Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 6 Chapter 6:...

Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 6

Chapter 6: States of Consciousness


Some Early Definitions

• Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of in any instant– Waking Consciousness: Normal, clear,

organized, alertness

• Altered State of Consciousness (ASC): Changes that occur in quality and pattern of mental activity


Sleep

• Innate, biological rhythm

• Microsleep: Brief shift in brain-wave patterns similar to those during sleep


Figure 6.4


Sleep Problems

• Sleep Deprivation: Sleep loss; being deprived of needed amounts of sleep

• Sleep-Deprivation Psychosis: Confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations that occur because of sleep loss

• Sleep Patterns: Daily rhythms of sleep and waking


Rhythms

• Circadian Rhythms: Bodily changes that occur every 24 hours

• Biological Rhythm: Any repeating cycle of biological activity


Jet Lag

• Disturbed body rhythms caused by rapid travel east or west

• Major time shifts (5 hours or more) can cause very slow adaptation

• Direction of travel affects adaptation, and thus, severity of jet lag– MUCH easier to go from east to west, than

west to east

• Preadaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule


Measuring Sleep Changes

• Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-wave machine; amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain

• Beta Waves: Small fast waves associated with being alert and awake

• Alpha Waves: Large, slow brainwaves associated with relaxation and falling asleep


Stage 1 Sleep

• Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep)– Hypnic Jerk: Reflex muscle contraction


Stages of Sleep, Part 1


Stage 2 Sleep

• Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appear


Stage 3 Sleep

• Deeper sleep; Delta waves appear; very large and slow


Stage 4 Sleep

• Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely Delta waves


Figure 6.3


Two Basic Kinds of Sleep

• Rapid Eye Movements (REM): Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light– Body is very still during REM sleep– Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep

is called REM Behavioral Disorder


Non-REM (NREM) Sleep

• Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs – Seems to help us recover from daily

fatigue– EEG patterns return to Stage 1


Figure 6.8


Some Sleep Disturbances

• Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep– Sleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause

decrease in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause dependency

• Drug-Dependency Insomnia: Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills


Types and Causes of Insomnia

• Temporary Insomnia: Brief period of sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and excitement– Avoid fighting it and read a book, for

example, until you’re struggling to stay awake


Some More Sleep Concerns

• Chronic Insomnia: Exists if sleeping troubles last for more than three weeks– Adopt regular schedule; go to bed at the

same time each night, for example

• Tryptophan: Amino acid (chemical) that produces sleep


Sleep Disturbances

• Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM sleep during Stages 3 and 4

• Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in NREM sleep


Some Other Sleep Disturbances

• Nightmares: Bad dreams that occur during REM sleep – May occur once or twice a month; brief and

easily remembered– Imagery Rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the

changed dream before you go to sleep again; may help to eliminate nightmares


Night Terrors

• Night Terrors: Total panic and often hallucinations of frightening dream images may occur– Occurs during Stage 4 sleep– Most common in childhood; may occur in

adults– Not remembered


Physiological Sleep Problems

• Sleep Apnea: Repeated interrupted breathing during sleep; cause of very loud snoring– Hypersomnia: Extreme daytime sleepiness– Apnea can be treated by

• Surgery

• Weight loss

• Breathing mask


Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

• Sudden, unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant (infants should sleep on back or on side to try to prevent)

• Also known as Crib Death


Dreams

• Psychodynamic (Freudian) Theory: Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces

• Wish Fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams are expressions of unconscious desires– Much evidence to refute this

• Dream Symbols: Images that have a deeper symbolic meaning


Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

• Dream content may be affected by motor commands in the brain during sleep that are not carried out


Hypnosis

• Altered state of consciousness characterized by intensely narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestion– Mesmer: Believed he could cure diseases

by passing magnets over body; true “animal magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize)

– Must cooperate to become hypnotized


Hypnotic Susceptibility

• How easily a person can be hypnotized

• Basic Suggestion Effect: Tendency of hypnotized people to carry out suggested actions as though they were involuntary


Table 6.2


Hypnosis Can

• Help people relax

• Reduce pain

• Get people to make better progress in therapy


Hypnosis Cannot

• Produce acts of superhuman strength

• Produce age regression

• Force you to do things against your will


Stage Hypnosis

• Simulation of hypnotic effects, done to entertain


Tricks of the Hypnosis Trade

• Waking Suggestibility: People on stage do not want to spoil the act, so they will follow any instruction

• Selection of Responsive Subjects: Any “volunteer” who does not get hypnotized in the stage group and does not follow instructions is removed

• The Hypnosis Label Disinhibits: On stage, once you are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for actions is removed; you can do whatever you want!


