PsychologyPsychology

What is Psychology?What is Psychology?The study of how and why The study of how and why

humans think, feel and act humans think, feel and act as they do.as they do.

Psychology focuses on the Psychology focuses on the individual, and the individual, and the personalpersonal and and uniqueunique experiences that influence experiences that influence them at all stages of their them at all stages of their lives.lives.

Types of PsychologyTypes of Psychology

Experimental PsychologyExperimental PsychologySetting up experiments to Setting up experiments to

see how individuals think see how individuals think and act in particular and act in particular situationssituations

QuestionQuestion - Would you help a - Would you help a complete stranger that was complete stranger that was being threatened with being threatened with violence from another violence from another person?person?

The Case of Kitty GenoveseThe Case of Kitty GenoveseKitty Genovese was murdered on the Kitty Genovese was murdered on the

street outside her New York City street outside her New York City apartment after loud shouting was heard. apartment after loud shouting was heard. - 38 people witnessed the murder but did - 38 people witnessed the murder but did nothing to stop it.nothing to stop it.

Psychologists study our unwillingness to Psychologists study our unwillingness to get involved in uncomfortable situations.get involved in uncomfortable situations.

People have a tendency see themselves People have a tendency see themselves as bystanders in such situations rather as bystanders in such situations rather than as than as ACTORS (active participants)ACTORS (active participants)

The Bystander Effect - The Bystander Effect - Kitty GenoveseKitty Genovese

When Bystanders Join InWhen Bystanders Join In4 years after Genovese was murdered, 4 years after Genovese was murdered,

two psychologists, John Darley and Bibb two psychologists, John Darley and Bibb Latane, wanted to identify the factors that Latane, wanted to identify the factors that influence bystanders’ decisions to get influence bystanders’ decisions to get involved in public situationsinvolved in public situations

Experiment: Experiment: What would affect whether What would affect whether or not people would get involved in a room or not people would get involved in a room that is filling with smoke.that is filling with smoke.

The Smoke-filled Room StudyThe Smoke-filled Room Study

Conclusions?

How does this relate to the Kitty Genovese case?

Another similar phenomenon

What motivates people to do this?

Does this have anything to do with the Kitty Genovese case?

Experimental Methodology Terms:

Independent variable:

Dependent Variable:

Confederates:

Placebos:

Some Observational Methods:Some Observational Methods:

Survey Methods:

Naturalistic Observation:

Longitudinal Studies:

Interviews:

Clinical PsychologyClinical PsychologyCLINICAL PSYCHOLOGYCLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

develops programs for treating develops programs for treating individuals suffering from individuals suffering from mental illnesses and mental illnesses and behavioural disorders.behavioural disorders.

Eg. Individuals diagnosed with Eg. Individuals diagnosed with Schizophrenia often seek out-Schizophrenia often seek out-patient care so that they can patient care so that they can live fuller, more normal lives.live fuller, more normal lives.

Psychological Schools of Psychological Schools of ThoughtThought

Like the other social sciences, psychology Like the other social sciences, psychology has been divided into a number of schools has been divided into a number of schools of thought.of thought.

Some that stand out:Some that stand out:

Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic TheoryCognitive-BehaviourismCognitive-BehaviourismLearning TheoryLearning Theory

Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic TheoryThe mind is divided The mind is divided

into two parts: the into two parts: the consciousconscious (aware of ) (aware of ) and the and the unconscious unconscious (not aware of)(not aware of)

Unconscious mind has Unconscious mind has more influence than more influence than our conscious mind on our conscious mind on our personalities and our personalities and behaviour.behaviour.

The Unconscious MindThe Unconscious MindFreud Says: Freud Says: The Unconscious The Unconscious

mind is divided into three mind is divided into three parts:parts:

1.1. IdId – which encourages us to – which encourages us to seek physical satisfactionseek physical satisfaction

2.2. SuperegoSuperego – selfless moral – selfless moral barometer.barometer.

3.3. EgoEgo – the referee between – the referee between the two; our most conscious the two; our most conscious selfself

Sigmund FreudSigmund FreudThe founder of psychoanalytic The founder of psychoanalytic

theorytheory

He believed our early childhood He believed our early childhood experiences, usually involving experiences, usually involving our relationships with parents our relationships with parents and family, are stored in our and family, are stored in our unconscious mindunconscious mind

While we are normally unaware While we are normally unaware of these memories, they can of these memories, they can have a powerful influence on have a powerful influence on the way we functionthe way we function

•Those that live with a general sense of frustration, Those that live with a general sense of frustration, their behaviour may become their behaviour may become neurotic neurotic and and connected with anxiety or obsessiveness. connected with anxiety or obsessiveness.

•Can be treated using dream analysis, hypnosis and Can be treated using dream analysis, hypnosis and individual counseling.individual counseling.

• Freud felt that individual sexual satisfaction or Freud felt that individual sexual satisfaction or frustration was the key element in personality frustration was the key element in personality development.development.

