto
ling
uist
ic, c
ogni
tive
and
soci
alre
sear
ch a
nd th
eory
whi
ch h
as d
evel
oped
over
the
last
two
deca
des.
Suc
h co
n-tr
ibut
ions
hav
e re
shap
ed in
a d
ram
atic
way
our
vie
w o
f bi
lingu
alis
m. F
or a
t the
turn
of
the
cent
ury,
bili
ngua
lism
in c
hild
ren
was
con
side
red
a lin
guis
tic, c
ogni
-tiv
e, a
nd a
cade
mic
liab
ility
(H
akut
a, 1
986)
. Tod
ay's
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
bili
ngua
l-is
m in
dica
tes
that
bili
ngua
lism
isno
t a li
ngui
stic
liab
ility
and
may
eve
n se
rve
as a
cogn
itive
adv
anta
ge.
The
sch
oolin
g in
itiat
ives
targ
eted
at C
hica
no s
tude
nts
have
at t
imes
bee
nsy
nony
mou
s w
ith th
e sc
hool
ing
ende
avor
aim
ed a
t im
mig
rant
stud
ents
. As
Gon
zale
z (1
990)
has
doc
umen
ted,
Chi
cano
chi
ldre
nar
e us
ually
per
ceiv
ed a
s th
c'fo
reig
ners
', 'in
trud
ers'
, and
'im
mig
rant
s' w
ho s
peak
a di
ffer
ent l
angu
age
and
hold
val
ues
sign
ific
antly
dif
fere
nt f
rom
the
Am
eric
anm
ains
trea
m. T
his
pers
pec-
tive
has
led
polic
y m
aker
s (i
nclu
ding
the
US
Supr
eme
Cou
rt)
to h
ighl
ight
BE
ST C
OP
AV
AIL
AB
LE
3
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ure'
ess
the
mos
t sal
ient
cha
ract
eris
tic o
f th
e st
uden
t, th
e la
ngua
ge d
iffe
renc
e, in
thei
rat
tem
pts
to a
ddre
ss th
e hi
stor
ical
aca
dem
ic lo
w a
chie
vem
ent o
f th
ispo
pula
tion.
Thi
s ch
apte
r w
ill in
clud
e an
exp
ande
d di
scus
sion
of
this
issu
e w
hich
bri
ngs
toge
ther
res
earc
h, th
eory
, edu
catio
nal p
ract
ice
and
educ
atio
nal p
olic
y of
sig
ni-
fica
nce
to C
hica
no s
tude
nts.
Bili
ngua
l Acq
uisi
tion
Rel
ativ
e to
nat
ive
mon
olin
gual
acq
uisi
tion
rese
arch
, litt
le s
yste
mat
ic in
vest
igat
ion
has
been
ava
ilabl
e re
gard
ing
child
ren
who
are
acq
uiri
ng m
ore
than
one
lang
uage
,si
mul
tane
ousl
y, d
urin
g th
e ea
rly
part
of
thei
r liv
es. R
ecen
t wor
k in
this
are
aho
wev
er, h
as c
ente
red
sepa
rate
ly o
n th
e lin
guis
tic (
Gar
cia
and
Gon
zale
z, 1
984)
,co
gniti
ve (
Cum
min
s, 1
979)
, and
soc
ial/c
omm
unic
ativ
e as
pect
s (D
uran
, 198
1)of
the
bilin
gual
. Tha
t is,
res
earc
h w
ith y
oung
bili
ngua
l pop
ulat
ions
has
con
cent
rate
din
depe
nden
tly o
n th
ree
area
s: (
a) th
e de
velo
pmen
tal n
atur
e of
pho
nolo
gy, m
or-
phol
ogy
and
synt
ax; (
b) P
iage
tian
and
rela
ted
cogn
itive
attr
ibut
es o
fbi
lingu
alst
uden
ts; a
nd (
c) th
e so
cial
/dis
cour
se c
hara
cter
istic
s of
bili
ngua
l dev
elop
men
t.T
his
sect
ion
revi
ews
rese
arch
in th
ese,
are
as w
ith a
n at
tem
pt a
t hig
hlig
htin
gsi
mila
r an
d di
spar
ate
theo
retic
al c
once
ptua
lizat
ions
and
em
piri
cal
find
ings
gen
er-
ated
by
thes
e re
sear
ch e
ndea
vors
. The
se c
once
ptua
lizat
ions
are
impo
rtan
tin
addr
essi
ng th
e co
mpl
exiti
es s
o ne
cess
ary
in u
nder
stan
ding
Chi
cano
lang
uage
min
ority
chi
ldre
n.
It r
emai
ns d
iffi
cult
to d
efin
e an
y te
rm to
the
satis
fact
ion
of th
e th
eore
ticia
n,re
sear
cher
and
edu
cato
r. T
he te
rm b
iling
ualis
m h
ere
sugg
ests
the
acqu
isiti
onof
two
lang
uage
s du
ring
the
firs
t 3 to
7 y
ears
of
';-'h
is d
efin
ition
incl
udes
the
follo
win
g co
nditi
ons:
1C
hild
ren
are
able
I.
com
preh
end
and
prod
uce
aspe
cts
(lex
icon
, mor
phol
ogy,
and
synt
ax)
of e
ach
lang
uage
.2
Chi
ldre
nfir
m-li
on 'n
atur
ally
' in
the
two
lang
uage
sas
they
are
use
d in
the
form
of
soci
al in
tera
ctio
n. T
his
cond
ition
req
uire
s a
subs
tant
ive
bilin
gual
envi
ronm
ent i
n th
e ch
ild's
fir
st 3
to 7
yea
rs o
f lif
e.1.
n m
any
case
s th
isex
posu
reco
mes
from
with
in a
nuc
lear
and
ext
enck
d fa
mily
net
wor
k bu
tth
is n
eed
not b
e th
e ca
se (
visi
tors
and
ext
ende
d vi
sits
to f
orei
gn c
ount
ries
are
exam
ples
of
alte
rnat
ive
envi
ronm
ents
).T
heu,
nulta
neoi
o ch
arac
ter
of d
evel
opm
ent
mus
t he
appa
rent
in b
oth
lan-
guag
es. '
I hi
s is
con
tras
ted
with
the
case
inw
hich
a n
ativ
e sp
eake
r of
one
lang
uage
, who
aft
er m
aste
ring
that
one
lang
uage
, beg
ins
on a
cou
rse
ofse
cond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion.
Itis
the
prec
edin
g co
mbn
ied
wnd
ition
sw
hich
def
ine
the
pres
ent b
iling
ual
popu
latio
n of
inte
rest
. It i
s cl
ear
from
this
def
initi
on th
at a
n at
tem
pt is
mad
e to
incl
ude
both
the
child
's li
ngui
stic
abi
litie
s in
con
junc
tion
with
the
soci
al e
nvir
on-
944
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lang
uage
Acq
uisi
tion,
and
Edu
catio
n
mer
it du
ring
an
impo
rtan
t psy
chol
ogic
al 's
egm
ent'
of li
fe (
Aug
ust a
nd G
arci
a,19
88).
Ling
uist
ic D
evel
opm
ent
It d
oes
seem
cle
ar th
at a
chi
ld c
an le
arn
mor
e th
an o
ne li
ngui
stic
for
m f
orco
mm
unic
ativ
e pu
rpos
es in
man
y so
ciet
ies
thro
ugho
ut th
e w
orld
. Sor
enso
ti(1
967)
des
crib
es th
e ac
quis
ition
of
thre
e to
fou
r la
ngua
ges
by y
oung
chi
ldre
n w
holiv
e in
the
Nor
thw
est A
maz
on r
egio
n of
Sou
th A
mer
ica.
In
this
Bra
zilia
n-C
olom
bian
bor
der
regi
on, t
he T
ukan
o tr
ibal
lang
uage
ser
ves
as th
e lin
gua
fran
ca,
but t
here
con
tinue
to e
xist
som
e tw
enty
-fiv
e cl
earl
y di
stin
guis
habl
e lin
guis
ticgr
oups
. Eur
opea
n co
lleag
ues
Skut
nab-
Kan
gas
(197
9) a
nd B
aete
ns B
eard
smor
e(1
982)
hav
e pr
ovid
ed e
xpan
ded
disc
ussi
ons
rega
rdin
g th
e in
tern
atio
nal p
rolif
era-
tion
of m
ultil
ingu
alis
m. I
n th
e U
nite
d St
ates
, Skr
aban
ek (
1970
), W
aggo
ner
(198
4)an
d H
akut
a (1
986)
rep
ort '
that
sch
ool-
age
Chi
cano
chi
ldre
n in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esco
ntin
ue to
be
bilin
gual
with
no
indi
catio
n th
at th
is p
heno
men
on w
ill b
e di
s-ru
pted
. By
the
year
200
0 th
e nu
mbe
r of
lim
ited-
Eng
lish-
spea
king
Chi
cano
scho
ol-a
ge c
hild
ren
in th
e U
S is
est
imat
ed to
dou
ble.
One
of
the
firs
t sys
tem
atic
ling
uist
ic in
vest
igat
ions
of
bilin
gual
ism
in y
oung
child
ren
was
rep
orte
d by
Leo
pold
(19
39, 1
947,
I94
9a, 1
949b
). T
his
auth
or s
et o
utto
stu
dy th
e si
mul
tane
ous
acqu
isiti
on o
f E
nglis
h an
d G
erm
an in
his
ow
n da
ugh-
ter.
The
se in
itial
des
crip
tive
repo
rts
indi
cate
that
as
the
subj
ect w
as e
xpos
ed to
both
lang
uage
s du
ring
infa
ncy,
she
see
med
to w
eld
both
lang
uage
s in
to o
nesy
stem
dur
ing
initi
al la
ngua
ge p
rodu
ctio
n pe
riod
s. F
or in
stan
ce, e
arly
lang
uage
form
s w
ere
char
acte
rize
d by
fre
e m
ixin
g. L
angu
age
prod
uctio
n du
ring
late
rpe
riod
s se
em to
indi
cate
that
the
use
of E
nglis
h an
d G
erm
an g
ram
mat
ical
for
ms
deve
lope
d in
depe
nden
tly.
With
res
pect
to b
iling
ual d
evel
opm
ent i
n C
hica
no c
hild
ren,
Pad
illa
and
Lie
bman
(19
75)
repo
rt a
long
itudi
nal l
ingu
istic
ana
lysi
s of
Spa
nish
-Eng
lish
ac-
quis
ition
in tw
o 3-
year
-old
chi
ldre
n. T
hese
res
earc
hers
fol
low
ed th
e m
odel
of
Bro
wn
(197
3) in
rec
ordi
ng li
ngui
stic
inte
ract
ions
of
child
ren
over
a f
ive-
mon
thpe
riod
. By
an a
naly
sis
of s
ever
al d
epen
dent
ling
uist
ic v
aria
bles
(ph
onol
ogic
al,
mor
phol
ogic
al, a
nd s
ynta
ctic
cha
ract
eris
tics)
ove
r th
is ti
me
peri
od, t
hey
obse
rved
gain
s in
bot
h la
ngua
ges,
alth
ough
sev
eral
Eng
lish
form
s w
ere
in e
vide
nce
whi
lesi
mila
r Sp
anis
h fo
rms
wer
e no
t. T
hey
also
rep
ort t
he d
iffe
rent
iatio
n of
ling
uist
icsy
stem
s at
pho
nolo
gica
l, le
xica
l and
syn
tact
ic le
vels
. Pad
illa
and
Lie
bman
(19
75)
conc
lude
:
the
appr
opri
ate
use
of b
oth
lang
uage
s in
mix
ed u
ttera
nces
was
evi
dent
;th
at is
, cor
rect
wor
d or
der
was
pre
serv
ed. F
or e
xam
ple,
ther
e w
ere
nooc
curr
ence
s of
'rai
ning
est
a' o
r 'a
es
baby
', no
r w
as th
ere
evid
ence
for
such
utte
ranc
es a
s 'e
sta
rain
ing'
and
'es
a ba
by.'
The
re w
as a
lso
anab
senc
e of
the
redu
ndan
ce o
f un
nece
ssar
y w
ords
whi
ch m
ight
tend
toco
nfus
e m
eani
ng.
Gar
cia
(198
3) r
epor
ts d
evel
opm
enta
l dat
a re
late
d to
the
acqu
isiti
on o
f Sp
an-
ish
and
Eng
lish
for
Chi
cano
pre
scho
oler
s (3
-4 y
ears
old
) an
d th
e ac
quis
ition
of
95
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
Eng
lish
for
a gr
oup
of m
atch
ed E
nglis
h-on
ly s
peak
ers.
The
res
ults
of
that
stu
dyca
n be
sum
mar
ized
as
follo
ws:
(a)
acq
uisi
tion
ofbo
th S
pani
sh a
nd E
nglis
h w
asev
iden
t at c
ompl
ex m
orph
olog
ical
leve
ls f
or S
pani
sh/E
nghs
h 4-
year
-old
chi
ldre
n;(b
) fo
r th
e bi
lingu
al c
hild
ren
stud
ied,
Eng
lish
was
mor
e ad
vanc
ed b
ased
on
the
quan
tity
and
qual
ity o
f ob
tain
ed m
orph
olog
ical
inst
ance
s of
lang
uage
pro
duc-
tions
; and
(c)
ther
e w
as n
o qu
antit
ativ
e or
qua
litat
ive
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
Span
ish/
Eng
lish
bilin
gual
chi
ldre
n an
d m
atch
ed E
nglis
h-on
ly c
ontr
ols
on E
nglis
h la
n-gu
age
mor
phol
ogic
al p
rodu
ctio
ns.
Hue
rta
(197
7) c
ondu
cted
a lo
ngitu
dina
l ana
lysi
s of
a S
pani
sh/E
nglis
hC
hica
no 2
-yea
r-ol
d ch
ild. S
he r
epor
ts a
sim
ilar
patte
rn o
f co
ntin
uous
Spa
nish
/E
nglis
h de
velo
pmen
t, al
thou
gh id
entif
iabl
e st
ages
app
eare
d in
whi
ch o
ne la
n-gu
age
forg
ed a
head
of
the
othe
r. M
oreo
ver,
she
rep
orts
the
sign
ific
ant o
ccur
renc
eof
mix
ed la
ngua
ge u
ttera
nce
whi
ch m
ade
use
of b
oth
Span
ish
and
Eng
lish
voca
bula
ry a
s w
ell a
s Sp
anis
h an
d E
nglis
h m
orph
olog
y. I
n al
l suc
h ca
ses,
thes
em
ixed
ling
uist
ic u
ttera
nces
wer
e w
ell f
orm
ed a
nd c
omm
unic
ativ
e.G
arci
a, M
aez
and
Gon
zale
z (1
979)
in a
stu
dy o
f C
hica
no b
iling
ual c
hild
ren
4, 5
and
6 N
;ear
s of
age
, fou
nd r
egio
nal d
iffe
renc
es in
the
rela
tive
occu
rren
ce o
fsw
itche
d la
ngua
ge u
ttera
nces
Tha
t is,
bili
ngua
l Spa
nish
/Eng
lish
child
ren
from
Tex
as. A
rizo
na, C
olor
ado
and
New
Mex
ico,
sho
wed
hig
her
(15-
20 p
er c
ent)
inci
denc
es o
f la
ngua
ge s
witc
hed
utte
ranc
es th
an c
hild
ren
from
Cal
ifor
nia
orIl
linoi
s, e
spec
ially
at p
re-k
inde
rgar
ten
leve
ls. T
hese
fin
ding
s su
gges
t tha
t som
ech
ildre
n m
ay v
ery
wel
l dev
elop
an
'inte
rlan
guag
e' in
add
ition
to th
e ac
quis
ition
of tw
o in
depe
nden
t lan
guag
e sy
stem
s la
ter
in d
evel
opm
ent.
The
abo
ve 'd
evel
opm
enta
l' lin
guis
tic f
indi
ngs
can
be s
umm
ariz
ed a
s fo
llow
sfo
r C
hica
no b
iling
ual:
1T
he a
cqui
siuo
n of
two
lang
uage
s ca
n be
par
alle
l, bu
t, ne
ed n
ot b
e. T
hat
is, t
he q
uaht
ativ
e ch
arac
ter
of o
ne la
ngua
ge m
ayla
g be
hind
, sur
ge a
head
,or
dev
elop
equ
ally
with
the
othe
r la
ngua
ge (
Hue
rta,
1977
; Pad
illa
and
Lie
bman
, 197
5).
