PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Adam Barger, Beverly Becker, Michelle Boyd, Kirstin Byrd, & Elizabeth Hobson

EPPL 604

General Outline for Presentation

Definition:

a. The science of mind and behavior

b. The study of the mind and behavior in relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity.

Behaviorism Cognitive Psychology Social Psychology Industrial-Organizational

Psychology

Objectives

At the conclusion of the presentation, participants will be able to …

identify and describe three types of psychology.

recognize four relevant theories in psychology.

apply at least one theory to a relevant educational problem.

Behaviorism

Stimulus Response

Little to no value given to thought

processes

Significant value

given to behavior

and actions

John B. Watson

Desired to study only what was observable (behaviors).

Emotions and behaviors learned in the same way as skills or tasks.

Influenced by earlier experiments in classical conditioning. (Pavlov)

B.F. Skinner

Built on ideas of Watson; theories came to be known as hyper-behaviorism

Advocated using observable behavior to study all aspects of human thought and action

Profound effect on education and learning theory

Focused on reinforcement

Behaviorism in Education

Passive learning Rote learning Positive reinforcement

A change in behavior indicates learning

Research Examples

Miranda (2009) Using behaviorist

educational strategies to foster success in community college classes

DeMartino (1999) Instructional

design models and learning models for education (including non k-12) draw upon behaviorist theories (as well as constructivist and cognitive)

Conclusions

Varying views on whether behaviorism opposes cognitive psychology and constructivism.

Some researchers and practitioners see resurgence of behaviorist strategies in education.

Studies examining behaviors often account for the basic stimulus/response pattern

Cognitive Psychology

Defining Cognitive Psychology

Ulric Neisser’s 1967 definition: “Cognitive psychology refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”

Often referred to as: human information processing Cognitive psychology has had major influences on:

Educational psychology Social psychology Applied psychology

Reed, S. K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

The Roots of Cognitive Psychology

Has roots in philosophy and physiology, which both seek to understand the human mind.

Plato and Aristotle have affected modern thinking in psychology.

They disagreed on how to investigate ideas. Plato was a rationalist . “The route to knowledge is

through logical analysis.” Aristotle was an empiricist. “We acquire knowledge via

empirical evidence – experience and observation.”

By the 1970’s, it was a major field of psychology with a set of distinctive research method.

Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Goals of Research in Cognitive Psychology

Observe behavior to make inferences about underlying explanations of behavior (thought, language, meaning, and imagery)

Seek formal explanations to the nature and function of mental processes

Seek a more complex explanation than stimulus response (behaviorist)

Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004

Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

Laboratory/controlled experiments Psychobiological research Self-reports Case studies Naturalistic observations Computer simulations and artificial

intelligence

Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Cognitive Psychology: Noam Chomsky

1960’s Our understanding of language is constrained

not so much by what we have heard, but rather, by an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that all humans possess. (Nature)

He emphasizes a more “rationalistic” technique He and other linguists demonstrated that

language acquisition was more a complex process than what behaviorism accounts for.

Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Cognitive Psychology: Herbert A. Simon

Professor of computer science and psychology at Carnegie-Mellon University.

1972: (Pioneer with Allen Newell) Proposed a detailed models of human thinking and problem solving from the most basic levels to the most complex. Constructed and tested computer models that

simulated human thought. Major advocate of thinking-aloud protocols as a

means of studying cognitive processing.Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth.

Main concepts

Schema are mental frameworks for information (Simon)

Levels of processing: memory is a by-product of processing type: Encoding and retrieval

Constructive memory: created by learners as they confront new situations

Social influences: motivation, self awareness

Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004

Themes for education

Learning is constructive Mental frameworks organize memory: schema,

concepts, scripts Extended practice is needed to develop cognitive

skills Metacognition: self reflective and directed

learners Motivation and beliefs are important Social interaction is fundamental

Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004

Useful Theories in EducationCognitive Load

Theory: Learning is constrained by limited processing capacity

George Miller (1956): Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two about what makes it from short to long term memory

More Theories

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory (1997):

Learning is the result of interacting variables: personal, behavioral, and environmental. Example: Self-efficacy, outcome expectancy

Attribution Theory: how individuals explain events in their lives and why they respond differently

Self Regulated Learning Theory:

ability to control all aspects of one’s learning from advance planning to performance evaluation (Pintrich, 2000; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994; Winne, 1995).