•He coined the phrases “Oedipus complex” and He coined the phrases “Oedipus complex” and “Penis envy”.“Penis envy”.

Alfred Adler Alfred Adler (1870-1937)(1870-1937) Adler believed that Adler believed that

when people do not when people do not gain self-esteem and gain self-esteem and recognition in normal recognition in normal healthy ways, it can healthy ways, it can result in personality result in personality disorders which are disorders which are now widely referred now widely referred to as to as inferiority inferiority complexcomplex. .

Carl Jung (1875-1961) Carl Jung (1875-1961) Responsible for the Responsible for the

identification of the identification of the ExtrovertedExtroverted (outward-looking; outgoing; rely (outward-looking; outgoing; rely on others for sense of well on others for sense of well being) and being) and IntrovertedIntroverted (inward- (inward-looking; emotionally self looking; emotionally self sufficient; well being comes sufficient; well being comes from within) personality types. from within) personality types.

Worked closely with Freud but Worked closely with Freud but split later in their careerssplit later in their careers

The other aspect of Jung's work The other aspect of Jung's work which has been very influential which has been very influential is his approach to the analysis is his approach to the analysis of dreams. of dreams.

BehaviourismBehaviourism Behaviourists focus on stimulus Behaviourists focus on stimulus

(cause) and response (effect) in (cause) and response (effect) in the form of behaviours. the form of behaviours.

They believe that psychologists They believe that psychologists can predict and modify human can predict and modify human behaviour by identifying the behaviour by identifying the factors that motivate it in the factors that motivate it in the first place.first place.

Behaviourists placed particular Behaviourists placed particular stress on the early childhood stress on the early childhood years, and the rules or practices years, and the rules or practices parents use to raise their parents use to raise their children.children.

Charles B. Watson (1878-1958) Charles B. Watson (1878-1958) The founder of The founder of

behaviourism.behaviourism.

He used He used animalanimal experiments to determine experiments to determine whether strict of flexible whether strict of flexible learning patterns are more learning patterns are more effective.effective.

Wrote book “Psychological Wrote book “Psychological Care of the Infant and Child” Care of the Infant and Child” concluded that children concluded that children should be brought up using should be brought up using a ‘scientific’, strictly a ‘scientific’, strictly scheduled, rules-based scheduled, rules-based model.model.

Benjamin Spock (1903-1998)Benjamin Spock (1903-1998)He believed that a He believed that a

permissive approach to permissive approach to child rearing, rather child rearing, rather than a strict one, would than a strict one, would result in successful, result in successful, well-adjusted adults.well-adjusted adults.

He encouraged parents He encouraged parents to be loving, flexible to be loving, flexible and supportiveand supportive

Wrote book “Baby and Wrote book “Baby and Child Care”Child Care”

Learning TheoryLearning Theory Learning Theorists agree that Learning Theorists agree that

humans are born with little humans are born with little instinct but huge potential.instinct but huge potential.

They believe that most human They believe that most human behaviour is learned, especially in behaviour is learned, especially in child and youth.child and youth.

By controlling the way in which By controlling the way in which humans learn behavious, society humans learn behavious, society can have a great influence on can have a great influence on their ultimate personalities their ultimate personalities

Psychological Questions Psychological Questions Focus on people’s behaviours (what they do) Focus on people’s behaviours (what they do)

and attitudes (what they think)and attitudes (what they think)

Key Questions:Key Questions:-what must people -what must people dodo to successfully change to successfully change their behaviours?their behaviours?

-what -what factorsfactors make behaviour-modification make behaviour-modification programs successful?programs successful?

-do most people need help changing -do most people need help changing behaviour, or can they be behaviour, or can they be self changersself changers??

Theory of Attitude ChangeTheory of Attitude ChangeCognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Six Stages of Change (Behaviour Six Stages of Change (Behaviour Modification)Modification)-Pre-contemplation (denial, refusal)-Pre-contemplation (denial, refusal)-Contemplation (questioning)-Contemplation (questioning)-Preparation (investigation)-Preparation (investigation)-Action (commitment)-Action (commitment)-Maintenance (transition)-Maintenance (transition)-Termination (completion)-Termination (completion)

Positive and Negative ReinforcementPositive and Negative Reinforcement

B.F. Skinner B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)(1904-1990)

Theory of OPERANT Theory of OPERANT CONDITIONING: learning can be CONDITIONING: learning can be programmed by whatever programmed by whatever consequences follows a particular consequences follows a particular behaviour behaviour

Skinner proved that pigeons Skinner proved that pigeons could be trained to peck at a could be trained to peck at a particular coloured disk to get particular coloured disk to get food rewards.food rewards.