2T
he a
cqui
sitio
n of
two
lang
uage
s m
ay v
ery
wel
l res
ult i
n an
inte
rlan
-gu
age,
inco
rpor
atin
g th
e at
trib
utes
(le
xico
n,m
orph
olog
y an
d sy
ntax
) of
both
lang
uage
s. B
ut, t
his
need
not
be
the
ease
. Lan
guag
es m
ay d
evel
opin
depe
nden
tly (
Hue
rta,
197
7; G
arci
a, M
aez
and
Gon
zale
z 19
79).
3T
he a
cqui
sitio
n of
two
lang
uage
s ne
ed n
ot h
ampe
r, s
truc
tura
lly, t
heac
quis
ition
of
eith
er la
ngua
ge (
Gar
cia,
198
3; H
akut
a, 1
986)
,
inte
lh.tz
eme,
Cop
ittio
n to
ld B
ihng
ualts
m
A s
epar
ate
but s
igni
fica
nt r
esea
rch
appr
oach
to th
e un
ders
tand
ing
of b
iling
ualis
m.m
d its
ci f
ects
has
tOcu
sed
on th
e co
gniti
ve (
inte
llect
ual)
cha
ract
er o
f th
e bi
lingu
al.
Bas
ed o
n co
rrel
atio
nal s
tudi
es in
dica
ting
a ne
gativ
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n ch
ild-
hood
bili
ngua
lism
and
per
form
ance
on
stan
dard
ized
test
s of
inte
llige
nce,
a c
ausa
lst
atem
ent l
inki
ng b
iling
ualis
m to
'dep
ress
ed' i
ntel
ligen
ce w
aste
mpt
ing
and
this
ner
inve
con
clus
ion
char
acte
rize
d m
uch
earl
y w
ork
(Dar
cy, 1
953)
. Due
to th
em
yria
d of
met
hodo
logi
cal p
robl
ems
of s
tudi
es in
vest
igat
ing
this
type
of
rela
-tio
nshi
p, a
ny c
oncl
usio
ns c
once
rnin
g bi
lingu
alis
m a
nd in
telle
ctua
l fun
ctio
ning
(as
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
mea
sure
d by
sta
ndar
dize
d in
divi
dual
or
grou
p in
telli
genc
e te
sts)
are
ext
rem
ely
tent
ativ
e in
nat
ure
(Dar
cy, 1
963;
Dia
z, 1
983)
.W
ith th
e ge
nera
l shi
ft a
way
fro
m u
tiliz
ing
stan
dard
ized
mea
sure
s of
inte
lli-
genc
e w
ith s
choo
l-ag
e po
pula
tions
of
non-
Eng
lish
back
grou
nds,
the
cogn
itive
char
acte
r of
bili
ngua
l chi
ldre
n ha
s re
ceiv
ed a
ttent
ion.
Leo
pold
(19
39)
in o
ne o
f th
efi
rst i
nves
tigat
ions
of
bilin
gual
acq
uisi
tion
repo
rted
a g
ener
al c
ogni
tive
plas
ticity
for
his
youn
g bi
lingu
al d
augh
ter.
He
sugg
este
d th
at li
ngui
stic
fle
xibi
lity
(in
the
form
of
bilin
gual
ism
) w
as r
elat
ed to
a n
umbe
r of
non
-lin
guis
tic, c
ogni
tive
task
ssu
ch a
s ca
tego
riza
tion,
ver
bal s
igna
l dis
crim
inat
ion,
and
cre
ativ
ity. P
eal a
ndL
ambe
rt (
1962
) in
a s
umm
ariz
atio
n of
thei
r w
ork
with
Fre
nch/
Eng
lish
bilin
gual
and
Eng
lish
mon
olin
gual
s su
gges
ted
that
the
inte
llect
ual e
xper
ienc
e of
acq
uiri
ngtw
o la
ngua
ges
cont
ribu
ted
to a
dvan
tage
ous
men
tal f
lexi
bilit
y, s
uper
ior
conc
ept
form
atio
n, a
nd a
gen
eral
ly d
iver
sifi
ed s
et o
f m
enta
l abi
litie
s.Fe
ldm
an a
nd S
hen
(197
1), l
anco
-Wor
all (
1972
), C
arri
nger
(19
74),
and
Cum
-m
ins
and
Gul
atsa
n (1
975)
pro
vide
rel
evan
t evi
denc
e re
gard
ing
such
fle
xibi
lity.
Feld
man
and
She
n (1
971)
repo
rt d
iffe
rent
ial r
espo
ndin
g be
twee
n C
hica
noSp
anis
h/E
nglis
h bi
lingu
al a
nd E
nglis
h m
onol
ingu
als
acro
ss th
ree
sepa
rate
task
sre
flec
ting
Piag
etia
n-lik
e pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng a
nd m
etal
ingu
istic
aw
aren
ess.
Res
ults
indi
cate
d si
gnif
ican
tly in
crea
sed
cogn
itive
fle
xibi
lity
for
Chi
cano
bili
ngua
ls.
lanc
o-W
orra
l (19
72)
com
pare
d m
atch
ed b
iling
ual (
Afr
ikaa
ns/E
nglis
h) a
nd m
ono-
lingu
al (
eith
er A
frik
aans
or
Eng
lish)
on
met
alin
guis
tic ta
sks
requ
irin
g se
para
tion
of w
ord
soun
ds a
nd w
ord
mea
ning
s. C
ompa
riso
n of
sco
rcs
on th
ese
task
sin
dica
ted
that
bili
ngua
ls c
once
ntra
ted
mor
e on
atta
chin
g m
eani
ng to
wor
ds r
athe
rth
an s
ound
s. B
en-Z
eev'
s (1
977)
wor
k w
ith H
cbre
w-E
nglis
h bi
lingu
al c
hild
ren
isal
so r
elat
ed to
the
met
alin
guis
tic a
bilit
ies
of th
ese
child
ren.
Sub
ject
s in
thes
cst
udie
s sh
owcd
sup
erio
rity
in s
ymbo
l sub
stitu
tion
and
verb
al tr
ansf
orm
atio
nal
task
s. B
en-Z
eev
sum
mar
izes
: 'T
wo
stra
tegi
es c
hara
cter
ized
by
thin
king
pat
term
of th
e bi
lingu
al in
rel
atio
n to
ver
bal m
ater
ial:
read
ines
s to
impu
te s
truc
ture
and
read
ines
s to
reo
rgan
ize'
(p.
101
7).
Rec
ent r
esea
rch
spec
ific
ally
with
Chi
cano
bili
ngua
ls (
Kes
sler
and
Qui
nr19
86, 1
987)
sup
plie
s ad
ditio
nal e
mpi
rica
l sup
port
for
the
emer
ging
und
erst
andi
ngth
at b
iling
ual c
hild
ren
outp
erfo
rm m
onol
ingu
al c
hild
ren
on s
peci
fic
mea
sure
s 01
cogn
itive
and
met
alin
guis
tic a
war
enes
s. K
essl
er a
nd Q
uinn
(19
87)
had
bilin
gui
and
mon
olin
gual
chi
ldre
n en
gage
in a
var
iety
of
sym
bolic
cat
egor
izat
ion
task
sw
hich
req
uire
d th
eir
atte
ntio
n to
abs
trac
t ver
bal f
eatu
res
of c
oncr
ete
obje
cts
Span
ish/
Eng
lish.
Chi
cano
bili
ngua
ls f
rom
low
soc
ioec
onom
ic s
tatu
s (S
ES)
bac
k.gr
ound
s ou
tper
form
ed lo
w S
ES
Eng
lish
nion
olin
gual
s an
d hi
gh S
ES
Eng
lisi
mon
olin
gual
s on
thes
e ta
sks.
Suc
h fi
ndin
gs a
re p
artic
ular
ly s
igni
fica
nt g
iven
du
criti
cism
by
McN
ab (
1979
) th
at m
any
bilin
gual
'cog
nitiv
e ad
vant
age'
stu
die,
utili
zed
only
hig
h SE
S su
bjec
ts o
f no
n-U
S m
inor
ity b
ackg
roun
ds. I
t is
impo
rtan
lto
not
e th
at f
indi
ngs
of m
etal
ingu
istic
adv
anta
ges
have
bee
n re
port
ed f
or lo
w S
OPu
erto
Ric
an s
tude
nts
as w
ell (
Gal
ambo
s an
d H
akut
a, 1
988)
.T
heor
etic
al a
ttem
pts
linki
ngbi
lingu
alis
mto
cogn
itive
attr
ibut
esha
vtem
erge
d. I
n an
atte
mpt
to id
entif
y m
ore
spec
ific
ally
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
eei
cogn
ition
and
bili
ngua
lism
, Cum
min
s (1
979,
198
1, 1
984)
has
pro
pose
d an
inte
r .
activ
e th
eore
tical
pro
posi
tion:
chi
ldre
n w
ho d
o no
t ach
ieve
bal
ance
d pr
ofic
ienc
in tw
o la
ngua
ges
(but
who
arc
imm
erse
d in
a b
iling
ual e
nvir
onm
ent)
may
b(
cogn
itive
ly 'd
iffe
rent
' and
pos
sibl
y 'd
isad
vant
aged
'.
9;
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
Any
det
aile
d co
nclu
sion
s co
ncer
ning
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
the
bilin
gual
char
acte
r of
chi
ldre
n an
d th
eir
cogn
itive
fun
ctio
ning
mus
t con
tinue
to r
emai
nte
ntat
ive
(Dia
z, 1
983)
. How
ever
, it i
s th
e ca
se th
at:
Bili
ngua
l chi
ldre
n ha
ve b
een
foun
d to
sco
re lo
wer
than
mon
olin
gual
child
ren
on s
tand
ardi
zed
mea
sure
s of
cog
nitiv
e de
velo
pmen
t, in
telli
genc
ean
d sc
hool
ach
ieve
men
t.B
iling
ual c
hild
ren
have
bee
n fo
und
to s
core
hig
her
than
'mat
ched
' mon
o-lin
gual
s on
spe
cifi
c Pi
aget
ian,
met
alin
guis
tic, c
once
pt-f
orm
atio
n an
dcr
eativ
e co
gniti
ve ta
sks.
3B
alan
ced'
bili
ngua
lch
ildre
n ha
ve o
utpe
rfor
med
mon
olin
gual
s an
d'u
nbal
ance
d' b
iling
uals
on
spec
ific
cog
nitiv
e an
d m
etal
ingu
istic
task
s.
S, c
ial (
.om
mun
uatiy
e A
spec
ts o
f B
iling
ualis
m
As
prev
ious
ly n
oted
, lan
guag
e is
a c
ritic
al s
ocia
l rep
erto
ire.
The
ling
uist
ic c
om-
pone
nt o
f an
y so
cial
inte
ract
ion
mos
t oft
en d
eter
min
es th
e ge
nera
l qua
lity
ofth
atin
tera
ctio
n (B
ates
,19
76; C
anal
e, 1
983;
Col
e, D
ore,
Hal
l and
Dow
lev,
197
8;H
allid
ay,
1975
; Hym
es, 1
974;
Ram
irez
, 198
5; S
hant
z,19
77).
In
doin
g so
.it
carr
ies
spec
ial i
mpo
rtan
ce f
or th
e bi
lingu
al c
hild
whe
re s
ocia
l tas
ksin
clud
e la
n-gu
age
choi
ce. M
oreo
ver,
like
oth
er c
hild
ren
who
acq
uire
the
abili
ty to
dif-
fere
ntia
lly e
mpl
oy li
ngui
stic
cod
es d
eter
min
ed b
y so
cial
attr
ibut
es o
f th
e sp
eaki
ngco
ntex
t (E
rvin
-Tri
pp a
nd M
itche
ll-K
erna
n, 1
977;
Phi
llips
, 197
2), b
iling
ual
chil-
dren
fac
e th
e ta
sk o
f m
ultip
le c
ode
diff
eren
tiatio
n. I
mpl
icit
in th
is d
iscu
ssio
n is
the
gene
ral n
otio
n th
at la
ngua
ges
mus
t not
onl
y be
mas
tere
d in
a s
truc
tura
l sen
sean
d op
erat
e in
con
junc
tion
with
cog
nitiv
e pr
oces
ses,
they
mus
t be
utili
zed
as a
soci
al in
stru
men
t. Fo
r C
hica
no c
hild
ren
this
mea
ns b
eing
com
mun
icat
ivel
y co
m-
pete
nt in
Spa
nish
and
Eng
lish
cultu
ral c
onte
xts.
The
stu
dy o
f la
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n in
con
text
is k
now
n as
pra
gmat
ics
(Bat
es,
1976
). T
his
appr
oach
dem
ands
that
we
thin
k of
the
cont
ext o
f co
mm
unic
atio
n as
invo
lvin
g in
form
atio
n ab
out t
he s
peak
er, t
he li
sten
er, t
h': s
peak
er's
goa
l in
usin
ga
part
icul
ar u
ttera
nce,
the
info
rmat
ion
assu
med
to b
e tr
ue in
apa
rtic
ular
spe
ech
onte
xtin
d th
e ru
les
gove
rnin
g di
scou
rse.
For
exa
mpl
e, in
con
side
ring
the
cont
rove
rsia
l rul
es f
or d
isco
urse
, thr
ee a
spec
ts o
f la
ngua
ge m
ay b
e co
nsid
ered
impo
rtan
t: (a
) ho
w th
e ch
ild e
stab
lishe
s a
topi
c; (
1))
mai
ntai
ns a
topi
c; o
r (c
)ha
nges
the
topi
c ac
ross
'tur
ns' i
n a
conv
ersa
tion.
Adu
lt sp
eake
rs a
re g
ener
ally
adep
t at i
ntro
dm in
g a
new
topi
c In
to a
con
vers
atio
n, b
y us
ing
such
con
vent
iona
lro
utin
es a
s'I
et m
e te
ll yo
u ab
out X
' or
'You
'll n
ever
gue
ss w
hat h
appe
ned
toda
y' o
rw
ant t
o ta
lk to
you
abo
ut Y
'. A
dults
can
als
o m
aint
ain
this
topi
c ac
ross
man
y tu
rns
in c
onve
rsat
ion,
eve
n w
hen
the
othe
r pe
rson
par
ticip
atin
gis
not
part
k ul
at ly
coo
pera
tive.
Int
eres
t in
thes
e so
cial
con
text
s ha
s ge
nera
ted
stud
ies
inC
hica
no b
iling
ual m
othe
r-ch
ild, t
each
er-c
hild
md
child
-chi
ld in
tera
ctio
n. G
arci
a(1
983)
rep
orts
an
inve
stig
atio
n of
mot
her-
child
inte
ract
ion
incl
udin
g th
e de
scri
p-no
n of
Spm
ish:
Eng
lish
use
bv c
hild
ren
and
adul
ts (
the
child
ren'
sm
othe
rs)
inth
ree
diff
eren
t con
text
s: (
a) p
resc
hool
inst
ruct
ion
peri
ods,
(b)
pre
scho
ol f
reep
lay
peno
dsin
d (c
) th
e ho
me.
The
se d
escr
iptio
ns p
oint
ed o
ut v
ery
cons
iste
ntly
that
child
ren,
in p
artic
ular
, wer
e 'c
hoos
ing'
to in
itiat
e an
inte
ract
ion
in e
ither
Spa
nish
or h
iglis
h as
a it
inct
ion
of th
e la
ngua
ge in
whi
ch th
e m
othe
r w
asus
ing
to in
itiat
e
9S
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
.
that
inte
ract
ion.
A c
lose
r qu
alita
tive
exam
inat
ion
of th
e sa
me
mot
h::..
rsan
d ch
il-dr
en in
tera
ctin
g is
rep
orte
d by
Gar
cia
and
Car
rasc
o (1
981)
. Thi
san
alys
is s
ug-
gest
ed th
at a
lmos
t 90
per
cent
of
mot
her-
child
inte
ract
ions
wer
ein
itiat
ed b
y th
em
othe
r, m
ost o
ften
in S
pani
sh. '
Tha
t is,
mot
hers
mos
t oft
endi
d no
t allo
wch
ildre
n to
initi
ate.
