Psychological egoism It’s a theory about human nature -- about how humans work. It’s a theory...

Psychological egoismPsychological egoism

It’s a theory about human nature -- about It’s a theory about human nature -- about how how humans workhumans work..

Psychological egoismPsychological egoism: Every human action is : Every human action is ultimately driven by a selfish motive.ultimately driven by a selfish motive. experiencing pleasant feelingsexperiencing pleasant feelings avoiding unpleasant feelingsavoiding unpleasant feelings getting others to praise yougetting others to praise you getting a good reputationgetting a good reputation

Not just cynicism or pessimismNot just cynicism or pessimism

If you’re cynical or pessimistic about human If you’re cynical or pessimistic about human nature, you’re likely to hold that most people nature, you’re likely to hold that most people are lousy selfish finks.are lousy selfish finks.

But psychological egoism goes further and But psychological egoism goes further and says that says that everyevery action ever performed by action ever performed by anyany human is selfishly motivated.human is selfishly motivated.

The threat to moralityThe threat to morality

Morality sometimes requires us to behave Morality sometimes requires us to behave unselfishly.unselfishly.

But, if psychological egoism is true, we’re not But, if psychological egoism is true, we’re not able to behave unselfishly (just due to human able to behave unselfishly (just due to human nature).nature).

So if psychological egoism is true, it’s So if psychological egoism is true, it’s impossible to live up to our moral impossible to live up to our moral requirements.requirements.

Arguments forArguments forpsychological egoismpsychological egoism

MyMy motives motives: Any action I perform will be : Any action I perform will be driven by motives that are driven by motives that are minemine, and not , and not anyone else’s. So I am always seeking anyone else’s. So I am always seeking something for myself and not anyone else.something for myself and not anyone else.

Pleasure of achievementPleasure of achievement: Whenever I get : Whenever I get something that I want, I feel pleasure – a something that I want, I feel pleasure – a feeling of satisfaction. So the reason I went feeling of satisfaction. So the reason I went after it in the first place was simply to get that after it in the first place was simply to get that pleasant feeling.pleasant feeling.

Arguments, cont’dArguments, cont’d

Self-deceptionSelf-deception: We’re often wrong about our : We’re often wrong about our own motives. We often trick ourselves into own motives. We often trick ourselves into believing that we’re more noble and virtuous believing that we’re more noble and virtuous than we really are. So it’s likely that our than we really are. So it’s likely that our hidden motives are really selfish ones.hidden motives are really selfish ones.


Moral EducationMoral Education: The way you teach children : The way you teach children to behave is by punishing them with pain and to behave is by punishing them with pain and rewarding them with pleasure. It seems as rewarding them with pleasure. It seems as though people won’t cooperate without getting though people won’t cooperate without getting some benefit for themselves. So this is some benefit for themselves. So this is probably just human nature in general.probably just human nature in general.


EvolutionEvolution: According to basic evolutionary : According to basic evolutionary theory, the organisms whose traits get passed theory, the organisms whose traits get passed along are the ones whose traits help them to along are the ones whose traits help them to survive and reproduce in their (often survive and reproduce in their (often competitive) environments. So only the most competitive) environments. So only the most selfish organisms will survive, and their selfish organisms will survive, and their selfishness will be inherited by their offspring. selfishness will be inherited by their offspring. So selfishness is a biological inevitability.So selfishness is a biological inevitability.

Moral philosophy in BritainMoral philosophy in Britain

Hobbes was seen as an arch-egoist, and many Hobbes was seen as an arch-egoist, and many moral theorists sought to refute him.moral theorists sought to refute him.

It was a time of great interest in the questions It was a time of great interest in the questions of egoism and morality.of egoism and morality. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Bishop Joseph Butler (1692-1752)Bishop Joseph Butler (1692-1752) Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746)Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746)

Butler against egoismButler against egoism

Psychological egoists often appeal to the Psychological egoists often appeal to the fact that we experience pleasure when our fact that we experience pleasure when our desires are satisfied.desires are satisfied.

The idea is that our ultimate goal is just to The idea is that our ultimate goal is just to experience these pleasant feelings.experience these pleasant feelings.

Butler tries to turn the tables on the egoist.Butler tries to turn the tables on the egoist.

Butler against egoismButler against egoism

This very fact – that we experience pleasure This very fact – that we experience pleasure when our desires are satisfied – just goes to when our desires are satisfied – just goes to show that the desires are directed at other show that the desires are directed at other objects than our own pleasure.objects than our own pleasure.

I experience pleasure when I help people in I experience pleasure when I help people in need. But why do I experience this pleasure? need. But why do I experience this pleasure? Because I really want to help people in need, Because I really want to help people in need, just for its own sake.just for its own sake.

Butler’s argumentButler’s argument

1. We experience pleasure when our desires for 1. We experience pleasure when our desires for certain objects are satisfied.certain objects are satisfied.

