The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ISSN 2307-8235 (online)IUCN 2008: T32104A67803072Scope: GlobalLanguage: English

Pterocarpus santalinus, Red Sandalwood

Assessment by: Barstow, M.

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Citation: Barstow, M. 2018. Pterocarpus santalinus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018:e.T32104A67803072. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

Taxonomy

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family

Plantae Tracheophyta Magnoliopsida Fabales Fabaceae

Taxon Name:  Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.

Synonym(s):

• Lingoum santalinum (L.f) Kuntze

Common Name(s):

• English: Red Sandalwood, Almug, Red Sanders, Saunderswood

Assessment Information

Red List Category & Criteria: Near Threatened ver 3.1

Year Published: 2018

Date Assessed: February 1, 2018

Justification:

Pterocarpus indicus, an Indian endemic tree species, has a restricted geographic range in the Eastern

Ghats. The species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence (EOO) of around 25,000 km2. Historically

the population was also subject to decline due to timber demand; however, information on the scale of

this is not currently available and cannot be estimated. The population is still declining due to the illegal

harvest of mature individuals to provide the much sought after timber, Red Sandalwood. There is also

decline in the quality and extent of the species native habitat due to human pressures on the landscape,

for example, livestock grazing. Currently the number of locations of the species is not known but it is not

predicted to be larger than 10 based on the consistency of threat across the species range. The species

is globally assessed as Near Threatened as it almost qualifies for Vulnerable B1ab(iii,v). The species is

currently protected under national and international trade regulations. The conservation focus is on

reducing the illegal harvest of the species and establishing cultivated areas of the tree to reduce risk to

wild stock.

Previously Published Red List Assessments

1998 – Endangered (EN)http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T32104A9679328.en

1998 – Endangered (E)

Geographic Range

Range Description:

Pterocarpus santalinus has a restrictive distribution in the South Eastern portion of Indian Peninsula to

which it is endemic. It is native to the states of Andrhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (Hedge et al.

2012, Arunkumar and Joshi 2014). More specifically it is found in the Palakonda and Seshachalam hill

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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ranges of Cuddapha-Chittoor Districts of the State of Andhra Pradesh (Rajampet, Rayachoti, Ballepalle,

Kodur ranges, Gangana Palle forest of Vempalle village and Lankamal Reserve Forest) (Hedge et al. 2012,

Arunkumar and Joshi 2014). It occurs less frequently in the regions of Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu (Hedge

et al. 2012) and also in the North Arcot Hills.

The species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of around 25,000 km2. Within the Cuddapah

landscape, Arunkumar and Joshi (2014) estimated the species to have a distribution of 5,160 km2.

However, another estimate for Andra Pradesh considered species distribution to not exceed 398,000 ha

equivalent to 3,980 km2 (Hedge et al. 2012). The species total area of occupancy (AOO) is not anticipated

to be much larger than this measure as it is most common in this landscape and in Andra Pradesh.

Currently the number of locations of the species is not fully known but it is not predicted to be larger

than 10 based on the consistency of threat across the species range.

The species is cultivated within Sri Lanka, China, around its wild range states and also in Kerala,

Maharashtra, Odisha and West Bengal within India.

Country Occurrence:

Native: India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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Distribution MapPterocarpus santalinus

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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PopulationPterocarpus santalinus population is under pressure and in decline due to illegal felling and human

pressure on 'red sanders' forests. In a selection of 0.1 ha sample plots P. santalinus occurred at a density

of 16.75 per 0.1 ha. More specifically trees above 30 cm dbh occurred at a density of 9.19/ 0.1 ha. plots

but trees exceeding 70 cm dbh were only found at a density of 13.2 trees per ha (Rao and Raju 2002). In

the same sample plots seedlings occurred at an average density of 0.74 per 0.1 ha. Overall, P. santalinus

has a skewed size class distribution which consists of significantly fewer trees over 50 cm dbh compared

to trees of a smaller size class.

The species has been subject to historical population decline due to over extraction of trees for timber.

These historical declines are anticipated to be large and have been occurring over many generations of

the species, however the information is not available to estimate the scale of this ancestral loss.

Currently, the species also suffers from low fruit set and hence poor natural regeneration. Therefore, in

the future, the population of the species may decline further and it is also predicted to suffer from

genetic erosion, and in-breeding depression due to a relatively small remaining population

(Arunakumara et al. 2011).