For
thos
e sm
all n
umbe
r of
inst
ance
s in
whi
chch
ildre
n di
din
itiat
e, th
e to
pic
dete
rmin
ed la
ngua
ge c
hoic
e. T
hat i
s, 'w
hat'
the
child
spo
keab
out w
as h
ighl
y co
rrel
ated
with
the
lang
uage
in w
hich
he/
she
chos
e to
spea
k.,
The
ric
hest
dat
a on
the
bilin
gual
chi
ldre
n de
alin
g w
ith to
pic
initi
atio
n co
mes
from
chi
ld-c
hild
inte
ract
ions
. Gin
ishi
(19
81)
inve
stig
ated
the
use
of S
pani
sh a
ndE
nglis
h am
ong
firs
t-gr
ader
s an
d co
nclu
ded
that
the
gene
ral l
angu
age
initi
atio
nru
le f
or th
ese
stud
ents
was
: 'Sp
eak
to th
e lis
tene
r in
his
/her
bes
t lan
guag
e'. H
eran
alys
is s
ugge
sts
that
chi
ldre
n w
hen
spea
king
with
oth
er c
hild
ren,
fir
st m
ade
ach
oice
reg
ardi
ng la
ngua
ge o
f in
itiat
ion
base
d on
thei
r pr
evio
us la
ngua
ge u
sehi
stor
y w
ith th
eir
fello
w s
tude
nts.
Zen
tella
(19
81)
agre
es th
at b
iling
ual
stud
ents
do m
ake
thes
e de
cisi
ons.
She
fou
nd, h
owev
er, a
noth
er d
isco
urse
rul
e op
erat
ing:
'You
can
spe
ak to
me
in e
ither
Eng
lish
or S
pani
sh'.
Alth
ough
Gen
ishi
's(1
981)
and
Zen
teila
's (
1981
) di
scou
rse
rule
s di
ffer
, eac
h ob
serv
atio
n su
gges
ts th
at b
iling
-ua
l stu
dent
s w
ill m
ake
use
of th
eir
soci
al a
nd la
ngua
ge u
se h
isto
ry to
con
stru
ctgu
idel
ines
rel
ated
to d
isco
urse
initi
atio
n. T
hese
stu
dies
sug
gest
that
par
ticul
arso
ciol
ingu
istic
env
iron
men
ts le
ad b
iling
ual s
tude
nts
to b
e aw
are
of la
ngua
gech
oice
issu
es r
elat
ed to
dis
cour
se in
itiat
ion.
A c
ompr
ehen
sive
und
erst
andi
ng o
f ea
rly
child
hood
bili
ngua
lism
mus
t,th
eref
ore,
take
into
con
side
ratio
n m
ore
than
the
lingu
istic
nat
ure
of th
e bi
lingu
alor
the
child
's c
ogni
tive
attr
ibut
es.
It m
ust c
onsi
der
the
child
's s
urro
undi
ngen
viro
nmen
t. R
ecen
t dat
a te
ntat
ivel
y su
gges
ts th
at s
ocia
l con
text
will
det
erm
ine:
1T
he s
peci
fic
soci
al la
ngua
ge r
ules
for
eac
h la
ngua
ge.
2T
he r
oles
ass
igne
d to
eac
h la
ngua
ge.
Sum
mar
y
The
ling
uist
ic, c
ogni
tive
and
soci
al d
omai
ns o
f th
e bi
lingu
al e
xper
ienc
e ha
ve b
een
dem
onst
rate
d as
indi
vidu
ally
impo
rtan
t in
unde
rsta
ndin
g th
e es
senc
e of
the
bilin
gual
chi
ld. B
ut, t
he in
tera
ctio
n of
thes
e w
ould
see
m to
mor
e cl
earl
y de
scri
beth
e on
goin
g de
velo
pmen
tal q
ualit
y of
bili
ngua
lism
. Thi
s in
tera
ctiv
e co
nclu
sion
sugg
ests
the
follo
win
g:
The
ling
uist
ic, c
ogni
tive
and
soci
al c
hara
cter
s of
the
bilin
gual
chi
ld a
rede
velo
ping
sim
ulta
neou
sly.
Lin
guis
tic, c
ogni
tive
and
soci
al d
evel
opm
ent a
re in
terr
elat
ed. T
hat i
s,co
gniti
ve p
roce
ssin
g fa
ctor
s m
ay a
ct to
infl
uenc
e lin
guis
tic a
nd s
ocia
lde
velo
pmen
t. L
ingu
istic
dev
elop
men
tth
e ab
ility
to o
pera
te w
ithin
the
stru
ctur
al a
spec
ts o
f la
ngua
ge(s
)m
ay a
ct to
infl
uenc
e so
cial
and
pot
en-
tial c
ogni
tive
func
tioni
ng. I
n tu
rn, t
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f so
cial
com
pete
nce
infl
uenc
es d
irec
tly th
e ac
quis
ition
of
lingu
istic
and
cog
nitiv
e re
pert
oire
s.
Thi
s in
tera
ctiv
e co
ncep
tual
izat
ion
is m
eant
to r
efle
ct th
e in
terr
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
lingu
istic
, cog
nitiv
e an
d so
cial
asp
ects
of
bilin
gual
dev
elop
men
t oft
en 99
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
mis
sing
in e
duca
tiona
l pro
gram
min
g fo
r th
is p
opul
atio
n. C
hang
es in
eac
h of
thes
e do
mai
ns m
ay b
e at
trib
uted
to c
hang
es in
oth
er d
omai
ns, a
nd in
turn
, may
furt
her
alte
r th
e qu
alita
tive
char
acte
r of
the
bilin
gual
.It
is r
ecen
t lin
guis
tic,
cogn
itive
and
soc
ial d
isco
urse
dat
a re
late
d to
bili
ngua
lism
that
has
tran
sfor
med
the
stud
y of
bili
ngua
lism
fro
m a
pur
ely
lingu
istic
fra
mew
ork
into
one
that
requ
ires
an
inte
grat
ive
conc
eptu
aliz
atio
n. T
his
inte
grat
ed r
esea
rch
whi
ch c
on-
side
rs a
s im
port
ant t
he li
ngui
stic
, cog
nitiv
e an
d so
cial
aspe
cts
of b
iling
ualis
mpr
omis
es a
grea
ter
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
this
phe
nom
enon
than
pre
viou
s no
n-in
tegr
ated
inve
stig
atio
ns.
Seco
nd L
angu
age
Acq
uisi
tion
McL
augh
lin (
1985
) tr
aces
the
repo
rted
sch
olar
ly in
tere
st in
sec
ond
lang
uage
acqu
isiti
on to
the
thir
d m
illen
nium
BC
whe
n Su
mer
ian
scho
lars
rec
eive
d th
e ta
skof
tran
slat
ing
thei
r A
rkad
ian
conq
uere
rs' l
angu
age
into
thei
r ow
n.E
gypt
ian
hist
oric
al r
ecor
ds in
dica
te th
at b
y 15
00 B
C m
ultil
ingu
al d
ictio
nari
es w
ere
avai
l-ab
le. A
ccor
ding
to M
cLau
ghlin
(19
85),
Egy
ptia
ns a
nd J
ews
rece
ived
edu
catio
nal
expe
rien
ces
in G
reek
, and
Jew
ish
scho
lars
dev
elop
ed th
e co
mpa
rativ
e st
udy
ofSe
miti
c an
d no
n-Se
miti
c la
ngua
ges,
the
scho
larl
y fo
unda
tion
for
mod
ern
com
-pa
rativ
e lin
guis
tics.
McL
augh
lin (
1985
) an
d R
icha
rds
and
Rod
gers
(19
86)
prov
ide
inci
sive
up-
date
d re
view
s of
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f th
eore
tical
and
inst
ruct
iona
l con
trib
utio
nsre
late
d to
sec
ond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion.
The
se a
utho
rsag
ree
that
sev
eral
them
esch
arac
teri
ze th
e hi
stor
ical
trea
tmen
t of
this
phe
nom
enon
with
resp
ect t
o m
inor
ityst
uden
ts a
nd C
hica
no s
tude
nts
in p
artic
ular
. The
se th
emes
incl
ude:
1A
n in
tere
st in
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
tirst
lang
uage
and
sec
ond
lan-
guag
e ac
quis
ition
and
inpu
t.A
n un
ders
tand
ing
that
the
indi
vidu
al a
nd s
ocia
l cir
cum
stan
ces
with
inw
hich
a s
econ
d la
ngua
ge is
acq
uire
d ca
n de
term
ine
the
cour
se o
f se
cond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion.
A c
once
rn f
or p
sych
olog
ical
icog
nitiv
epr
oces
ses
utili
zed
duri
ng s
econ
dla
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n
I he
fo;
low
ing
disc
ussi
on w
ill e
xplo
re th
ese
them
es in
rec
ent r
esea
rch
and
theo
retic
al l'
onte
\
II?
01IL
I..M
.:11.
1.0'
..1,
quis
mon
I ea
rner
s' e
n ot
s ha
ve b
een
onsi
dcre
d si
gnif
ican
t in
prov
ing
an u
nder
stan
ding
rega
rdin
g th
e st
rate
gies
and
pro
cess
es th
e le
arne
r is
em
ploy
ing
duri
ng s
econ
dla
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n ((
ord
er, 1
%7)
. Dul
ay a
nd B
urt (
1974
) st
udie
d th
e er
rors
inth
e na
tura
l spe
ec h
of
one
hund
red
and
seve
nty-
nine
5 to
8-y
ear-
olds
(in
clud
ing
a
sam
ple
of (
hic
ano
child
ren
in C
alif
orni
a) le
arni
ng E
nglis
h as
a s
econ
d la
ngua
ge.
I he
y cl
assi
fied
err
ors
as e
ither
rel
ated
to f
irst
lang
uage
('in
terf
eren
ce'
erro
rs)
orre
late
d to
nor
mal
lang
uage
dev
elop
men
t ('d
evel
opm
enta
r er
rors
). T
heir
anal
ysis
indi
c at
ed th
at 'i
nter
fere
nce'
acc
ount
ed f
or o
nly
4.7
per
cent
of
the
erro
rs w
hile
t)10
0
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
87.1
per
cen
t of
the
erro
rs w
ere
sim
ilar
to th
ose
mad
e by
chi
ldre
nle
arni
ngE
nglis
h as
a f
irst
lang
uage
. The
y po
stul
ated
that
a u
nive
rsal
'cre
ativ
e co
nstr
uctio
npr
oces
s' a
ccou
nts
for
seco
nd la
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n. T
hepr
oces
s w
as c
reat
ive
beca
use
nobo
dy h
ad m
odel
ed th
ety
pe o
f se
nten
ces
that
chi
ldre
n pr
oduc
e w
hen
acqu
irin
g a
seco
nd la
ngua
ge. F
urth
erm
ore,
they
sug
gest
ed th
at in
nate
mec
han-
ism
s ca
used
chi
ldre
n to
use
cer
tain
str
ateg
ies
to o
rgan
ize
lingu
istic
inpu
t. D
ulay
and
Bur
t did
not
cla
im th
at th
ey c
ould
def
ine
the
spec
ific
natu
re o
f th
e in
nate
mec
hani
sms.
The
y di
d cl
aim
, how
ever
, tha
t the
se m
echa
nism
s ha
ve c
erta
inde
fina
ble
char
acte
rist
ics
that
cau
se c
hild
ren
to u
se a
lim
ited
set o
fhy
poth
eses
tode
al w
ith th
e kn
owle
dge
they
are
acq
uiri
ng. T
he s
trat
egie
spa
ralle
l tho
se id
en-
tifie
d fo
r fi
rst l
angu
age
acqu
isiti
on.
Kra
shen
(19
81)
has
deve
lope
da
conc
eptu
aliz
atio
n of
sec
ond
lang
uage
acqu
isiti
on w
hich
con
side
rs a
s fu
ndam
enta
l thi
s in
nate
cre
ativ
e co
nstr
uctio
npr
o-ce
ss. H
is 'n
atur
al o
rder
' hyp
othe
sis
indi
cate
s th
at th
e ac
quis
ition
of
gram
mat
ical
stru
ctur
es b
y th
e se
cond
lang
uage
lear
ner
proc
eeds
in a
pre
dict
able
'nat
ural
'or
der,
inde
pend
ent o
f fi
rst l
angu
age
expe
rien
ces
and/
or p
rofi
cien
cy. S
uch
accu
isi-
tion
occu
rs u
ncon
scio
usly
with
out t
he le
arne
r's c
once
rn f
orre
cogn
izin
g or
util
iz-
ing
stru
ctur
al r
ules
. Thi
s 'm
onito
r' hy
poth
esis
sug
gest
s th
at c
onsc
ious
lear
ning
of
a se
cond
lang
uage
can
occ
ur w
hen
the
lear
ner
has
achi
eved
a s
igni
fica
nt k
now
-le
dge
of s
truc
tura
l rul
es a
nd h
as th
e tim
e to
app
ly th
ose
rule
s in
a s
econ
dla
ngua
ge le
arni
ng s
ituat
ion.
Kra
shen
, the
refo
re, e
xten
ds D
ulay
and
Bur
t's c
rea-
tive
cons
truc
tion
and
natu
ral o
rder
con
cept
ualiz
atio
ns b
yin
trod
ucin
g th
e no
tion
of th
e 'm
onito
r' hy
poth
esis
, lea
rnin
g a
seco
nd la
ngua
ge b
y fi
rst
unde
rsta
ndin
gth
e gr
amm
atic
al s
truc
ture
and
hav
ing
the
time
to a
pply
that
gram
mat
ical
kno
w-
ledg
e. H
e co
nclu
des,
how
ever
, tha
t con
scio
us le
arni
ng o
f a
seco
nd la
ngua
ge is
not a
s ef
fici
ent o
r fu
nctio
nal a
s th
e na
tura
l acq
uisi
tion
of a
sec
ond
lang
uage
.O
ther
res
earc
h ha
s do
cum
ente
d a
dist
inct
inte
rrel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n fi
rst a
ndse
cond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion.
Erv
in-T
ripp
(19
74)
cond
ucte
da
stud
y of
thir
ty-o
neE
nglis
h-sp
eaki
ng c
hild
ren
betw
een
the
ages
of
4 an
d 9
who
wer
e liv
ing
inG
enev
a an
d w
ere
atte
ndin
g Fr
ench
sch
ools
. She
fou
nd th
at th
eer
rors
thes
ech
ildre
n m
ade
in F
renc
h, th
eir
seco
nd la
ngua
ge, w
ere
a re
sult
of th
eir
appl
icat
ion
of th
c sa
me
stra
tegi
cs th
at th
ey h
ad u
sed
in a
cqui
ring
a fi
rst l
angu
age.
Suc
hst
rate
gies
as
over
-gen
eral
izat
ion,
pro
duct
ion
sim
plif
icat
ion,
and
loss
of
sent
ence
med
ial i
tem
s, a
ll pr
edic
ted
the
kind
s of
err
ors
that
appe
ared
. In
over
-gen
eral
-iz
atio
n th
e A
mer
ican
chi
ldre
n ac
quir
ing
Fren
ch a
pplie
da
subj
ect-
verb
-obj
ect
stra
tegy
to a
ll se
nten
ces
in F
renc
h. a
nd th
us s
yste
mat
ical
ly m
isun
ders
tood
Fre
nch
pass
ives
. In
prod
uctio
n si
mpl
ific
atio
n th
ey r
esis
ted
usin
g tw
o fo
rms
if th
ey f
elt
that
two
form
s ha
d th
e sa
me
mea
ning
. Als
o, m
edia
lpr
onou
ns w
ere
less
oft
enim
itate
d th
an in
itial
, or
fina
lpr
onou
ns. S
he b
elie
ved
that
inte
rfer
ence
err
ors
occu
rred
onl
y w
hen
the
seco
nd la
ngua
ge le
arne
r w
as f
orce
d to
gene
rate
sen
tenc
esab
out s
eman
tical
ly d
iffi
cult
mat
eria
l or
conc
epts
unf
amili
ar in
the
new
cul
ture
.M
oreo
ver,
the
stra
tegi
es c
hild
ren
use
in a
cqui
ring
a s
econ
d la
ngua
ge:m
aych
ange
as
they
bec
ome
mor
e pr
ofic
ient
in th
e se
cond
lang
uage
. At t
he b
egin
ning
of s
econ
d la
ngua
ge (
12)
acqu
isiti
on, i
mita
tion
play
san
impo
rtan
t rol
e in
lang
uage
lear
ning
. As
child
ren
acqu
ire
mor
e of
the
targ
et la
ngua
ge th
ey b
egin
to u
se f
irst
lang
uage
(L
I)
acqu
isiti
on s
trat
egie
s to
ana
lyze
this
inpu
t.H
akut
a (1
974)
dem
onst
rate
d th
at th
e ch
ild, t
hrou
gh r
ote
mem
oriz
atio
n,ac
quir
es s
egm
cnts
of
spee
ch c
alle
d 'p
refa
bric
ated
pat
tern
s'. E
xam
ples
of
thes
epr
efab
rica
ted
patte
rns
are
vari
ous
allo
mor
phs
of th
e co
pula
, the
seg
men
t 'do
you
'
101
Chu
ano
Scho
ol F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
as e
mpl
oyed
in q
uest
ions
, and
the
segm
ent '
how
to'.
as e
mbe
dded
in h
owqu
estio
ns. T
hese
pat
tern
s ar
e ve
ry u
sefu
l in
com
mun
icat
ion.