Appropriate responses are Appropriate responses are rewarded.rewarded.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

Analysis of human needs Analysis of human needs organized into a hierarchy organized into a hierarchy ranging from basic survival ranging from basic survival through to the need for through to the need for love, security and esteemlove, security and esteem

Maslov’s theories had most Maslov’s theories had most profound impact on profound impact on industrial psychology industrial psychology (making workplace a (making workplace a satisfying experience by satisfying experience by raising morale of workers to raising morale of workers to improve performance)improve performance)

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Pavlov’s experiments with Pavlov’s experiments with dogs showed that is was dogs showed that is was possible to get a dog to possible to get a dog to associate the sound of a bell associate the sound of a bell with the imminent arrival of with the imminent arrival of foodfood

At the sound of a bell, the At the sound of a bell, the dog would salivate in dog would salivate in anticipationanticipation

CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGCLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Alfred Bandura (Born in 1925)Alfred Bandura (Born in 1925) Bandura concluded that learning is Bandura concluded that learning is

largely a modeling experience and more largely a modeling experience and more complicated than a mere stimulus-complicated than a mere stimulus-response effectresponse effect

When humans observe behaviour – When humans observe behaviour – either acceptable or unacceptable – either acceptable or unacceptable – they are more likely to practice it.they are more likely to practice it.

BoboBobo

Question – What does this mean to us? Question – What does this mean to us? What applications can be made to What applications can be made to today?today?

Activity: Dream AnalysisActivity: Dream Analysis The following is a Jungian dream analysis method. The The following is a Jungian dream analysis method. The

method is based on the belief that objects and people in a method is based on the belief that objects and people in a dream have a personal meaning to the dreamer, and that dream have a personal meaning to the dreamer, and that the dreamer (not an analyst) is best able to understand the dreamer (not an analyst) is best able to understand his/her own dream. Often people and objects in our dreams his/her own dream. Often people and objects in our dreams represent parts of ourselves, or ways we would like (or are represent parts of ourselves, or ways we would like (or are afraid) to be. For instance, if you dream of your very afraid) to be. For instance, if you dream of your very outgoing friend, Tom, and you feel wonderful in the dream, outgoing friend, Tom, and you feel wonderful in the dream, it might be your unconscious encouraging you to become it might be your unconscious encouraging you to become more outgoing. more outgoing.

Start by recalling a dream you have had, jotting down as Start by recalling a dream you have had, jotting down as many details as you can. (Choose a dream you’ll feel many details as you can. (Choose a dream you’ll feel comfortable discussing with others.) Then, working with a comfortable discussing with others.) Then, working with a small group of students, take turns revealing your dreams small group of students, take turns revealing your dreams while others in the group ask the following sets of questions: while others in the group ask the following sets of questions:

1.1. What is the setting or settings?What is the setting or settings?•• What does each place remind you of or make you think of? What does each place remind you of or make you think of? •• What does it feel like to be in these settings?What does it feel like to be in these settings?•• What is the mood of the dream (scary, funny, light, peaceful ...)?What is the mood of the dream (scary, funny, light, peaceful ...)?•• How does this mood affect you?How does this mood affect you?  2.2. Who are the people in the dream? (Discuss each person Who are the people in the dream? (Discuss each person

individually.)individually.)•• What is the main characteristic of each; what is each person like? What is the main characteristic of each; what is each person like?

(Jung would ask, “What is the essence of each person?”) For (Jung would ask, “What is the essence of each person?”) For example, organized, funny, worldly....? example, organized, funny, worldly....?

•• How do you feel about each person in the dream?How do you feel about each person in the dream?•• If a person is unknown, what kind of person would you imagine If a person is unknown, what kind of person would you imagine

him/her to be given the way s/he looks and acts in the dream?him/her to be given the way s/he looks and acts in the dream?•• What is each person doing in the dream?What is each person doing in the dream?•• How do their actions make you feel?How do their actions make you feel?•• Does a person remind you of anything or anyone in your life?Does a person remind you of anything or anyone in your life?•• Is there some part of you that is like this person, or would like to be Is there some part of you that is like this person, or would like to be

more like this person, or reacts strongly against him/her?more like this person, or reacts strongly against him/her?

3. 3. Describe the objects in your dream as you would to Describe the objects in your dream as you would to someone from another planet.someone from another planet.

•• What are they used for? How do they work?What are they used for? How do they work?•• Do you like or dislike them?Do you like or dislike them?•• Do they remind you of anything, any part of yourself, or Do they remind you of anything, any part of yourself, or

anyone in your life?anyone in your life?  4. 4. What are the major actions and events in the dream?What are the major actions and events in the dream?•• How do you react to them in the dream?How do you react to them in the dream?•• How do they make you feel?How do they make you feel?•• Do they remind you of any situations in real life?Do they remind you of any situations in real life?  5.5.Considering all the different thoughts that came to mind as Considering all the different thoughts that came to mind as

you discussed your dream, how do you understand your you discussed your dream, how do you understand your dream now? dream now?

Solomon Asch says: Match the Lines.

Thank you, Confederates.

“Later today, you will be a confederate in an experiment called Solomon Ash says: Match the Lines. This means you will be secretly “in” on the purpose of the experiment. When I show a bunch of lines on the projector, you are asked to confidently say B is the same length as the test line (even though it is not). The plan is to try to convince others to answer the same choice as yours.”