More Stage Hypnosis “Tricks of the Trade”

• Hypnotist as Director: Once they are in a trance, the “volunteers” are suddenly the show’s stars, and they will act like it; the hypnotist only needs to direct them

• Stage Hypnotists Use Tricks: Stage hypnosis is 50% deception and 50% taking advantage of the situation

• Conclusion: Stage hypnotists entertain; they rarely hypnotize


Meditation

• Mental exercise designed to focus attention and interrupt flow of thoughts, worries, and analyses

• Concentrative Meditation: Attention is paid to a single focal point (i.e., object, thought, etc.)– Produces relaxation response and thus

works to reduce stress

• Receptive Meditation: Based on widening attention span to become aware of everything experienced at a given moment


More on Meditation

• Mantra: Word(s) or sound(s) repeated silently during concentrative meditation

• Relaxation Response: Occurs at time of relaxation; innate physiological pattern that opposes body’s fight or flight responses


Sensory Deprivation (SD)

• Any major reduction in amount or variety of sensory stimulation

• Benefits– Sensory enhancement– Relaxation– Changing habits– Benefits called REST: Restricted

Environmental Stimulation Therapy


Figure 6.12


Mindfulness

• Open, nonjudgmental awareness of current experience


Drugs and Altered States of Consciousness

• Psychoactive Drug: Substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, or perception

• Stimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system

• Depressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system


Dependence

• Physical Dependence: Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms– Drug Tolerance: Reduction in body’s

response to a drug– Withdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness

following withdrawal of the drug

• Psychological Dependence: Drug dependence based on psychological or emotional needs


Figure 6.13


Stimulants

• Amphetamine: Synthetic stimulants that excite nervous system– Dexedrine and Methamphetamine are two

types of stimulants

• Amphetamine Psychosis: Loss of contact with reality because of amphetamine use; user tends to have paranoid delusions


Interaction of Dopamine and Amphetamines


Cocaine

• Central Nervous System stimulant derived from leaves of coca plant; also used as local anesthetic– From 1886-1906, Coca-Cola did indeed

have cocaine in it!– Highly addictive drug– Anhedonia (Inability to Feel Pleasure):

Common after cocaine withdrawal


Interaction of Dopamine and Cocaine


MDMA (Ecstasy)

• Chemically similar to amphetamine; created by small variations in a drug’s structure– May cause severe liver damage and fatal

heat exhaustion– Repeated use damages serotonergic brain

cells


Caffeine

• Most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America; present in colas, chocolate, coffee, tea

• Causes tremors, sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus, suppresses fatigue or sleepiness, increases alertness– May be hazardous to pregnant women if

used excessively; may cause birth defects


Caffeinism

• Physiological dependence on caffeine– Symptoms include: Insomnia, irritability,

loss of appetite, chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature


Nicotine

• Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco; known carcinogen

• In large doses it causes stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors

• Addictive

• Smoking responsible for 97% of lung cancer deaths in men, 74% in women

• Sum: DON’T SMOKE; SMOKING KILLS (SO DOES CHEWING TOBACCO)


Understanding Addiction


Sedatives

• Barbiturates: Sedative drugs that depress brain activity– Seconal and Amytal are two types


Interaction of GABA and Barbiturates


GHB

• GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate): Central Nervous System (CNS) depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner– Sedative effects may result in nausea, loss

of muscle control, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness

– Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on their own vomit

– Addictive and deadly


Tranquilizers

• Tranquilizers: Lower anxiety and reduce tension– Valium, Xanax, Halcion, and Librium are

four types– Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers

inhibitions and produces relaxation or intoxication; larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleep

• Date rape drug because it’s odorless and tasteless (“Roofies”)


Drug Interaction

• One drug increases the effect of another


Alcohol

• Ethyl Alcohol: Intoxicating element in fermented and distilled liquors– NOT a stimulant but DOES lower

inhibitions– Depressant


Binge Drinking

• Consuming five or more drinks in a short time, or four or more for women– Serious sign of alcohol abuse– May lead to up to 10 percent loss of brain

power, especially memory


How a Drinking Problem may Develop (Jellinek, 1960)

• Initial Phase: Social drinker turns to alcohol to relieve tension or feel good

• Crucial Phase: Person begins to lose control over drinking

• Chronic Phase: Person is now alcohol dependent


Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence

• Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly controlled; oftentimes necessary before long-term treatment begins


Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)

• Worldwide self-help organization composed of recovering alcoholics; emphasizes admitting powerlessness over alcohol usage and wanting to recover – Spiritual component– Free; around for over 70 years!

• Rational Recovery, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety (SOS): Non-spiritual AA Alternatives


Table 6.3a


Table 6.3b


Some Hallucinogens

• Hallucinogen: Substance that alters or distorts sensory impressions

• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD): Hallucinogen that can produce hallucinations and psychotic disturbances in thinking and perception


Some More Hallucinogens

• Mescaline (Peyote) and Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)

• PCP (Angel Dust): Initially can have hallucinogenic effects; also an anesthetic and has stimulant and depressant effects


Marijuana (Pot)

• Cannabis Sativa (Marijuana; Pot): Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant– Active chemical: THC– Effects: Relaxation, time distortion,

perceptual distortions– Psychologically, NOT physiologically,

addictive


Some Health Risks of Using Marijuana

• Can cause precancerous changes in lung cells

• Can suppress immune system, increasing risk of disease

• Activity levels in the cerebellum are lower than normal in pot users

• Pot may damage some of the brain’s memory centers


Dream Interpretation

• Freud: Four dream processes (mental filters) that hide true meanings of dreams


Condensation

• Combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image


Displacement

• Directing emotions or actions toward safe or unimportant dream images


Symbolization

• Non-literal expression of dream content


Secondary Elaboration

• Making a dream more logical and adding details while remembering it


Perls’ Views on Dreams

• Most dreams are a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing when awake, or feelings that we need to re-own

• Dreams fill in gaps in our personal experience


Lucid Dreaming

• Person feels fully awake within the dream and feels capable of normal thought and action

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