The
chi
ld u
ses
thes
epa
ttern
s w
ithou
t und
erst
andi
ng th
eir
stru
ctur
e bu
t rat
her
with
kno
wle
dge
ofw
hich
par
ticul
ar s
ituat
ions
cal
l for
wha
t pat
tern
s in
ord
er to
com
mun
icat
e in
the
targ
et la
ngua
ge.
Won
g-Fi
llmor
e (1
976)
spe
nt a
yea
r ob
serv
ing
five
Spa
nish
-spe
akin
g C
hica
noch
ildre
n ac
quir
ing
Eng
lish
natu
rally
, and
she
not
iced
the
sam
e ph
enom
ena.
The
firs
t thi
ng th
e ch
ildre
n di
d w
as to
fig
ure
out w
hat w
as b
eing
sai
d by
obs
ervi
ngth
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n ce
rtai
n ex
pres
sion
s an
d th
e si
tuat
iona
l con
text
. The
yin
ferr
ed th
e m
eani
ng o
f ce
rtai
n w
ords
they
beg
an to
use
as
'form
ulai
c ex
pres
-si
ons'
. (T
hese
exp
ress
ions
wer
e ac
quir
ed a
nd u
sed
as a
naly
zed
who
les.
) T
he'fo
rmul
aic
expr
essi
ons'
bec
ame
the
raw
mat
eria
l use
d by
the
child
ren
to f
igur
eou
t the
str
uctu
re o
f th
e la
ngua
ge. W
ong-
Fillm
ore
gave
two
exam
ples
of
how
chi
ldre
n us
e fi
rst l
angu
age
acqu
isiti
on s
trat
egie
s to
beg
in to
ana
lyze
thes
exp
ress
ions
:
The
fir
st I
nvol
ves
notic
ing
how
par
ts o
f ex
pres
sion
s us
ed b
y ot
hers
var
yin
acc
orda
nce
with
cha
nges
in th
e sp
eech
situ
atio
n in
whi
ch th
ey o
ccur
.T
he s
econ
d in
volv
es n
otic
ing
whi
ch p
arts
of
the
form
ulai
c ex
pres
sion
sar
e lik
e ot
her
utte
ranc
es in
the
spee
ch o
f ot
hers
(p.
15)
.
As
the
child
ren
figu
red
out w
hich
for
mul
as in
thei
r sp
eech
cou
ld b
e va
ried
, the
yw
ere
able
to 'f
ree'
the
cons
titue
nts
they
con
tain
ed a
nd u
se th
em in
pro
duct
ive
spee
ch.
III
addi
tion,
at t
he b
egin
ning
of
L2
acqu
isiti
on, c
hild
ren
seem
to d
epen
dm
uch
mor
e on
fir
st la
ngua
ge tr
ansf
er s
trat
egie
s. A
s le
arne
rs a
cqui
re m
ore
of th
ese
cond
lang
uage
they
dep
end
less
on
thes
e st
rate
gies
and
mor
e on
suc
h st
rate
gies
char
acte
rist
ic o
f fi
rst l
angu
age
acqu
isiti
on a
s ov
er-g
ener
aliz
atio
n (H
akut
a, 1
986)
.A
s M
cLau
ghlin
(19
85)
has
sum
mar
ized
, chi
ldie
n ac
quir
ing
a se
cond
lan-
guag
e m
ay d
epen
d in
itial
ly o
n tr
ansf
er f
rom
the
firs
t lan
guag
e an
d on
imita
tion
and
rote
mem
oriz
atio
n of
the
seco
nd la
ngua
ge. I
n m
ore
prac
tical
term
s, th
e le
ssin
tera
ctio
n a
seco
nd la
ngua
ge le
arne
r ha
s w
ith n
ativ
e sp
eake
rs, t
he m
ore
likel
ytr
ansf
er f
rom
the
firs
t lan
guag
e to
the
seco
nd la
ngua
ge w
ill b
e ob
serv
ed. A
s th
ese
cond
lang
uage
is a
cqui
red
man
y of
the
stra
tegi
es th
at c
hild
ren
usc
to a
cqui
re th
ese
cond
lang
uage
see
m to
be
the
sam
e as
thos
e us
ed in
fir
st la
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n.
'The
Im
port
ance
o.1
1.2
Inp
ut
It is
app
aren
t tha
t tar
get-
lang
uage
inpu
t pro
vide
s ch
ildre
n w
ith th
e ra
w m
ater
ial
oece
s.ar
y fo
r la
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n. I
n ad
ditio
n, th
e fr
eque
ncy
and
salie
nce
offo
rms
in th
e in
put d
ata
infl
uenc
e th
e pr
esen
ce o
f th
ese
form
s in
the
outp
ut. H
atch
(197
4) f
ound
that
the
freq
uenc
y of
mor
phem
es in
the
inpu
t dat
a ap
pear
s to
infl
uenc
e th
e se
quen
tial a
cqui
sitio
n of
thes
e m
orph
emes
. For
exa
mpl
e, th
e or
der
of a
cqui
sitio
n of
que
stio
n w
ords
app
ears
to p
aral
lel t
heir
fre
quen
cy in
wha
tch
ildre
n he
ard.
She
als
o no
ted
an in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n fr
eque
ncy
of f
orm
s an
dse
man
tic im
port
ance
. A f
orm
app
eari
ng f
requ
ently
, tho
ugh
of lo
w s
eman
ticim
port
ance
, will
be
acqu
ired
late
r. L
arse
n-Fr
eem
an (
1976
) fo
und
that
in-c
lass
teac
her
talk
of
ESL
teac
hers
sho
wed
asi
mila
r ra
nk o
rder
for
fre
quen
cy o
f
102
12
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
mor
phem
es a
s fo
und
in th
e le
arne
r ou
tput
. Hak
uta
(197
5) d
isco
vere
d th
at th
eau
xilia
ry m
ost o
ften
om
itted
by
lear
ners
in u
ttera
nces
invo
lvin
g th
e ca
tena
tive
'gon
na' w
as 'a
re'.
He
foun
d su
ch a
con
stru
ctio
n le
ss p
erce
ptua
lly s
alie
nt to
the
lear
ner
beca
use
of it
s ab
senc
e. T
he a
uxili
ary
beca
use
of it
s ab
senc
e in
the
inpu
tre
sulte
d in
its
omis
sion
in th
e le
arne
r's o
utpu
t.T
hese
obs
erva
tions
mak
e re
sear
cher
s (H
akut
a, 1
975;
Hat
ch, 1
974;
Lar
sen-
Free
man
, 197
6) q
uest
ion
whe
ther
the
inva
rian
t ord
er o
f m
orph
eme
acqu
isiti
on(l
lula
y an
d B
urt,
1974
) is
a r
eact
ion
to th
e in
put t
o w
hich
the
lear
ner
was
expo
sed.
The
cor
resp
onde
nce
betw
een
inpu
t and
out
put s
ugge
sts
that
inte
ract
ion
betw
een
spea
kers
mig
ht b
e im
port
ant i
n st
ruct
urin
g la
ngua
ge o
utpu
t. E
ven
Kra
shen
(19
81),
a p
ropo
nent
of
thc
natu
ral o
rder
of
gram
mat
ical
acq
uisi
tion,
sugg
ests
in L
iis 'i
nput
' hyp
othe
sis
that
sec
ond
lang
uage
lear
ning
is e
nhan
ced
unde
rco
nditi
ons
in w
hich
the
lear
ner
is p
rovi
ded
with
inpu
t tha
t con
tain
s 'th
e ne
xtle
vel o
f lin
guis
tic c
ompe
tenc
e'. K
rash
en (
1981
) id
entif
ies
this
enh
ance
men
tst
rate
gyas
'pro
vidi
ng c
ompr
ehen
sibl
e in
put'.
Para
doxi
cally
,ho
wev
er, h
eca
utio
ns a
gain
st a
ny c
onsc
ious
str
ateg
y to
pro
vide
'com
preL
usib
le in
put'
and
inst
ead
sugg
ests
nat
ural
inte
ract
ion
whi
ch f
ocus
es o
n m
eani
ng. T
here
fore
,ev
enth
ough
sec
ond
lang
uage
lear
ning
may
be
enri
ched
by
prov
idin
g 'c
ompr
ehen
sibl
ein
put',
any
atte
mpt
to d
o so
with
out t
he 'n
atur
al' c
once
rn f
or c
onve
ying
mea
ning
coul
d be
ling
uist
ical
ly d
isru
ptiv
e.C
onve
rsel
y, K
eena
n (1
976)
hyp
othe
size
s th
at th
e in
tera
ctio
ns f
rom
whi
chsy
ntac
tic s
truc
ture
s de
velo
p ar
e de
term
ined
by
the
rule
s of
dis
cour
se. A
s in
di-
cate
d ea
rlie
r in
this
cha
pter
, cer
tain
rul
es a
re g
ener
ally
fol
low
ed in
ord
er to
carr
yon
a c
onve
rsat
ion.
One
mus
t get
the
atte
ntio
n of
the
conv
ersa
tiona
l par
tner
. The
spea
ker
then
nom
inat
es a
topi
c an
d de
velo
ps it
. Par
tner
s ta
ke tu
rns.
Top
ic c
lari
-fi
catio
n, s
hift
ing,
avo
idan
ce, a
nd in
terr
uptio
n ch
arac
teri
ze in
tera
ctio
ns. F
inal
lyth
e to
pic
is te
rmin
ated
.A
dult-
child
and
chi
ld-c
hild
con
vers
atio
ns a
re v
ery
diff
icul
t. E
ach
genr
e of
conv
ersa
tion
follo
ws
the
rule
s of
dis
cour
se b
ut th
e ru
les
arc
appl
ied
diff
eren
tly.
As
a co
nseq
uenc
e, th
e ch
ild a
cqui
ring
ano
ther
lang
uage
lear
ns d
iffe
rent
thin
gsfr
om e
ach
type
of
conv
ersa
tion.
In
adul
t-ch
ild c
onve
rsat
ions
the
rule
s of
dis
-co
urse
put
bot
h th
e ch
ild a
nd th
e ad
ult u
nder
cer
tain
con
stra
ints
(G
arci
a, 1
986;
Hat
ch, 1
978;
McL
augh
lin, 1
985)
. The
se c
onst
rain
ts s
truc
ture
the
inte
ract
ion,
and
cons
eque
ntly
als
o th
e ou
tput
. The
chi
ld m
ust f
irst
get
the
adul
t's a
ttent
ion.
Onc
eth
is is
acc
ompl
ishe
d by
ges
ture
s an
d ve
rbal
izat
ions
the
child
mus
t nom
inat
e a
topi
c. T
he a
dult
is a
lso
cons
trai
ned
by th
e ru
les
of d
isco
urse
in th
at th
e re
spon
sem
ust b
e re
leva
nt. F
or th
e re
spon
se to
be
rele
vant
, the
info
rmat
ion
abou
t the
topi
cm
ust b
e sh
ared
by
both
chi
ld a
nd a
dult.
The
adu
lt's
resp
onse
usu
ally
cla
rifi
es th
eto
pic
that
has
bee
n no
min
ated
by
labe
ling
it or
ask
ing
for
mor
e in
form
atio
nab
out i
t. W
hat,
whe
re, w
hose
, wha
t col
or, h
ow tn
any,
wha
t is
x do
ing,
can
x v
erb,
is x
verb
ing
are
the
kind
s of
que
stio
ns th
e ad
ults
can
use
in r
espo
nse
to th
e ch
ild's
topi
c no
min
atio
n an
d be
rel
evan
t. T
he c
hild
's r
espo
nse
in tu
rn m
ust a
lso
bere
leva
nt. A
s a
resu
lt th
ere
is a
gre
at d
eal o
f w
hat,
whe
re, w
hosc
, who
is v
erbi
ng,
etc.
Hat
ch (
1978
) hy
poth
esiz
ed th
at th
is a
ccou
nted
for
the
orde
r of
acq
uisi
tion
ofth
ese
form
s in
pre
viou
s st
udie
s. I
f th
e ch
ild is
una
ble
to s
ay s
omet
hing
rel
evan
t he
or s
he c
an ju
st r
epea
t wha
t the
adu
lt ha
s sa
id, b
ut w
ith th
e ap
prop
riat
e in
tona
-tio
n. H
e or
she
will
ans
wer
a q
uest
ion
with
ris
ing
into
natio
n an
d a
stat
emen
tw
ith f
allin
g in
tona
tion.
In s
umm
ary,
cur
rent
res
earc
h su
gges
ts th
at n
atur
al c
omm
unic
atio
n si
tuat
ions
1J10
3
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
mus
t be
prov
ided
for
sec
ond
lang
,tage
acq
uisi
tion
to o
ccur
. Reg
ardl
ess
of th
edi
ffer
ence
s in
em
phas
is o
f th
e th
eori
es d
iscu
ssed
abo
ve, r
ecen
t the
oret
ical
pro
-po
sitio
ns r
egar
ding
sec
ond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion
prop
ose
that
thro
ugh
natu
ral
conv
ersa
tions
the
lear
ner
rece
ives
the
nece
ssar
y in
put a
nd s
truc
ture
s w
hich
pro
-m
ote
seco
nd la
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n. T
his
find
ing
sugg
ests
that
in s
choo
ling
situ
a-tio
ns h
ighl
y se
greg
ated
Chi
cano
cla
ssro
oms
may
sig
nifi
cant
ly li
mit
L2
acqu
isiti
onw
hile
L I
-L2
inte
grat
ed c
lass
room
s w
ill p
rom
ote
L2
acqu
isiti
on.
Soci
al F
acto
rs R
elat
ed to
Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n
The
re a
re s
ocio
cultu
ral v
aria
bles
that
con
trib
ute
to a
chi
ld's
mot
ivat
ion
to c
om-
mun
icat
e in
the
targ
et la
ngua
ge. T
he a
ttitu
de th
at th
e le
arne
r ha
s to
war
ds m
em-
bers
of
the
cultu
ral g
roup
who
se la
ngua
ge h
e or
she
is le
arni
ng in
flue
nces
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion.
Gar
dner
and
Lam
bert
(19
72)
foun
d th
at th
e po
sitiv
e at
titud
eof
Eng
lish-
spea
king
Can
adia
ns to
war
ds F
renc
h-sp
eaki
ng C
anad
ians
led
to h
igh
inte
grat
ive
mot
ivat
ion
to le
arn
Fren
ch. 0
1 le
r an
d co
lleag
ues
(01
ler,
Bac
a an
dV
igil,
197
8; 0
1 le
r, H
udso
n an
d L
iu, 1
977)
inve
stig
ated
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
Chi
nese
, Jap
anes
e, a
nd C
hica
no s
tude
nts'
ach
ieve
men
t in
Eng
lish
with
thei
rat
titud
e to
war
ds th
e fo
reig
n la
ngua
ge g
roup
. Pos
itive
atti
tude
s to
war
d th
e ta
rget
lang
uage
gro
up c
orre
spon
ded
to h
ighe
r la
ngua
ge p
rofi
cien
cy.