2. The only way we could experience this 2. The only way we could experience this pleasure is if we desired these objects for pleasure is if we desired these objects for their own sake.their own sake.

3. Therefore, our ultimate goal with these 3. Therefore, our ultimate goal with these desires is desires is notnot to experience the pleasure of to experience the pleasure of desire-satisfaction, desire-satisfaction, but ratherbut rather to obtain the to obtain the objects we desire.objects we desire.

Second premiseSecond premise The only way we could experience this pleasure The only way we could experience this pleasure

is if we desired these objects for their own sake.is if we desired these objects for their own sake. ““there could not be this pleasure, were it not for there could not be this pleasure, were it not for

that prior suitableness between the object and that prior suitableness between the object and the passion [the desire]”the passion [the desire]”

““there could be no enjoyment or delight from there could be no enjoyment or delight from one thing more than another, from eating food one thing more than another, from eating food more than from swallowing a stone, if there more than from swallowing a stone, if there were not an affection or appetite to one thing were not an affection or appetite to one thing more than another”more than another”

A thought-experimentA thought-experiment

What if my only desire is to experience the What if my only desire is to experience the pleasure of desire-satisfaction?pleasure of desire-satisfaction?

I have no other desires – I don’t care about I have no other desires – I don’t care about family, friends, music, reading, money, etc.family, friends, music, reading, money, etc.

But I But I really really want to experience the pleasure of want to experience the pleasure of desire-satisfaction.desire-satisfaction.

Thought-experiment, cont’dThought-experiment, cont’d

It looks like I’m out of luck.It looks like I’m out of luck. It looks like the only way to experience the It looks like the only way to experience the

pleasure of desire-satisfaction is to have a pleasure of desire-satisfaction is to have a bunch of desires for other things besides my bunch of desires for other things besides my own pleasure.own pleasure.

““Take away these affections, and you leave Take away these affections, and you leave self-love absolutely nothing at all to employ self-love absolutely nothing at all to employ itself about” (Butler)itself about” (Butler)

Psychological egoism refuted?Psychological egoism refuted?

So the only way I’ll be able to experience So the only way I’ll be able to experience pleasure is to have a bunch of desires for pleasure is to have a bunch of desires for things other than my own pleasure.things other than my own pleasure.

Psychological egoists often say that our only Psychological egoists often say that our only ultimate goal in acting is always our own ultimate goal in acting is always our own pleasure.pleasure.

So psychological egoists are wrong – in So psychological egoists are wrong – in order to even have this pleasure, we must order to even have this pleasure, we must have other goals, desired for their own sake.have other goals, desired for their own sake.

Psychological egoism refuted?Psychological egoism refuted? Egoist response:Egoist response:

““I agree that people have other goals besides I agree that people have other goals besides getting the pleasure of desire-satisfaction.”getting the pleasure of desire-satisfaction.”

““But I insist that these other goals are But I insist that these other goals are selfishselfish goals, like a desire for praise or reputation.”goals, like a desire for praise or reputation.”

But now that we agree that people have But now that we agree that people have other goals, what reason do we have to other goals, what reason do we have to think these goals are selfish ones?think these goals are selfish ones?

Why not just say people have all sorts of Why not just say people have all sorts of goals, selfish goals, selfish and and unselfish?unselfish?

Other ways of achieving Other ways of achieving happiness and avoiding painhappiness and avoiding pain

““Look...Rev...I hate to see a man cry, so shove Look...Rev...I hate to see a man cry, so shove off out the office, there's a good chap.” (Monty off out the office, there's a good chap.” (Monty Python’s ‘Motor Insurance Sketch’)Python’s ‘Motor Insurance Sketch’)

““If our sole intention, in compassion or pity, If our sole intention, in compassion or pity, was the removal of our pain, we should run was the removal of our pain, we should run away, shut our eyes, divert our thoughts from away, shut our eyes, divert our thoughts from the miserable object” (Hutcheson)the miserable object” (Hutcheson)

Why not just avoid pitiful sights?Why not just avoid pitiful sights?

If our goal is to avoid unpleasant feelings, then If our goal is to avoid unpleasant feelings, then why don’t we just try to avoid the sorts of why don’t we just try to avoid the sorts of pitiful situations that make us feel bad?pitiful situations that make us feel bad?

At first we’d feel guilty after taking off, but At first we’d feel guilty after taking off, but eventually we could probably get used to it.eventually we could probably get used to it.

What a great deal! We don’t have to spend any What a great deal! We don’t have to spend any money, time, or effort helping others, and we money, time, or effort helping others, and we avoid the discomfort of compassion.avoid the discomfort of compassion.

Sci-fi examplesSci-fi examples

Suppose there’s a futuristic pill that makes you Suppose there’s a futuristic pill that makes you immune to the discomfort of pity and immune to the discomfort of pity and compassion.compassion.