Current Population Trend:  Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

Pterocarpus santalinus is a medium sized tree species between 10 and 15 m in height (Arunkumar and

Joshi 2014). It grows in dry deciduous forests where it can be mixed with other native species or form

pure stands (Babar et al. 2012). The species has a narrow specificity, with the majority of stands

occurring on quartzite soil. It grows on dry, hilly zones often on rocky grand (Rao and Raju 2002). The

species is light demanding and cannot tolerate shade or water logging (Arunakumara et al. 2011). It is

slow growing taking 50 to 60 years to reach 70 cm in girth. The trees are pollinated by bees and fruit

ripens from February to March. Fruit is wind dispersed and seed germinated quickly after the rainy

season. The species occurs from 150 to 900 m asl (Hedge et al. 2012).

Systems:  Terrestrial

Use and TradePterocarpus santalinus is a very valuable, attractive, hardwood species. Its timber is used to make

furniture, musical instruments, carving and to make agricultural tools. The wood is in high demand in

China and Japan but was previously sought in many parts of Europe (Arunkumar and Joshi 2014). All

trade of this timber is now currently from illegal sources as the harvest of the species is prohibited. The

trade of wood from even cultivated sources is limited. Legal trade is limited to the occasional sale of

confiscated timber by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. The species has negligible utilization within

the country mainly in Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia and sometimes for making small toys and musical

instruments. The species has virtually no domestic demand for construction or future use. Almost all the

seizures indicate the movement of logs towards the exit points or the seizures themselves are at the exit

points during attempted smuggling (MoEFCC 2018). Between 1991 and 2003 a 717.7 MT of P. santalinus

chips were traded. The majority of trade of the species is now in chips or dye. There are many regional,

national and international laws (including CITES) in place to monitor and control the trade of this timber

(Rao and Raju 2002). Current extraction of timber is opportunistic and mostly of trees exceeding 50 cm

in diameter, due to the illicit nature of the harvest of this species there is no 'commensurate

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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replacement of natural stands' (Arunakumara et al. 2011). Arunkumar and Joshi (2014) stated that 'the

regular seizures of huge quantities of Red Sanders wood in international markets are so common now

that the survival and existence of P. santalinus is a cause for concern.'

The species may also be harvested for pharmaceutical and medicinal uses. The heartwood can be

powdered to produce a treatment for diabetes. The species is used for immunity medicine in China. The

wood is astringent which can help alleviate swelling, pain and reduce bleeding (Rao and Raju 2002). The

species also produces a red dye known as 'santalin' this has medicinal properties but is also used to dye

paper, pulp, textiles and for tanning (Arunakumara et al. 2011, Prakash et al. 2006).

Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

This species is threatened by illegal timber extraction. The species occurrence near deprived villages,

where the extraction and trade of red sanders wood is a main source of livelihood, is a risk to the

species (Rao and Raju 2002). The extraction of the largest trees for timber has left the remaining

population of Pterocarpus santalinus skewed so there is reduced regeneration and increased the

occurrence of inbreeding. The illegal trade adversely affects the population structure of the species with

the removal of superior phenotypes. It is further aggravated by the special demand for wavy grained

individuals which cannot be determined by any observable morphological parameters, causing

indiscriminate felling. The natural fruit set is very low, about 6%, comparative to the quantum of flowers,

with xenogamous fruits alone carrying to maturity and dropping of autogamous and geitonogamies. This

puts the species at future risk of further decline.

Pterocarpus santalinus is also threatened by habitat loss due to anthropogenic pressures on deciduous

forests in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Very little information is available on the diseases and pests

except some seed-borne diseases caused by Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, Cladosporium cladosporides

and Fusarium spp.

Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

The species is present in six ex situ collections (BGCI 2018). The species is considered endangered in

India and is protected under law. Original laws prohibiting the harvest of the species were established in

the 19th century and they have been developed over the last century. The species has been

internationally protected under CITES Appendix II since 1995. Within Andhra Pradesh, it is estimated

that 168,000 ha of Red Sanders forest is found within protected areas

There is no harvest management for P. santalinus from wild populations as any extraction of the species

is illegal so current management plans focus on preventing the illegal harvest and trade of the species.

There is encouragement to raise plantations of P. santalinus outside of its natural range and also in

private plantations. It is recommended that the process of exporting and harvesting propagated and

cultivated trees is streamlined to encourage the establishment and use of these trees. There is some in

situ conservation of remaining red sanders forests. There is a need for protection of the forest from

fires, cattle grazing as well as the need planting of P. santalinus in areas of scarcity, within its native

range and where land reclamation is needed (Rao and Raju 2002).

The harvest of this species is monitored and illegally harvested trees are seized. Legal export requires

contracts and permits from multiple government agencies. Extract of living trees from the natural

forests is prohibited and silvicultural removals if any are as per the prescriptions of the approved

Working Plans. In the protected areas, removals of any kind are prohibited. The species should be used

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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in social forestry, these could be a source for sustainable harvesting. The species survives well without

irrigation and fertilizer. Also, detailed studies on the reproductive biology of this species is needed to

produce and maintain the genetic diversity. The continued conservation of this species is necessary for

its continued survival in the wild.