Schu
man
n (1
976)
fou
nd th
at C
hica
no c
hild
ren
are
mor
e M
otiv
ated
to le
arn
ase
cond
lang
uage
if th
ey d
o no
t per
ceiv
e th
is le
arni
ng p
roce
ss a
s al
iena
tion
from
thei
r ow
n cu
lture
. If
a ch
ild b
elon
gs to
a f
amily
who
se in
tegr
atio
n pa
ttern
ispr
eser
vatio
n of
the
nativ
e la
ngua
ge a
nd c
ultu
re r
athe
r th
an a
ssim
ilatio
n or
acc
ul-
tura
tion,
the
child
may
be
less
mot
ivat
ed to
acq
uire
the
seco
nd la
ngua
ge. T
here
may
be
less
impe
tus
for
a cu
ltura
l gro
up to
ass
imila
te o
r ac
cultu
rate
if th
at g
roup
has
as o
wn
com
mun
ity in
the
'fore
ign
coun
try'
, or
if th
c du
ratio
n of
res
iden
ce in
the
fore
ign
coun
try
is s
hort
.N
ot o
nly
is th
e in
divi
dual
's a
ttitu
de to
war
d th
e ta
rget
cul
ture
impo
rtan
t, bu
tth
e pe
rcei
ved
posi
tive
or n
egat
ive
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
two
cultu
res
infl
uenc
esse
cond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion.
Sch
uman
n (1
976)
hyp
othe
size
d th
at th
e gr
eate
r th
eso
cial
dis
tanc
e be
twee
n th
e tw
o cu
lture
s, th
e gr
eate
r th
e di
ffic
ulty
the
seco
ndla
ngua
ge le
arne
r w
ill h
ave
in le
arni
ng th
e ta
rget
lang
uage
, and
con
vers
ely,
the
smal
ler
the
soci
al d
ista
nce,
the
bette
r w
ill b
e th
e la
ngua
ge le
arni
ng s
ituat
ion.
Soci
al d
ista
nce
is d
eter
min
ed in
par
t by
the
rela
tive
stat
us o
f tw
o cu
lture
s. T
wo
cultu
res
that
are
pol
itica
lly, c
ultu
rally
, and
tech
nica
lly e
qual
in s
tatu
s ha
ve le
ssso
cial
dis
tanc
e th
an tw
o cu
lture
s w
hose
rel
atio
nshi
p is
cha
ract
eriz
ed b
y do
mi-
nanc
e or
sub
ordi
natio
n. I
n ad
ditio
n, th
ere
is le
ss s
ocia
l dis
tanc
e if
the
cultu
res
ofth
e tw
o gr
oups
are
con
grue
nt.
A c
hild
mot
ivat
ed to
lear
n a
seco
nd la
ngua
ge s
till n
eeds
cer
tain
soc
ial s
kills
to f
acili
tate
his
or
her
abili
ty to
est
ablis
h an
d m
aint
ain
cont
act w
ith s
peak
ers
ofth
e ta
rget
lang
uage
. Won
g-Fi
llmor
e (1
976)
and
Won
g-Fi
llrno
re a
nd V
alad
ez(1
986)
sug
gest
that
indi
vidu
al d
iffe
renc
es in
the
soci
al s
kills
of
the
child
infl
uenc
eth
e ra
te o
f se
cond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion.
Sec
ond
lang
uage
lear
ners
who
see
m m
ost
succ
essM
1 em
ploy
spe
cifi
c so
cial
str
ateg
ies:
1114
1Jo
in a
gro
up a
nd a
ct a
s if
you
und
erst
and
wha
t's g
oing
on
even
if y
oudo
n't.
The
lear
ners
mus
t ini
tiate
inte
ract
ions
and
pre
tend
to k
now
wha
t is
14
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
goin
g on
. As
a re
sult
they
will
be
incl
uded
in th
e co
nver
satio
ns a
ndac
tiviti
es.
2G
ive
the
impr
essi
on w
ith a
few
wel
l cho
sen
wor
ds th
at y
ou c
an s
peak
the
lang
uage
. Chi
ldre
n m
ust b
e w
illin
g to
use
wha
teve
r la
ngua
ge th
ey h
ave
and
as a
res
ult,
othe
r ch
ildre
n w
ill k
eep
tryi
ng to
com
mun
icat
e w
ithth
em.
3C
ount
on
your
fri
ends
for
hel
p. T
he a
cqui
sitio
n of
lang
uage
dep
ends
on
the
part
icip
atio
n of
bot
h th
e le
arne
r an
d so
meo
ne w
ho a
lrea
dy s
peak
s th
ela
ngua
geth
e fr
iend
. The
chi
ldre
n's
frie
nds
help
ed in
sev
eral
way
s.T
hey
show
ed f
aith
in th
e le
arne
r's a
bilit
y to
lear
n th
e la
ngua
ge, a
nd b
yin
clud
ing
the
lear
ner
in th
eir
activ
ities
they
mad
e a
real
eff
ort t
o un
der-
stan
d w
hat t
he le
arne
r w
as s
ayin
g. T
hey
also
pro
vide
d th
e le
arne
r w
ithna
tura
l lin
guis
tic in
put t
hat h
e or
she
cou
ld u
nder
stan
d.
Selig
er (
1977
) ha
s al
so d
emon
stra
ted
that
hig
h-in
put g
ener
ator
s ar
e th
e m
ost
succ
essf
ul L
2 le
arne
rs. H
igh-
inpu
t gen
erat
ors
are
lear
ners
who
pla
ce th
emse
lves
in s
ituat
ions
in w
hich
they
are
exp
osed
to th
e ta
rget
lang
uage
and
are
will
ing
tous
e it
for
com
mun
icat
ion.
The
refo
re th
ey r
ecei
ve th
e ne
cess
ary
inpu
t as
wel
l as
the
oppo
rtun
ity f
or p
ract
ice.
In s
umm
ary,
chi
ldre
n ac
quir
e a
seco
nd la
ngua
ge n
atur
ally
. Alth
ough
the
unde
rlyi
ng c
ogni
tive
proc
esse
s us
ed b
y ch
ildre
n in
acq
uiri
ng a
sec
ond
lang
uage
may
be
sim
ilar
in a
ll ch
ildre
n, s
ocia
l fac
tors
in s
ocia
l ski
lls a
ndth
e so
cial
chm
ate
do s
eem
to in
flue
nce
dire
ctly
and
sig
nifi
cant
ly s
econ
d la
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n. F
orC
hica
no la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts,
a s
choo
ling
cont
ext w
hich
pro
mot
es L
l and
prov
ides
the
oppo
rtun
ity f
or L
2 in
tera
ctio
n is
mos
t lik
ely
to a
chie
ve s
ucce
ssfu
l L2
acqu
isiti
on.
Sum
mar
y
From
the
abov
e re
view
of
seco
nd la
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n th
eory
and
res
earc
h,'s
econ
d la
ngua
ge' a
cqui
sitio
n:
Iha
s be
en c
hara
cter
ized
as
rela
ted
and
not r
elat
ed to
acq
uisi
tion
of L
Ilin
guis
tic s
truc
ture
s;2
has
been
rel
ated
to s
peci
fic
rule
s of
dis
cour
se;
3m
ay b
e in
flue
nced
by
the
mot
ivat
ion
to le
arn
a se
cond
lang
uage
; and
,4
has
been
rel
ated
to s
ocia
l fac
tors
.
Ham
mer
ly (
1985
) ha
s al
so s
ugge
sted
that
it is
use
ful t
o in
dica
te w
hat s
econ
dla
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
n is
not
:
1an
inte
llect
ual e
xerc
ise
in in
volv
ing
the
unde
rsta
ndin
g an
d m
emor
izat
ion
of g
ram
mar
;2
tran
slat
ion;
3m
emor
izat
ion
of s
ente
nces
;4
mec
hani
cal c
ondi
tioni
ng; a
nd/o
r,5
appl
ying
abs
trac
t rul
es.
lb10
5
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
Our
und
erst
andi
ng o
f se
cond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion
requ
ires
cog
niza
nce
ofsi
mila
r in
terr
elat
ions
hip
iden
tifie
d in
this
cha
pter
whe
n di
scus
sing
the
natu
re o
fbi
lingu
alis
m. E
ach
phen
omen
on h
as b
een
'dia
gnos
ed' a
s de
pend
ent o
n L
1-L
2cr
ossl
ingu
istic
eff
ects
in c
ombi
natio
n w
ith th
e so
cial
asp
ects
of
lang
uage
use
and
the
psyc
holo
gica
l/cog
nitiv
e pr
oces
ses
whi
ch s
erve
and
gui
de le
arni
ng. C
erta
inth
eore
tical
em
phas
es a
nd c
ontr
adic
tions
dis
cuss
ed in
this
cha
pter
con
tinue
tore
min
d us
that
our
und
erst
andi
ng o
f se
cond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion
rem
ains
in-
com
plet
e. T
his
is n
ot to
sug
gest
that
littl
e is
kno
wn.
The
abo
ve d
iscu
ssio
n ha
spr
esen
ted
a la
rge
body
of
rese
arch
and
var
ious
sop
hist
icat
ed c
once
ptua
lizat
ions
(the
orie
s) to
gui
de o
ur u
nder
stan
ding
of
this
phe
nom
enon
.
From
Bili
ngua
l Edu
catio
n to
Lan
guag
e M
inor
ity E
duca
tion
The
deb
ate
rega
rdin
g th
e ed
ucat
ion
of C
hica
no s
tude
nts
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
has
cent
ered
on
the
Inst
ruct
iona
l use
of
the
two
lang
uage
s of
the
bilin
gual
stu
dent
.W
ith r
egar
d to
the
scho
olin
g pr
oces
s, d
i-ro
ader
issu
e ha
s be
en th
e ef
fect
ive
inst
ruct
ion
of a
gro
win
g po
pula
tion
of.n
ic m
inor
ity s
tude
nts
who
do
not
spea
k E
nglis
h an
d th
eref
ore
are
cons
ider
ed c
andi
date
s fo
r sp
ecia
l edu
catio
nal
prog
ram
min
g th
at ta
kes
into
con
side
ratio
n th
is la
ngua
gedi
ffer
ence
. Dis
cuss
ion
of th
is is
sue
has
incl
uded
cro
ss-d
isci
plin
ary
dial
ogue
s in
volv
ing
psyc
holo
gy,
lingu
istic
s, s
ocio
logy
, pol
itics
, and
edu
catio
n (f
or a
mor
e th
orou
gh d
iscu
ssio
n of
thes
e is
sues
see
Aug
ust a
nd G
arci
a, 1
988;
Bak
er a
nd d
e K
ante
r, 1
983;
Cum
min
s,19
79; G
arci
a, 1
983;
Hak
uta
and
Gou
ld, 1
987;
Ros
sell
and
Ros
s, 1
986;
Tro
ike,
1981
; and
Will
ig, 1
985)
. The
cen
tral
them
e of
thes
e di
scus
sion
s ha
s to
do
with
the
spec
ific
inst
ruct
iona
l rol
e of
the
nativ
e la
ngua
ge. A
t one
ext
rem
e of
this
dis
cus-
sion
, the
util
izat
ion
of th
e na
tive
lang
uage
isre
com
men
ded
for
a si
gnif
ican
t par
tof
the
non-
Eng
lish-
spea
king
stu
dent
's e
lem
enta
ry s
choo
l yea
rs, f
rom
4-6
yea
rs,
with
a c
once
rn f
or n
ativ
e la
ngua
ge c
omm
unic
ativ
e an
d ac
adem
ic 'm
aste
ry' p
rior
to im
mer
sion
into
the
Eng
lish
curr
icul
um(W
ong-
Fillm
ore
and
Val
adez
, 198
6).
At t
he o
ther
ext
rem
e, im
mer
sion
into
an
Eng
lish
curr
icul
um is
reco
mm
ende
dea
rly
as e
arly
as
pres
choo
lw
ith m
inim
al u
se o
f th
e na
tive
lang
uage
and
aco
ncer
n fo
r E
nglis
h la
ngua
ge le
velin
g' b
yin
stru
ctio
nal s
taff
to f
acili
tate
und
er-
stan
ding
on
beha
lf o
f th
e lim
ited-
Eng
lish-
spea
king
stu
dent
(R
osse
l and
Ros
s,
1986
), bach
of
thes
e di
spar
ate
appr
oach
es a
rgue
s th
at th
e re
sult
of it
s im
plem
enta
-tio
n br
ings
psy
chol
ogic
al, l
ingu
istic
, soc
ial,
polit
ical
and
educ
atio
nal b
enef
its. T
he'n
ativ
e la
ngua
ge' a
ppro
ach
sugg
ests
that
com
pete
ncie
s in
the
nativ
e la
ngua
ge,
part
icul
arly
as
they
rel
ate
to a
cade
mic
lear
ning
, pro
vide
impo
rtan
t psy
chol
ogic
alan
d lin
guis
tic f
ound
atio
ns f
or s
econ
d la
ngua
ge le
arni
ng a
nd a
cade
mic
lear
ning
inge
nera
lth
at is
, 'yo
u re
ally
onl
y le
arn
to r
ead
once
'. N
ativ
e la
ngua
ge in
stru
c-tio
n bu
ilds
on s
ocia
l and
cul
tura
l exp
erie
nces
and
ser
ves
to p
oliti
cally
em
pow
erst
uden
ts in
con
imum
ties
that
hav
e be
en h
isto
rica
lly e
xclu
ded
from
mea
ning
ful
part
icip
atio
n in
maj
ority
edu
catio
nal i
nstit
utio
ns.
The
'im
mer
sion
' app
roac
h su
g-ge
sts
that
the
soon
er a
chi
ld r
ecei
ves
inst
ruct
ion
mE
nglis
h th
e m
ore
likel
y th
atst
uden
t 'si
ll71
:..lti
lfc
Eng
hsh
mor
e nm
e on
task
. bC
tter
prof
).-
rzr-
r.r.
s.iti
g at
t..al
; am
s-:
-::4
1.1-
.:4
770:
1:71
.1.:
\; w
.it
11. z
-aca
rt.i
a;an
zyn
16
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
coni
c to
our
sch
ools
spe
akin
g a
lang
uage
oth
er th
an E
nglis
h ha
s re
ceiv
ed c
on-
side
rabl
e re
sear
ch, p
olic
y an
d pr
actic
e at
tent
ion
in th
e la
st tw
o de
cade
s. T
heD
epar
tmen
ts o
f E
duca
tion,
Hea
lth a
nd H
uman
Ser
vice
s as
wel
l as
priv
ate
foun
-da
tions
hav
e su
ppor
ted
spec
ific
dem
ogra
phic
stu
dies
and
inst
ruct
iona
l res
earc
hre
late
d to
this
pop
ulat
ion
of s
tude
nts,
pre
scho
ol th
roug
h co
llege
. The
Uni
ted
Stat
es C
ongr
ess
has
auth
oriz
ed le
gisl
atio
n ta
rget
ed d
irec
tly a
t the
se s
tude
nts
onfi
ve s
epar
ate
occa
sion
s (1
968,
197
4, 1
978,
198
4, a
nd 1
987)
whi
le n
umer
ous
stat
esha
ve e
nact
ed le
gisl
atio
n an
d de
velo
ped
expl
icit
prog
ram
gui
delin
es. M
oreo
ver,
Fede
ral D
istr
ict C
ourt
s an
d th
e U
S C
ourt
hav
e co
nclu
ded
adju
dica
tion
proc
eed-
ings
that
dir
ectly
infl
uenc
e th
e ed
ucat
iona
l tre
atm
ent o
f la
ngua
ge m
inor
ityst
uden
ts. T
his
sign
ific
ant a
ttent
ion
has
allo
wed
ans
wer
s to
som
e qu
estio
ns o
fim
port
ance
that
wer
e un
answ
erab
le le
ss th
an a
dec
ade
ago.
The
fol
low
ing
disc
ussi
onw
ill h
ighl
ight
thes
e qu
estio
ns in
light
of
emer
ging
info
rmat
ion
rega
rdin
g C
hica
no la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts.
1/11
c) A
re T
hese
Stu
dent
s?