Social Cognition

Based on Lev Vygotsky’s Mind in Society (1978): Zone of Proximal Development. Children are apprenctices in thinking. Information processing alone does not account for cognitive development.

Social Psychology

Definitions

According to Allport (1985), social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings.

An Intersection

Social Psychology lies at the intersection of Psychology and Sociology

Psychology- social psychologists are trained in the rigorous experimental methods of psychology

Sociology- social psychologists share a sociological focus on the behavior of the groups, interactions and exchanges, as well as the individual/group in the larger context of social structures and processes.

Intersection cont’d

Psychological Social Psychology A more positivist approach Concrete• Sociological Social Psychology

• A more constructivist approach, looks at societal constructions like family, parenthood etc., within a specific time frame or historical dimension

• Sees institutions like family or parenthood as constantly changing, therefore it has a more fluid approach to methodology

OEMA Social Psychology

Created by Patricia Popp, 1998 (amended by Finnegan, 2008)

Scope of Psychological Research

Topics Covered by Social Psychology

Group behavior Social perception Leadership Nonverbal behavior Conformity Aggression Prejudice How social influences, perception, and

interaction are vital to understanding social behavior

History

Kurt Lewin Gordon Allport

History

Stanley Milgram Leon Festinger

History

Norman Triplett 1898 Perception, cognition, attitudes, small

groups During WWII- persuasion, propaganda, US

military After WWII- gender and racial discrimination During the 1960s- cognitive dissonance,

bystander effect, aggression During the 1970s- debate on ethics, culture

Since the 1980s

Ethical standards now regulate research There is greater pluralism Multiculturalism has emerged as a

perspective Attribution, social cognition, and self-

concepts have been the focus of research in recent years

Examples of Social Psychological Theories

Attribution theory Cognitive dissonance Drive theory Evolutionary Psychology Social Learning Schemata theory Self-Perception theory Social Exchange theory System justification theory Triangular theory of Love

Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Phenomena

Intrapersonal topics include: attitudes, persuasion, social cognition, self-concept, and cognitive dissonance

Interpersonal topics include: social influence, group dynamics, social relations, and interpersonal attraction

Methodology

Experimental- controlled Correlational Observational On the sociological side of social

psychology researchers also use qualitative methods

Famous Social Psychological Experiments

Asch’s experiments on conformity in small groups

Festinger’s cognitive dissonance experiment

Milgram’s study on obeying authority using feigned electric shock

Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment on child aggression

Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment

Topics Addressed by Social Psychology

Social Cognition Attitudes Aggression/Violence Prosocial Behavior Bystander Effect Prejudice/Discrimination Self and Social Identity Group Behavior

Perspectives in Social Psychology Sociocultural- importance of social norms

and culture Evolutionary- social behaviors developed

through genetics and inheritance Social Learning- importance of unique

experiences in family, school, community, etc.

Social-Cognitive- information processing model of social behavior, how we notice, interpret, and judge the behavior of others

View of Social Psychology

Dr. C. George Boeree (1999). Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/socpsy.html

Applications of Social Psychology Health Law Law Enforcement Business Military Schools

Activity

http://college.cengage.com/psychology/brehm/social_psychology/5e/students/netlabs.html - Psychology Today-The Cultural Context

INDUSTRIAL - ORGANIZATIONAL (I-O) PSYCHOLOGY

A Branch of Psychology

What is Industrial – Organizational (I-O) Psychology?

Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology is the scientific study of the workplace. Rigor and methods of psychology are applied to issues of critical relevance to business such as …

Critical Issues in the Workplace

Selection Training

Coaching Assessment

Performance Talent management

Work-life balance Organizational development

Major Ways I/O Psychology is Used

1. Personnel psychology2. Training3. Motivation and leadership4. Engineering psychology

I-O Psychology

I-O Psychology

Cognitive Psych

Cognitive Psych

Social PsychBehavioral

Psych

Historical Figures in I-O PsychologyWalter Dill Scott Hugo

Munsterburg

W. Scott H. Munsterburg

Belief Emotion, sympathy, and sentiment are all factors that increase consumer suggestibility

In order to increase job efficiency, worker productivity, and satisfaction, organizations need to hire people for positions that fit their emotional and mental abilities.

Famous Literary Works

The Theory and Practice of Advertising

Psychology and Industrial Efficiency On the Witness Stand

Key Contributions to I-O Psychology

Advertising (selection)

Personnel selection (advertising, legal situations)

Historical Figures in I-O Psychology

What Theories are Referenced in I-O Psychology ?

Needs Theory (Atkinson & McClelland) – motivation is driven by the strength of intrinsic needs: achievement, affiliation, autonomy, and dominance

Expectancy Theory (Vroom) – motivation is a combination of perceived attractiveness of future outcomes and the likelihood that one’s actions will lead to the outcome

Note: List is illustrative, not exhaustive.

Equity Theory (Adams) – how individuals compare their ratio of inputs and outcomes relative to the same ratio comparison of others and hence make predictions about how people will react to overrewarded or underrewarded situations

Note: List is illustrative, not exhaustive.

What Theories are Referenced in I-O Psychology ?

Current Topics in I-O Psychology1. Organizations of the future: Changes and

challenges (including work force changes, changes in organizational characteristics,culture, climate, and organizational productivity)

2. Training system issues3. Organizational culture4. Work teams and their effectiveness5. Work motivation theory and practice

6. Developing the competitive organization: interventions and strategies

7. Designing systems for resolving disputes in organizations

8. The challenge of new work place technology

9. Power and leadership in organizations10. Developing managerial talent through

simulation

Current Topics in I-O Psychology

11. Women and minorities in management12. Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship13. Human resource planning14. Work in the family and employing organization15. Work site stress management interventions16. Employee fitness and wellness programs17. Health issues at work18. Organizational and group contexts of behavior19. The person-situation debate20. The impact of macro-level theory

Current Topics in I-O Psychology

Office Space

“Office Space” - WWYDWhat Would You Do?

If you were an industrial – organizational psychologist . . .

What might be some questions you would ask?

Do you think any of the theories we discussed relative to I-O psychology could be applied to this situation? If so, identify the theory and explain your rationale. If not, what type of theory / concept might you look for to answer the questions you posed?

Psychology is a Snowflake

Psychology appears to be simple on the surface, but in reality is a complex construct that encompasses various types of psychology, using various methodology to answer a myriad of questions.

Note: Types of psychology listed are illustrative, not exhaustive.

Social Psycholo

gy Cognitive Psycholo

gy

Behavioral

Psychology

I/O Psycholog

y

References Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G, Lindzey & E. Aronson

(Eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Ash, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 31-35 Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive

models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press Hanley, C., Banks, W.C. & Zimbardo, P.G. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison.

International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 69-97. Katzell, R.A. & Austin, J.T. (1992). From then to now: The development of industrial-organizational

psychology in the United States. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(6), 803-835. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.77.6.803

Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (Ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

Milgram, S. (1975). Obedience to authority. Harper and Bros. O’Neil, B.S. & Mone, M.A. (1998). Investigating equity sensitivity as a moderator of relations between self-

efficacy and workplace attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(5), 805-816. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.83.5.805

Reed, S. K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamics of persuasion. New York: Lawrence Eribaum Associates. Geiger,

M.A. & Cooper, E.A. (1995). Predicting academic performance: The impact of expectancy and needs theory. Journal of Experimental Education, (63)3, 251-262.

http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/