Credits

Assessor(s): Barstow, M.

Reviewer(s): Rehel, S. & Rivers, M.C.

Contributor(s): Deepu, S.

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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BibliographyArunakumara, K.K.I.U., Walpola, B.C., Subasinghe, S. and Yoon, MH. 2011. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f.(Rath handun): A review of its botany, uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J. Korean Soc. Appl. Biol.Chem. 54(4): 495-500.

Arunkumar, A.N. and Joshi, G. 2014. Pterocarpus santalinus (Red Sanders) an Endemic, Endangered Treeof India: Current Status, Improvement and the Future. Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment 4(2):1-10.

Babar, S., Amarnath, G., Reddy, C.S., Jentsch, A. and Sudhakar, S. 2002. Species distribution models:ecological explanation and prediction of an endemic and endangered plant species (Pterocarpussantalinus L.f.). Forest Remote Sensing, Biodiversity and Climate. 102(8).

Balakrishna, P. and Ravishankar, T. 1993. Letter with list of corrections to TPU printout for India.

BGCI (Botanic Gardens Conservation International). 2018. PlantSearch online database. Richmond, UKAvailable at: www.bgci.org/plant_search.php. (Accessed: 2018).

Hedge, M., Singh, B.G. and Krishnakumar, N. 2012. Non-Detriment Findings Study for Pterocarpussantalinus L. f. (Red Sanders) in India. Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding.

IUCN. 2018. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2018-1. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org.(Accessed: 28 June 2018).

MoEFCC. 2018. Red Sanders. Available at: http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Chap-8-new.pdf. (Accessed: March 2018).

Molur, S. and Walker, S. 1996. Report on Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP II)(unpublished).

Molur, S., Ved, D.K., Tandon, V., Namboodiri, N. and Walker, S. (Eds.). 1995. Conservation assessmentand management plan (CAMP) for selected species of medicinal plants of southern India.

Prakash, E., Khan, P.S.S.V., Rao, T.J.V and Meru, E.S. 2006. Micropropagation of red sanders (Pterocarpussantalinus) using nodal explants. J For Res 11: 329-335.

Rao, S.P. and Raju, A.J.S. 2002. Pollination ecology of the Red Sanders Pterocarpus santalinus (Fabaceae),an endemic and endangered tree species. Current Science 83(9): 1144- 1148.

CitationBarstow, M. 2018. Pterocarpus santalinus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018:e.T32104A67803072. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

DisclaimerTo make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.

External ResourcesFor Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the Red List website.

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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Appendix

Habitats(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Habitat Season SuitabilityMajorImportance?

1. Forest -> 1.5. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Dry - Suitable -

Threats(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score

12. Other options -> 12.1. Other threat Ongoing Majority (50-90%)

Unknown Unknown

Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->2.3.5. Inbreeding

2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->2.3.6. Skewed sex ratios

2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->2.3.7. Reduced reproductive success

2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual &perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.4. ScaleUnknown/Unrecorded

Ongoing Unknown Rapid declines Unknown

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion

1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.3. Livestock farming& ranching -> 2.3.4. Scale Unknown/Unrecorded

Ongoing Unknown Rapid declines Unknown

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion

1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

5. Biological resource use -> 5.3. Logging & woodharvesting -> 5.3.2. Intentional use: (large scale)[harvest]

Ongoing Majority (50-90%)

Rapid declines Mediumimpact: 7

Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

2. Species Stresses -> 2.2. Species disturbance

Conservation Actions in Place(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Conservation Actions in Place

In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management

Occur in at least one PA: Yes

In-Place Species Management

Subject to ex-situ conservation: Yes

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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Conservation Actions Needed(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Conservation Actions Needed

2. Land/water management -> 2.3. Habitat & natural process restoration

3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.1. Harvest management

3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.2. Trade management

3. Species management -> 3.2. Species recovery

Research Needed(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Research Needed

1. Research -> 1.2. Population size, distribution & trends

1. Research -> 1.3. Life history & ecology

Additional Data Fields

Distribution

Estimated area of occupancy (AOO) (km²): 5160

Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 25000

Number of Locations: 10

Lower elevation limit (m): 150

Upper elevation limit (m): 900

Population

Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ISSN 2307-8235 (online)IUCN 2008: T32104A67803072Scope: GlobalLanguage: English

The IUCN Red List Partnership

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species

Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.

The IUCN Red List Partners are: Arizona State University; BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens

Conservation International; Conservation International; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew;

Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M University; and Zoological Society of London.

THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Pterocarpus santalinus – published in 2018.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32104A67803072.en

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