As
one
sear
ches
for
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
def
initi
on o
f th
e 'la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity' s
tu-
dent
, a c
ontin
uum
of
defi
nitio
nal a
ttem
pts
unfo
ld. A
t one
end
of
the
cont
inuu
mar
e ge
nera
l def
initi
ons
such
as
'stu
dent
s w
ho c
ome
from
hom
es in
whi
ch a
lang
uage
oth
er th
an E
nglis
h is
spo
ken'
. At t
he o
ther
end
of
that
con
tinuu
m a
rehi
ghly
ope
ratio
naliz
ed d
efin
ition
s, 's
tude
nts
scor
ed a
bove
the
firs
t qua
rtile
on
ast
anda
rdiz
ed te
st o
f E
nglis
h la
ngua
ge p
rofi
cien
cy'.
Reg
ardl
ess
of th
e de
fini
tion
adop
ted,
it is
app
aren
t tha
t the
se s
tude
nts
com
e in
a v
arie
ty o
f lin
guis
tic s
hape
san
d fo
rms.
The
lang
uage
min
ority
pop
ulat
ion
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
con
tinue
s to
be li
ngui
stic
ally
het
erog
eneo
us w
ith o
ver
100
dist
inct
lang
uage
gro
ups
iden
tifie
d.Fo
r ex
ampl
e, s
ome
Chi
cano
s ar
e m
onol
ingu
al S
pani
sh s
peak
ers
whi
le o
ther
s ar
eto
som
e de
gree
bili
ngua
l. O
ther
non
-Eng
lish-
spea
king
min
ority
gro
ups
in th
eU
nite
d St
ates
are
sim
ilarl
y he
tero
gene
ous.
Not
inco
nseq
uent
ial i
s th
e re
late
dcu
ltura
l attr
ibut
es o
f th
is p
opul
atio
n of
stu
dent
s, m
akin
g th
is p
opul
atio
n no
t onl
ylin
guis
tical
ly d
istin
ct b
ut a
lso
cultu
rally
dis
tinct
.D
escr
ibin
g th
e 'ty
pica
l' C
hica
no la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nt, a
s yo
u m
ayha
ve a
lrea
dy s
urm
ised
, is
high
ly p
robl
emat
ic. H
owev
er, p
ut s
impl
y, w
e m
ight
agre
e th
at th
e st
uden
t is
one:
(a)
who
is c
hara
cter
ized
by
subs
tant
ive
part
icip
atio
nin
a n
on-E
nglis
h-sp
eaki
ng C
hica
no s
ocia
l env
iron
men
t, (b
) w
ho h
as a
cqui
red
the
norm
al c
omm
unic
ativ
e ab
ilitie
s of
that
soc
ial e
nvir
onm
ent,
and,
(c)
who
isex
pose
d to
a s
ubst
antiv
e E
nglis
h-sp
eaki
ng e
nvir
onm
ent,
mor
e th
an li
kely
for
the
firs
t tim
e, d
urin
g th
e fo
rmal
sch
oolin
g pr
oces
s. E
stim
ates
of
the
num
ber
ofla
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts
have
bee
n co
mpi
led
by th
e fe
dera
l gov
ernm
ent o
nse
vera
l occ
asio
ns (
Dev
elop
men
t Ass
ocia
tes,
198
4; O
'Mal
ley,
198
1). T
hese
est
i-m
ates
dif
fer
beca
use
of th
e de
fini
tion
adop
ted
for
iden
tifyi
ng th
ese
stud
ents
, the
part
icul
ar m
easu
re u
tiliz
ed to
obt
ain
the
estim
ate,
and
the
stat
istic
al tr
eatm
ent
utili
zed
to g
ener
aliz
e be
yond
the
actu
al s
ampl
e ob
tain
ed. F
or e
xam
ple,
O'M
alle
y(1
981)
def
ined
the
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
pop
ulat
ion
by u
tiliz
ing
a sp
ecif
iccu
toff
sco
re o
n an
Eng
lish
lang
uage
pro
fici
ency
test
adm
inis
tere
d to
a s
trat
ifie
dsa
mpl
e of
stu
dent
s. D
evel
opm
ent A
ssoc
iate
s (1
984)
est
imat
ed th
e po
pula
tion
byut
ilizi
ng r
epor
ts f
rom
a s
trat
ifie
d sa
mpl
e of
loca
l sch
ool d
istr
icts
. The
refo
re,
estim
ates
of la
ngua
gem
inor
ityst
uden
tsha
ve r
ange
d be
twee
n1,
300,
000
1710
7
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
(Dev
elop
men
t Ass
ocia
tes,
198
4) to
3,6
00,0
00 (
O'M
alle
y, 1
981)
with
the
follo
w-
ing
attr
ibut
es:
1T
he to
tal n
umbe
r of
lang
uage
min
ority
chi
ldre
n, a
ges
5-14
, in
1976
appr
oxim
ated
2.5
2 m
illio
n, w
ith a
pro
ject
ed in
crea
se to
3.4
0 m
illio
n in
the
year
20(
X)
(Wag
gone
r, 1
984)
.In
198
3, th
is p
opul
atio
n w
as m
ore
cons
erva
tivel
y es
timat
ed to
be
1.29
mill
ion
(Dev
elop
men
t Ass
ocia
tes,
1984
). R
ecal
l tha
t thi
s di
verg
ence
in e
stim
ates
ref
lect
s th
e pr
oced
ures
use
dto
obt
ain
lang
uage
min
ority
'cou
nts'
. and
est
imat
es.
The
maj
ority
of
thes
e ch
ildre
n re
side
thro
ugho
ut th
e U
nite
d St
ates
, but
with
dis
tinct
geo
grap
hica
l clu
ster
ing.
For
exa
mpl
e, a
bout
62
per
cent
of la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity c
hild
ren
are
Chi
cano
stu
dent
s fo
und
in A
rizo
na,
Col
orad
o, C
alif
orni
a, N
ew M
exic
o, a
nd T
exas
(D
evel
opm
ent A
ssoc
iate
s,19
84; O
'Mal
ley,
198
1; W
aggo
ner,
198
4).
3O
f th
e es
timat
ed n
umbe
r of
lang
uage
min
ority
chi
ldre
n in
197
8, 7
2 pe
rce
nt w
ere
of S
pani
sh la
ngua
ge b
ackg
roun
d, 2
2 pe
r ce
nt o
ther
Eur
opea
nla
ngua
ges,
5 p
er c
ent A
sian
s, a
nd 1
per
cen
t Am
eric
an I
ndia
n. H
owev
er,
such
dis
trib
utio
ns w
ill c
hang
e du
e to
dif
fere
ntia
l gro
wth
rat
es, a
nd b
y th
eye
ar 2
000,
the
prop
ortio
n of
Spa
nish
lang
uage
bac
kgro
und
child
ren
ispr
ojec
ted
to b
e ab
out 7
7 pe
r ce
nt o
f th
e to
tal (
O'M
alle
y, 1
981)
. Est
imat
esby
Dev
elop
men
t Ass
ocia
tes
(198
4) f
or s
tude
nts
in g
rade
s K
-6 in
dica
teth
at 7
6 pe
r ce
nt a
re S
pani
sh la
ngua
ge b
ackg
roun
d; 8
per
cen
t Sou
thea
stA
sian
(V
ietn
ames
e. C
ambo
dian
, Hm
ong,
etc
.); 5
per
cen
t oth
er E
uro-
pean
; 5 p
er c
ent E
ast A
sian
(C
hine
se, K
orea
n, e
tc.)
; and
, 5 p
er c
ent o
ther
(Ara
bic,
Nav
aho,
etc
.).
4Fo
r th
e na
tiona
l sch
ool d
istr
icts
sam
pled
in th
e ni
nete
en m
ost h
ighl
yim
pact
ed s
tate
s ut
ilize
d by
Dev
elop
men
t Ass
ocia
tes
(198
4), 1
7 pe
r ce
nt o
fth
e to
tal K
-6 s
tude
nt p
opul
atio
n w
as e
stim
ated
as
lang
uage
min
ority
inth
ese
stat
es.
Reg
ardl
ess
of d
iffe
ring
est
imat
es, a
sig
nifi
cant
num
ber
of s
tude
nts
from
lang
uage
bac
kgro
unds
oth
er th
an E
nglis
h ar
e se
rved
by
US
scho
ols.
Mor
eove
r,th
is p
opul
atio
n is
exp
ecte
d to
incr
ease
ste
adily
in th
e fu
ture
. The
cha
lleng
e th
ese
stud
ents
pre
sent
to U
S ed
ucat
iona
l ins
titut
ions
will
con
tinue
to in
crea
se c
on-
com
itant
ly.
Who
: 'F'
ype.
, of
Edu
catio
nal P
rogr
ams
Serv
e T
hese
Stu
dent
s?
For
a sc
hool
dis
tric
t sta
ff w
ith la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts
ther
e ar
e m
any
pos-
sibl
e pr
ogra
m o
ptio
ns: '
tran
sitio
nal b
iling
ual e
duca
tion'
, 'm
aint
enan
ce b
iling
ual
educ
atio
n',
'Eng
lish-
as-a
-sec
ond-
lang
uage
','im
mer
sion
','s
helte
red
Eng
lish'
,'s
ubm
ersi
on',
etc.
(G
over
nmen
t Acc
ount
ing
Off
ice,
198
7). U
ltim
atel
y, s
taff
will
reje
ct p
rogr
am la
bels
and
inst
ead
answ
er th
e fo
llow
ing
ques
tions
(A
ugus
t and
Gar
cia,
198
8).
10S
IW
hat a
re th
e na
tive
lang
uage
(L
I)
and
seco
nd la
ngua
ge (
L2)
cha
ract
eris
-tic
s of
the
stud
ents
, fam
ilies
and
com
mun
ity (
ics)
we
serv
e?
18
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
2W
hat m
odel
of
inst
ruct
ion
is d
esir
ed?
(a)
How
do
we
choo
se to
util
ize
LI
and
L2
as m
ediu
ms
of in
stru
ctio
n?(b
)H
ow d
o w
e ch
oose
to h
andl
e th
e in
stru
ctio
n of
LI
and
L2?
3W
hat i
s th
e na
ture
of
staf
f an
d re
sour
ces
nece
ssar
y to
impl
emen
t the
desi
red
inst
ruct
ion?
The
se p
rogr
am in
itiat
ives
can
be
diff
eren
tiate
d by
the
way
they
util
ize
the
nativ
e la
ngua
ge a
nd E
nglis
h du
ring
inst
ruct
ion.
A r
ecen
tre
port
by
Dev
elop
men
tA
ssoc
iate
s (1
984)
sur
veye
d 33
3 sc
hool
dis
tric
ts in
the
nine
teen
stat
es th
at s
erve
dov
er 8
0 pe
r ce
nt o
f la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
. For
gra
des
K-5
. the
y re
port
the
follo
win
g sa
lic it
fea
ture
s re
gard
ing
the
use
of la
ngua
ge(s
)du
ring
the
inst
ruct
ion
of la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts:
Nin
ety-
thre
e pe
r ce
nt o
f th
e sc
hool
s re
port
ed th
at th
eus
e of
Eng
lish
pred
omin
ated
in th
eir
prog
ram
s; c
onve
rsel
y, 7
per
cent
indi
cate
d th
at th
eus
e of
the
nativ
e la
ngua
ge p
redo
min
ated
.Si
xty
per
cent
of
the
sam
pled
sch
ools
rep
orte
d th
at b
oth
the
nativ
ela
ngua
ge a
nd E
nglis
h w
ere
utili
zed
duri
ng in
stru
ctio
n.3
Thi
rty
per
cent
of
the
sam
pled
sch
ools
rep
orte
d m
inim
alor
no
use
of th
ena
tive
lang
uage
dur
ing
inst
ruct
ion.
Tw
o-th
irds
of
thes
e sc
hool
s ha
ve c
hose
n to
util
ize
som
e fo
rm o
f bi
lingu
alcu
rric
ulum
to s
erve
this
pop
ulat
ion
of s
tude
nts.
One
-thi
rd o
fth
ese
scho
ols
min
imiz
e or
alto
geth
er ig
nore
nat
ive
lang
uage
use
in th
eir
inst
ruct
ion
of la
ngua
gem
inor
ity s
tude
nts.
Rec
all t
hat s
ome
two-
thir
ds to
thre
e-fo
urth
s of
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
s in
this
cou
ntry
are
of
Span
ish-
spea
king
bac
kgro
unds
.Pr
o-gr
ams
whi
ch s
erve
thes
e st
uden
ts h
ave
been
cha
ract
eriz
ed p
rim
arily
as 'B
iling
ual
Tra
nsiti
onal
Edu
catio
n'. T
hese
pro
gram
s ca
ll fo
r th
e tr
ansi
tion
of th
ese
stud
ents
from
ear
ly-g
rade
. Spa
nish
-em
phas
is in
stru
ctio
nto
late
r-gr
ade.
Eng
lish-
emph
asis
inst
ruct
ion,
and
. eve
ntua
lly to
Eng
lish-
only
inst
ruct
ion.
Rec
ent r
esea
rch
in tr
ansi
tion-
type
sch
ools
sug
gest
s th
at la
ngua
ge m
inor
ityst
uden
ts c
an b
e se
rved
eff
ectiv
ely.
The
se e
ffec
tive
scho
ols
arc
orga
nize
d to
de-
velo
p ed
ucat
iona
l str
uctu
res
and
proc
esse
s th
at ta
ke in
to c
onsi
dera
tion
both
the
broa
der
aspe
cts
of e
ffec
tive
scho
ols
repo
rted
for
Eng
lish-
spea
king
stud
ents
(Pu
r-ke
y an
d Sm
ith, 1
983)
as
wel
l as
spec
ific
attr
ibut
es r
elev
ant
to la
ngua
ge m
inor
ityst
uden
ts (
Car
ter
and
Cha
tfie
ld, 1
986;
Gar
cia,
198
8; T
ikun
off,
198
3). O
fpa
rtic
ular
impo
rtan
ce h
as b
een
the
posi
tive
effe
ct o
f in
tens
ive
inst
ruct
ion
in th
ena
tive
lang
uage
that
foc
uses
on
liter
acy
deve
lopm
ent (
Won
g-Fi
llmor
ean
d V
alad
ez,
1986
). H
akut
a an
d G
ould
(19
87)
and
Hud
elso
n (1
987)
mai
ntai
n th
atsk
ills
and
conc
epts
lear
ned
in th
e na
tive
lang
uage
pro
vide
a 's
caff
old'
for
acq
uisi
tion
ofne
wkn
owle
dge
in th
e se
cond
lang
uage
.Fo
r th
e on
e-th
ird
of th
e st
uden
ts r
ecei
ving
littl
e or
no
inst
ruct
ion
in th
ena
tive
lang
uage
. tw
o al
tern
ativ
e ty
pes
of' i
nstr
uctio
nal a
ppro
ache
s lik
ely
pre-
dom
inat
e: E
SL a
nd im
mer
sion
. Eac
h of
thes
epr
ogra
m ty
pes
depe
nds
on th
epr
imar
y ut
iliza
tion
of E
nglis
h du
ring
inst
ruct
ion
but d
oes
not i
gnor
e th
e fa
ct th
atth
e st
uden
ts s
erve
d ar
e lim
ited
in E
nglis
h pr
ofic
ienc
y. H
owev
er, t
hese
prog
ram
sdo
not
req
uire
inst
ruct
iona
l per
sonn
el w
ho s
peak
the
nativ
e la
ngua
geof
the
stud
ent.
Mor
eove
r, th
ese
prog
ram
s ar
e su
ited
to c
lass
room
s in
whi
ch th
ere
is n
o
1910
9
Chi
cano
Sch
ool F
ailu
re a
nd S
ucce
ss
subs
tant
ial n
umbe
r of
stu
dent
s fr
om o
neno
n-E
nglis
h-sp
eaki
ng g
roup
, but
in-
stea
d m
ay h
ave
a he
tero
gene
ous
non-
Eng
lish
back
grou
nd s
tude
nt p
opul
atio
n(O
vand
o an
d C
ollie
r, 1
985)
.I3
oth
ESL
and
imm
ersi
on p
rogr
ams
have
bee
n pa
rtic
ular
ly in
flue
nced
by
rece
nt th
eore
tical
dev
elop
men
isre
gard
ing
the
inst
ruct
ion
of a
sec
ond
lang
uage
(Cha
mot
and
O'M
alle
y, 1
986;
Kra
shen
, 198
4). T
hese
dev
elop
men
tsha
ve s
ug-
gest
ed th
at e
ffec
tive
seco
nd la
ngua
gele
arni
ng is
bes
t acc
ompl
ishe
dun
der
cond
i-
tions
that
sim
ulat
e na
tura
lco
mm
unic
ativ
e in
tera
ctio
ns a
nd m
inim
ize
the
form
al
inst
ruct
ion
of li
ngui
stic
str
uctu
res.
e.g
.,m
emor
izat
ion
drill
s, le
arni
ng g
ram
ma-
tical
rul
es. e
tc. A
lthou
gh E
SL p
rogr
ams
cont
inue
to in
volv
e 'p
ull-
out'
sess
ions
in
whi
ch s
tude
nts
are
rem
oved
fro
mth
e re
gula
r cl
assr
oom
to s
pend
tim
e on
con
-
cent
rate
d la
ngua
ge le
arni
ng a
ctiv
ities
with
spe
cial
ly tr
aine
d ed
ucat
iona
l sta
ff,
the
rece
nt th
eore
tical
and
pra
ctic
e co
nsen
sus
is th
at s
uch
lang
uage
lear
ning
exp
eri-
ence
s sh
ould
be
com
mun
icat
ive
and
cent
ered
aro
und
acad
emic
con
tent
are
as
(Cha
mot
and
O'M
alle
y. 1
986)
.Sc
hool
dis
tric
t sta
ff h
ave
been
cre
ativ
ein
dev
elop
ing
a w
ide
rang
e of
lan-
guag
e m
inor
ityst
uden
t pro
gram
s. T
hey
have
answ
ered
the
abov
e qu
estio
ns
diff
eren
tially
for
: (a)
dif
fere
nt la
ngua
ge g
roup
s(S
pani
sh, V
ietn
ames
e, C
hine
se,
etc.
),(b
) di
ffer
ent g
rade
leve
lsw
ithin
a s
choo
l,(c
)di
ffer
ent s
ub-g
roup
s of
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
sw
ithin
a c
lass
room
, and
eve
n di
ffer
ent
leve
ls o
f
lang
uage
pro
fici
ency
.T
he r
esul
t has
bee
n a
broa
d an
d at
times
per
plex
ing
vari
ety
of p
rogr
am m
odel
s.
Fede
ral a
nd S
tate
Pol
icie
s H
ave
Bee
nG
ener
ated
?
he im
med
iate
ly p
rece
ding
dis
cuss
ion
has
atte
mpt
ed to
lay
a fo
unda
tion
for
unde
rsta
ndin
g w
ho th
e C
hica
no la
ngua
gem
inor
ity s
tude
nt is
and
how
that
stud
ent h
as b
een
serv
ed. T
his
disc
ussi
on tu
rns
now
to e
duca
tiona
l pol
icy:
firs
t. fe
dera
l leg
isla
tive
and
lega
l ini
tiativ
es,
and
seco
nd, s
tate
initi
ativ
es.
Fede
tal l
.qis
lattv
e In
itiat
ives
The
Uni
ted
Stat
es C
ongr
ess
set a
min
imum
sta
ndar
d fo
r th
e ed
ucat
ion
of la
n-
guag
e m
inor
ityst
uden
ts in
pub
lic: e
duca
tiona
l ins
titut
ions
in it
s pa
ssag
e of
Titl
e
VI
of th
e C
ivil
Rig
hts
Act
of
1964
pro
hibi
ting
disc
rim
inat
ion
byed
ucat
iona
l
inst
itutio
ns o
n th
e ba
sis
of r
ace,
col
or, s
ex o
rna
tiona
l ori
gin
and
by s
ubse
quen
t
Equ
al E
duca
tiona
l Opp
ortu
nity
Act
of
1974
(E
EO
A).
The
EE
OA
was
an
effo
rt
by C
ongr
ess
to s
peci
fica
llyde
fine
wha
t con
stitu
tes
a de
nial
of c
onst
itutio
nally
guar
ante
ed e
qual
edu
catio
nal o
ppor
tuni
ty.
The
EE
OA
pro
vide
s in
par
t:
No
stat
e sh
all d
eny
equa
led
ucat
iona
l opp
ortu
nitie
s to
an
indi
vidu
al o
n
acco
unt o
f hi
s or
her
rac
e,co
lor,
sex
, or
natio
nal o
rigi
n, b
y ...
the
failu
re b
y an
edu
cafi
onal
age
ncy
tota
ke a
ppro
pria
te a
ctio
n to
ove
rcom
e
lang
uage
bar
rier
s th
at im
pede
equa
l par
ticip
atio
n by
stud
ents
in it
sin
stru
cnon
al p
rogr
ams.
20
USC
ss
1703
(f).
I 10
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
Thi
s st
atut
e do
es n
ot m
anda
te s
peci
fic
educ
atio
n tr
eatm
ent,
but i
t doe
s re
quir
epu
blic
edu
catio
nal a
genc
ies
to s
usta
in p
rogr
ams
to m
eet t
he la
ngua
ge n
eeds
of
thei
r st
uden
ts.
The
Con
gres
s of
thc
Uni
ted
Stat
es o
n fi
ve o
ccas
ions
(19
68, 1
974,
197
8, 1
984,
and
1987
) ha
s pa
ssed
spe
cifi
c le
gisl
atio
n re
late
d to
the
educ
atio
n of
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
s. T
he B
iling
ual E
duca
tion
Act
(B
EA
) of
196
8 w
as in
tend
ed a
s a
dem
onst
ratio
n pr
ogra
m d
esig
ned
to m
eet t
he e
duca
tiona
l nee
ds o
f lo
w-i
ncom
elim
ited-
Eng
lish-
spea
king
chi
ldre
n. G
rant
s w
ere
awar
ded
to lo
cal e
duca
tiona
lag
enci
es, i
nstit
utio
ns o
f hi
gher
edu
catio
n, o
r re
gion
al r
esea
rch
faci
litie
s to
: (a)
deve
lop
and
oper
ate
bilin
gual
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms,
nat
ive
hist
ory
and
cultu
repr
ogra
ms,
ear
ly c
hild
hood
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms,
adu
lted
ucat
ion
prog
ram
s, a
ndpr
ogra
ms
to tr
ain
bilin
gual
aid
es;
(b)
mak
e ef
fort
s to
attr
act a
nd r
etai
n as
teac
hers
, ind
ivid
uals
fro
m n
on-E
nglis
h-sp
eaki
ng b
ackg
roun
ds; (
c) e
stab
lish
co-
oper
atio
n be
twee
n th
e ho
me
and
the
scho
ol.
Four
maj
or r
eaut
hori
zatio
ns o
f th
e B
EA
hav
e oc
curr
ed s
ince
196
8in
197
4,19
78,
1984
and
198
7. A
s a
cons
eque
nce
of th
e 19
74 A
men
dmen
ts (
Publ
icL
aw 9
3-38
0), a
bili
ngua
l edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m w
as d
efin
ed f
or th
e fi
rst t
ime
as'in
stru
ctio
n gi
ven
in, a
nd s
tudy
of
Eng
lish
and
to th
e ex
tent
nec
essa
ry to
allo
w a
child
to p
rogr
ess
effe
ctiv
ely
thro
ugh
the
educ
atio
n sy
stem
, the
nat
ive
lang
uage
'(S
chne
ider
, 197
6, p
. 146
). T
he g
oal o
f bi
lingu
al e
duca
tion
cont
inue
d to
be
atr
ansi
tion
to E
nglis
h ra
ther
than
mai
nten
ance
of
the
nativ
e la
ngua
ge. C
hild
ren
nolo
nger
had
to b
e lo
w-i
ncom
e to
par
ticip
ate.
New
pro
gram
s w
ere
fund
ed, i
nclu
d-in
g a
grad
uate
fel
low
ship
pro
gram
for
stu
dy in
the
fiel
d of
trai
ning
teac
hers
for
bilin
gual
edu
catio
nal p
rogr
ams,
and
a p
rogr
am f
or th
e de
velo
pmen
t, as
sess
men
t,an
d di
ssem
inat
ion
of c
lass
room
mat
eria
ls.
In th
e B
iling
ual E
duca
tion
Am
endm
ents
of
1978
(Pu
blic
Law
95-
561)
,pr
ogra
m e
ligib
ility
was
exp
ande
d to
incl
ude
stud
ents
with
lim
ited-
Eng
lish
acad
emic
pro
fici
ency
as
wel
l as
stud
ents
with
lim
ited-
Eng
lish-
spea
king
abi
lity.
Pare
nts
wer
e gi
ven
a gr
eate
r ro
le in
pro
gram
pla
nnin
g an
d op
erat
ion.
Tea
cher
sw
ere
requ
ired
to b
e pr
ofic
ient
in 1
- lth
Eng
lish
and
in th
e na
tive
lang
uage
of
the
child
ren
in th
e pr
ogra
m. G
rant
rec
ipie
nts
wer
e re
quir
ed to
dem
onst
rate
how
they
wou
ld c
ontin
ue th
e pr
ogra
m w
hen
fede
ral f
unds
wer
e w
ithdr
awn.
The
Bili
ngua
l Edu
catio
n A
ct o
f 19
84 c
reat
ed n
ew p
rogr
am o
ptio
ns in
clud
ing
spec
ial a
ltern
ativ
e in
stru
ctio
nal p
rogr
ams
that
did
not
req
uire
use
of
the
child
'sna
tive
lang
uage
. The
se p
rogr
am a
ltern
ativ
es w
ere
expa
nded
in .1
987.
Sta
te a
ndlo
cal a
genc
y pr
ogra
m s
taff
wer
e re
quir
ed to
col
lect
dat
a, to
iden
tify
the
popu
latio
nse
rved
and
des
crib
e pr
ogra
m e
ffec
tiven
ess.
Ove
r on
e bi
llion
fed
eral
dol
lars
hav
ebe
en a
ppro
pria
ted
thro
ugh
Titl
e V
II le
gisl
atio
n fo
r ed
ucat
iona
l act
iviti
es (
pro-
gram
dev
elop
men
t, pr
ogra
m im
plem
enta
tion,
pro
fess
iona
l tra
inin
g, a
rid
rese
arch
)fo
r la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts.
In
addi
tion,
oth
er c
ongr
essi
onal
app
ropr
iatio
ns(e
.g.,
Voc
atio
nal E
duca
tion,
Cha
pter
I, e
tc.)
exp
licitl
y ta
rget
lang
uage
min
ority
stud
ents
. Fede
ral L
t:qal
Ini
tiativ
es
The
197
4 U
nite
d St
ates
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
dec
isio
n in
Lau
v. N
icho
ls (
44 U
S 56
3) is
the
land
mar
k st
atem
ent o
f th
e ri
ghts
of
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
s in
dica
ting
that
lim
ited-
Eng
lish-
prof
icie
nt s
tude
nts
mus
t be
prov
ided
with
lang
uage
sup
port
:
2I
I I
Chk
ano
Scho
ol F
ailu
rean
d Su
cces
s
tTlh
ere
is n
o eq
ualit
y of
trea
tmen
tm
erel
y by
pro
vidi
ng s
tude
nts
with
the
sam
e fa
cilit
ies,
text
book
s, te
ache
rs, a
i,dcu
rric
ulum
: for
stu
dent
s
who
do
not u
nder
stan
dE
nglis
h ar
e ef
fect
ivel
yfo
recl
osed
fro
m a
ny
mea
ning
ful d
isco
urse
.B
asic
Eng
lish
skill
s ar
c at
the
very
cor
e of
wha
t the
sepu
blic
sch
ools
teac
h. I
mpo
sitio
n of
a r
equi
rem
ent
that
, bef
ore
a ch
ild c
anef
fect
ivel
y
part
icip
ate
m th
e ed
ucat
ion
prog
ram
he m
ust a
lrea
dy h
ave
acqu
irc3
thos
e ba
sic
skill
s is
tom
ake
a m
ocke
ry o
f pu
blic
educ
atio
n. W
e kn
o-w
that
thos
e w
ho d
o no
tun
ders
tand
Eng
lish
arc
cert
ain
tofi
nd th
eir
clas
sroo
mex
peri
ence
sw
holly
inco
mpr
ehen
sibl
ean
din
no w
aym
eani
ngfu
l (L
au U
. Nic
hols
, 44
US
563,
p. 1
7).
The
fif
th C
ircu
it C
asta
neda
v.
Pick
ard
(198
1) c
ourt
set
thre
ere
quir
emen
ts th
at
cons
titut
e an
app
ropr
iate
pro
gram
tbr
lang
uage
min
ority
stud
ents
:
1T
he th
eory
mus
t be
base
d on
a s
ound
educ
atio
nal t
heor
y.
2T
he p
rogr
am m
ust
be 'r
easo
nabl
y ca
lcul
ated
toim
plem
ent e
ffec
tivel
y'
the
chos
en th
eory
.3
The
pro
gram
mus
tpr
oduc
e re
sults
in a
rea
sona
ble
time.
The
cou
rts
have
als
ore
quir
ed a
ppro
pria
te a
ctio
n to
over
com
e la
ngua
ge
barr
iers
. 'M
easu
res
whi
chw
ill a
ctua
lly o
verc
ome
the
prob
lem
', ar
e ca
lled
for
by
the
1.'S
v.
Tex
as (
506
F. S
upp.
at
43),
or
'resu
lts in
dica
ting
that
the
lang
uage
barr
iers
con
fron
ting
stud
ents
are
act
ually
bei
ngov
erco
me'
are
man
date
d by
the
CaA
med
a co
urt (
628
F.2n
d at
101
0). T
here
fore
,lo
cal s
choo
l dis
tric
ts a
nd s
tate
educ
atio
n ag
enci
es h
ave
abu
rden
to a
sses
s th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of s
peci
al la
ngua
ge
prog
ram
s on
an
ongo
ing
basi
s. O
ther
cou
rtde
cisi
ons
have
del
inea
ted
staf
f pr
ofes
-
sion
al tr
aini
ng a
ttrib
utes
and
the
part
icul
ar r
ole
of s
tand
ardi
zed
test
s.
Star
e ln
akaw
es
hrou
gh s
tate
legi
slat
ion,
twel
ve s
tate
s na
med
man
date
spe
cial
edu
catio
nal s
er-
vice
s fo
r la
ngua
ge m
inor
ityst
uden
ts, t
wel
ve s
tate
s pe
rmit
thes
e se
rvic
es, a
nd o
ne
stat
e pr
ohib
its th
em.
Tw
enty
-six
sta
tes
have
no
legi
slat
ion
that
dir
ectly
addr
esse
s
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
s.St
ate
prog
ram
pol
icy
for
lang
uage
min
ority
stud
ents
can
be
char
acte
rize
d as
follo
ws:
1Im
plem
entin
g in
stru
ctio
nal
prog
ram
s th
at a
llow
or
requ
ire
inst
ruct
ion
in
a la
ngua
geot
her
than
Eng
lish
(17
stat
es).
2E
stab
lishi
ng s
peci
alqu
alif
icat
ions
for
the
cert
ific
atio
n of
pro
fess
iona
l in-
stru
ctio
nal s
taff
(15
sta
tes)
.3
Prov
idin
g sc
hool
dis
tric
tssu
pple
men
tary
fun
ds in
sup
port
of e
duca
tiona
l
prog
ram
s (1
5 st
ates
).4
Man
datin
g a
cultu
ral c
ompo
nent
(15
stat
es).
5R
equi
ring
par
enta
l con
sent
for
enro
llmen
t of
stud
ents
(11
sta
tes)
.)
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
Eig
ht s
tate
s (A
rizo
na, C
alif
orni
a, C
olor
ado,
Illi
nois
,In
dian
a, M
assa
chus
etts
,R
hode
Isl
and,
and
Tex
as)
impo
se a
ll of
the
abov
e re
quir
emen
ts c
oncu
rren
tly.
Such
a p
atte
rn s
ugge
sts
cont
inue
d.at
tent
ion
by s
tate
s to
issu
es r
elat
ed to
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
s (s
ee A
ugus
t and
Gar
cia,
198
8, f
or d
etai
ls).
Gen
eral
Pol
icy
and
Prac
tice
Impl
icat
ions
for
Edu
catio
n
The
pre
viou
s di
scus
sion
s of
bili
ngua
l acq
uisi
tion
and
seco
nd la
ngua
ge a
cqui
sitio
nha
ve a
ttem
pted
to h
ighl
ight
impo
rtan
t dat
a an
d th
eory
that
ser
ve to
pro
vide
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
thes
e ph
enom
ena.
The
se s
ame
data
and
theo
ry, h
owev
er, h
ave
infl
uenc
ed th
e ed
ucat
iona
l tre
atm
ent o
f C
hica
no la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts.
As
indi
cate
d pr
evio
usly
, the
kno
wle
dge
base
d on
this
arc
a co
ntin
ues
to e
xpan
d, b
utis
in n
o w
ay to
be
cons
ider
ed c
ompl
ete
or o
verl
y co
mpr
ehen
sive
. In
addi
tion,
itw
ould
be
an e
rror
to c
oncl
ude
that
the
data
and
theo
ry e
mer
ged
have
bee
n a
prim
ary
fact
or in
det
erm
inin
g th
e ed
ucat
iona
l tre
atm
ent o
f la
ngua
ge m
inor
ityst
uden
ts. I
t doe
s se
em a
ppro
pria
te, h
owev
er, t
o id
entif
y in
the
pres
ent d
iscu
ssio
npo
ssib
le p
rogr
am a
nd p
olic
y im
plic
atio
ns d
eriv
ed f
rom
res
earc
h an
d th
eory
as
high
light
ed b
y ou
r ow
n di
scus
sion
and
that
of
Hak
uta
and
Snow
(19
86),
Aug
ust
and
Gar
cia
(198
8) a
nd H
akut
a an
d G
arci
a (1
989)
.
1O
ne m
ajor
goa
l of
Chi
cano
lang
uage
min
ority
edu
catio
n sh
ould
be
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f th
e fu
ll re
pert
oire
of
lingu
istic
ski
lls in
Eng
lish,
in p
repa
-ra
tion
for
part
icip
atio
n in
mai
nstr
eam
cla
sses
.T
ime
spen
t lea
rnin
g th
e na
tive
lang
uage
is n
ot ti
me
lost
in d
evel
opin
gE
nglis
h. C
hild
ren
can
beco
me
flue
nt in
a s
ccon
d la
ngua
ge w
ithou
t los
ing
the
firs
t lan
guag
e, a
nd c
an m
aint
ain
the
firs
t lan
guag
e w
ithou
t ret
ardi
ngth
e de
velo
pmen
t of
thc
seco
nd la
ngua
ge.
3T
here
is n
o co
gniti
ve c
ost t
o th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
bilin
gual
ism
in c
hild
ren;
very
pos
sibl
y bi
lingu
alis
m e
nhan
ces
child
ren'
s th
inki
ng s
killa
.4
Lan
guag
e m
inor
ity e
duca
tion
prog
ram
s fo
r C
hica
nos
shou
ld h
ave
the
liixi
bilit
y of
adj
ustin
g to
indi
vidu
al a
nd c
ultu
ral d
iffe
renc
es a
mon
g ch
il-dr
en. F
urth
erm
ore,
edu
cato
rs s
houl
d de
velo
p th
e ex
pect
atio
n th
at it
isno
i abn
orm
al f
or s
ome
stud
ents
to n
eed
inst
ruct
ion
in tw
o la
ngua
ges
for
rela
tivel
y lo
ng p
erio
ds o
f tim
e.5
Edu
cato
rs s
houl
d ex
pect
that
you
ng c
hild
ren
will
take
sev
eral
yea
rs to
lear
n a
seco
nd la
ngua
ge to
a le
vel l
ike
that
of
a na
tive
spea
ker.
At t
hesa
me
time,
they
sho
uld
not h
ave
low
er e
xpec
tatio
ns o
f ol
der
lear
ners
,w
ho c
an ty
pica
lly le
arn
lang
uage
s qu
ite q
uick
ly.
6Pa
rtic
ular
ly f
or c
hild
ren
who
on
othe
r gr
ound
s ar
c at
ris
k fo
r re
adin
gfa
ilure
, rea
ding
sho
uld
be ta
ught
in th
e na
tive
lang
uage
. Rea
ding
ski
llsac
quir
ed in
the
nativ
e la
ngua
ge w
ill tr
ansf
er r
eadi
ly a
nd q
uick
ly to
Eng
lish,
and
will
resu
ltin
hig
her
ultim
ate
read
ing
achi
evem
ent i
nE
nglis
h.7
A m
ajor
pro
blem
for
min
ority
-gro
up c
hild
ren
is th
at y
oung
Eng
lish-
spea
king
chi
ldre
n sh
are
the
nega
tive
ster
eoty
pes
of th
eir
pare
nts
and
the
soci
ety
at la
rge.
Any
act
ion
that
upg
rade
s th
e st
atus
of
the
min
ority
chi
ldan
d hi
s la
ngua
ge c
ontr
ibut
es to
the
child
's o
ppor
tuni
ties
for
frie
ndsh
ipw
ith n
ativ
e E
nghs
h-sp
eaki
ng c
hild
ren.
2 :3
113
Chi
cano
,!5c
hool
had
ure
and
Succ
ess
In s
umm
ary,
theo
retic
al (
and
to s
ome
exte
nt, r
esea
rch)
sup
port
can
Hen
tifie
d fo
r ed
ucat
iona
l int
erve
ntio
ns th
at c
hoos
e to
util
ize
lang
uage
in a
var
iety
of d
istin
ct w
ays
with
in a
n ed
ucat
iona
l pro
gram
for
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
s. I
tse
ems
nece
ssar
y to
con
clud
e th
at th
e pr
esen
t sta
te o
f re
sear
ch a
nd th
eory
with
resp
ect t
o th
e la
ngua
ge a
nd th
e ed
ucat
ion
of C
hica
no la
ngua
ge m
inor
ity s
tude
nts
does
allo
w f
or s
ome
spec
ific
con
clus
ions
. Of
cour
se,
itis
rec
omm
ende
d th
ated
ucat
iona
l pro
fess
iona
ls in
thei
r qu
est t
o in
terv
ene
for
bette
rmen
t of
Chi
cano
stud
ents
car
eful
ly s
crut
iniz
e re
leva
nt th
eory
and
res
earc
h an
d ut
ilize
that
ana
lysi
sto
des
ign,
impl
emen
t and
eva
luat
e in
terv
entio
ns o
f si
gnif
ican
ce to
thei
r pa
rtic
ular
educ
atio
nal c
ircu
mst
ance
s.It
isfa
ir to
req
uest
fro
m s
uch
desi
gner
s an
d im
-pl
emen
ters
to p
rovi
de a
cle
ar th
eore
tical
and
res
earc
h fo
unda
tion,
one
whi
ch c
anin
turn
rec
eive
the
nece
ssar
y ca
refu
l scr
utin
y.
Ref
eren
ces
Aic
us i
,D
. and
GA
RC
IA, E
.(1
)88)
Lan
guag
e M
inor
ity E
duca
tion
inth
e U
nite
d St
ates
:R
esea
rch,
Pol
icy
and
Prac
tice,
Chi
cago
, IL
, Cha
rles
C. T
hom
as.
BA
Y I
EN
S L
ILA
/II/
WO
RE
, H. (
1)82
) B
iling
ualis
m: B
asic
hin
cipl
es, C
leve
don,
UK
, Tie
to L
td.
BA
KI
R. K
.A. a
nd D
E K
AN
11.1
2, A
.A. (
1983
) 'A
n an
swer
fro
m r
esea
rch
on b
iling
ual c
duca
-fi
cni',
Am
eric
an E
duca
tion,
pp.
48-
88.
BA
i rs
,E
. (1)
7(>
) L
angu
age
in C
onte
xt: T
he A
cqui
sitio
n of
Pra
gmat
ics,
New
Yor
k, A
cade
mic
Pres
sS
(1)7
7) 'T
he in
flue
nce
of b
iling
ualis
m o
n co
gniti
ve s
trat
egy
and
cogn
itive
deve
lopm
ent',
Chi
ld D
evel
opm
ent,
48, p
p. 1
069-
18.
llow
i nxt
AN
. M (
1975
) 'C
ross
lingu
istic
sim
ilari
ties
at tw
o st
ages
of
synt
actic
dev
elop
men
t',iii
EI
EN
N N
ISI
FiG
and
L. L
aNN
EN
BE
Rt;
(Eds
) Fo
unda
tions
of
Lan
guag
e D
evel
opm
ent,
Lou
don.
UN
ESC
O P
ress
, pp.
47-
69.
M.D
S(1
976)
'Chi
ldre
n's
firs
t wor
d co
mbi
natio
n', M
onog
raph
s of
the
Soci
ety
_tor
1?ei
carc
h in
Chi
ld D
evel
opm
ent,
New
Yor
k: J
ohn
Wile
y.B
itiok
h, R
.A. 0
973)
A F
irst
Lan
guag
e. T
he E
arly
Sta
ges,
Cam
brid
ge, M
A, H
arva
rdU
nive
rsity
Pre
ss.
(A N
AI
L, M
. (1)
83)
'Fro
m c
omm
unic
ativ
e co
mpe
tenc
e to
com
mun
icat
ive
peda
gogy
', in
J.R
ic. H
AR
D%
and
R. S
i it N
UM
( E
ds)
Lan
guag
e an
d C
omm
unic
atio
n, L
ondo
n, L
angm
an.
Li,
1).0
(19
74)
'Cre
ativ
e th
inki
ng a
bilit
ies
of M
exic
an y
outh
: The
rel
atio
nshi
p of
lout
nal o
t Cro
ss-C
ultu
ral P
sych
olog
y, 5
. pp.
492
-504
.C
AR
II
T.P
and
Cum
F11
.1 u
. M L
. (19
86)
'Eff
ectiv
e bi
lingu
al s
choo
ls: I
mpl
icat
ions
for
polk
v a
nd p
ract
ice*
, Am
eric
an J
ourn
al o
f E
duca
tion,
95,
pp.
200
-34.
Pu K
AR
I) (
1981
) 64
h F.
2d 9
89, 1
007
5th
Cir
. 198
1; 1
03 S
.ct.
3321
.C
iimci
iir, A
U a
nd O
'MA
I i i
y,I
M. (
1986
), A
Cog
nitiv
e A
cade
mic
Lan
guag
e L
earn
ing
App
roac
h A
n FS
I. C
onti
nt B
csed
(:u
rric
ulum
, Whe
aton
, MD
, Nat
iona
l Cle
arin
g H
ouse
for
Bili
ngua
l Edu
catio
nN
(19
59)
'Rev
iew
of
B.F
. Ski
nner
',I
'erh
al B
ehav
ior
and
Lan
guag
e, 3
5, p
p. 1
16-
2.8.
M ,
I )(
)141
,1
1 1A
I I, W
DO
W!!
Y, G
(19
78)
'Situ
atio
n an
d ta
sk in
chd
dren
'sta
lk',
Diw
ours
e Pr
oces
s,I,
pp.
119
-26
Ci M
IDI
cc, S
P (
1%7)
'The
sig
nifi
canc
e of
lear
ner's
err
ors'
, Int
erna
tiona
l Rev
iew
of
App
lied
LitI
OD
II.5
in L
angu
age
Tea
chin
g, 1
1, p
p. 1
76-8
5.j
(197
9) 'L
ingu
istic
inte
rdep
ende
nce
and
the
educ
atio
nal d
evel
opm
ent o
f bi
ling-
ual c
hild
ren'
, Rev
iew
ol E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h, 1
9, p
p. 2
22-5
1.t %
DA
NS,
J. (
1981
) 'T
he r
ole
of p
rim
ary
lang
uage
dev
elop
men
t in
prom
otin
g ed
ucat
iona
l
114
2 4
Bili
ngua
lism
, Sec
ond
Lan
guag
e A
cqui
sitio
n, a
nd E
duca
tion
Succ
ess
for
lang
uage
min
ority
stu
dent
s', i
n C
AL
IFO
RN
IA S
TA
TE
DE
PAR
TM
EN
T O
F E
DU
CA
-T
ION
(E
d.)
Scho
olin
g an
d L
angu
age
Min
ority
Stu
dent
s: A
The
oret
ical
Fra
mew
ork
Los
Ang
eles
, CA
, Eva
luat
ion,
Dis
sem
inat
ion,
and
Ass
essm
ent C
ente
r, p
p. 3
-50.
CU
MM
INS,
J. (
1984
) B
iling
ualis
m a
nd S
peci
al E
duca
tion,
San
Die
go, C
A, C
olle
ge-H
ill P
ress
.C
UM
MIN
S, J
. and
GU
LA
TSA
N. M
. (19
75)
'Bili
ngua
l edu
catio
n an
d co
gniti
on',
Alb
erta
Jou
rnal
of E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h, 2
0, p
p. 2
59-6
9.D
AR
CY
, N.T
. (19
53)
'A r
evie
w o
f th
e lit
erat
ure
of th
c ef
fect
s of
bili
ngua
lism
on th
em
easu
rem
ent o
f in
telli
genc
e', J
ourn
al o
f G
enet
ic P
sych
olog
y, 8
2, p
p. 2
1-57
.D
AR
cy, N
.T. (
1963
) 'B
iling
ualis
m a
nd th
e m
easu
rem
ent o
f in
telli
genc
e: R
evie
w o
fa
deca
de o
f re
sear
ch',
Jour
nal o
f G
enet
ic P
sych
olog
y, 1
03, p
p. 2
59-8
2.D
EV
EL
OPM
EN
T A
SSO
CIA
TE
S (1
984)
Fin
al R
epor
t Des
crip
tive
Stud
y Ph
ase
of th
e N
atio
nal L
ongi
tu-
dina
l Eva
luat
ion
of th
e E
ffec
tiven
ess
of S
ervi
ces
for
Lan
guag
e M
inor
ity L
imite
d E
nglis
hPr
ofic
ient
Stu
dent
s, A
rlin
gton
, VA
, Dev
elop
men
t Ass
ocia
tes,
Dec
embe
r.D
IAL
, R.M
. (19
83)
'The
impa
ct o
f bi
lingu
alis
m o
n co
gniti
ve d
evel
opm
ent',
in E
.W.
GO
RD
ON
(E
d.)
Rev
iew
of
Res
earc
h in
Edu
catio
n, W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C, A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
n-al
Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iatio
n, p
p. 2
3-54
.D
uLA
Y, H
. and
BU
RT
, M. (
1974
) 'N
atur
al s
eque
nce
in c
hild
sec
ond
lang
uage
acq
uisi
tion'
,W
orki
ng P
aper
s on
Bili
ngua
lism
, Tor
onto
, Can
ada,
The
Ont
ario
Ins
titut
e fo
r St
udie
sin
Edu
catio
n.D
UR
AN
, R. (
Ed.
) (1
981)
Lat
ino
Lan
guag
e an
d C
omm
unic
ativ
e B
ehav
ior,
Nor
woo
d, N
J, A
blex
.E
RV
IN-T
RIP
P, S
.M. (
1974
) 'Is
sec
ond
lang
uage
lear
ning
like
the
firs
t?' T
ESO
L Q
uart
erly
,8,
pp. 1
11-2
7.E
RV
IN-T
RIP
P, S
. and
MIT
CH
EL
L-K
ER
NA
N, C
. (19
77)
Chi
ld D
isco
urse
, New
Yor
k, A
cade
mic
Pres
s.FE
LD
MA
N, C
. and
SH
EN
, M. (
1971
) 'S
ome
lang
uage
-rel
ated
cog
nitiv
e ad
vant
ages
of b
ilin-
gual
fiv
e-ye
ar-o
lds'
, Jou
rnal
of
Gen
etic
Psy
chol
ogy,
118
, pp.
235
-244
.G
AL
AM
BO
S, S
.J. a
nd H
AK
U r
n, K
. (19
88)
'Sub
ject
-spe
cifi
c an
d ta
sk-s
peci
fic
char
acte
rist
ics
ofm
etal
ingu
istic
aw
aren
ess
in b
iling
ual c
hild
ren'
, App
lied
Lin
guis
tics,
9,
pp. 1
41-6
2.G
AR
CIA
, E. (
1983
) B
ilino
alis
m in
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
, Alb
uque
rque
, NM
, Uni
vers
ity o
fN
ewM
exic
o Pr
ess.
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