This means that you’d never feel bad when This means that you’d never feel bad when you encounter a poor unfortunate old woman.you encounter a poor unfortunate old woman.

Would you take it?Would you take it?

Sci-fi exampleSci-fi example

Or a futuristic pill that makes you very content Or a futuristic pill that makes you very content and self-satisfied, without ever feeling any and self-satisfied, without ever feeling any guilt or shame.guilt or shame.

Unfortunately, there’s a law that says that once Unfortunately, there’s a law that says that once you take the pill, your family and friends will you take the pill, your family and friends will be tortured for a while and then executed.be tortured for a while and then executed.

Why not take it?Why not take it?

A God exampleA God example

Suppose God comes to you and says you have Suppose God comes to you and says you have two options:two options: 1. Feel really good for the rest of your life, but 1. Feel really good for the rest of your life, but

your children sufferyour children suffer 2. Feel kind of depressed for the rest of your life, 2. Feel kind of depressed for the rest of your life,

but your children prosperbut your children prosper Wouldn’t at least Wouldn’t at least somesome parents select the parents select the

second option?second option?

The point of the examplesThe point of the examples

If some people would refuse to take the pills If some people would refuse to take the pills (or if some people would select the first (or if some people would select the first option), then they would be knowingly option), then they would be knowingly sacrificing their own contentment for the sake sacrificing their own contentment for the sake of others.of others.

But psychological egoism says that this is But psychological egoism says that this is contrary to human nature.contrary to human nature.

So psychological egoism is false.So psychological egoism is false.

The arguments for psychological The arguments for psychological egoism consideredegoism considered

MyMy motives motives: Any action I perform will be : Any action I perform will be driven by motives that are driven by motives that are minemine, and not , and not anyone else’s. So I am always seeking anyone else’s. So I am always seeking something for myself and not anyone else.something for myself and not anyone else.

ObjectionObjection: Just because a motive is : Just because a motive is youryour motive, doesn’t mean that it’s a selfish motive. motive, doesn’t mean that it’s a selfish motive. People can have all sorts of motives, both People can have all sorts of motives, both selfish and unselfish.selfish and unselfish.

The arguments for psychological The arguments for psychological egoism considered, cont’degoism considered, cont’d

Possible response to the objectionPossible response to the objection: But that’s : But that’s just what ‘selfish motive’ means: “this motive just what ‘selfish motive’ means: “this motive is selfish” just means that it belongs to a is selfish” just means that it belongs to a particular individual.particular individual.

But this is an idiosyncratic definition of But this is an idiosyncratic definition of ‘selfish motive’. Anyone can happily admit ‘selfish motive’. Anyone can happily admit that all motives are ‘selfish’ in this strange that all motives are ‘selfish’ in this strange sense. So this move is likely to lead to empty sense. So this move is likely to lead to empty verbal disputes.verbal disputes.

Aside: was Hobbes really an egoist?Aside: was Hobbes really an egoist?

He He doesdoes say that we desire power after power, say that we desire power after power, and that voluntary acts are always directed at and that voluntary acts are always directed at the agent’s own good.the agent’s own good.

But notice how he defines ‘good’ and ‘power’:But notice how he defines ‘good’ and ‘power’: Whatever is the object of a desire is goodWhatever is the object of a desire is good Power is just the ability to obtain something Power is just the ability to obtain something

thought to be good.thought to be good.


For all his definitions say, we might have all For all his definitions say, we might have all sorts of unselfish desiressorts of unselfish desires Then the object of these unselfish desires would be Then the object of these unselfish desires would be

good (helping others, for example, might be good)good (helping others, for example, might be good) And power would be whatever helps us to satisfy And power would be whatever helps us to satisfy

these unselfish desires (for example, money, time, these unselfish desires (for example, money, time, and energy to help others)and energy to help others)


Some Hobbes scholars now say that Hobbes Some Hobbes scholars now say that Hobbes wasn’t an egoist at all.wasn’t an egoist at all.

But he sure does like to focus on nasty selfish But he sure does like to focus on nasty selfish desires, and he sure is willing to reinterpret desires, and he sure is willing to reinterpret seemingly generous acts as selfish.seemingly generous acts as selfish.

Maybe Hobbes just made a mistake – the Maybe Hobbes just made a mistake – the mistake made by the ‘mistake made by the ‘mymy motives’ argument. motives’ argument.


Pleasure of achievementPleasure of achievement: Whenever I get : Whenever I get something that I want, I feel pleasure – a feeling something that I want, I feel pleasure – a feeling of satisfaction. So the reason I went after it in the of satisfaction. So the reason I went after it in the first place was simply to get that pleasant feeling.first place was simply to get that pleasant feeling.

ObjectionObjection: Just because a pleasant feeling arises : Just because a pleasant feeling arises from the satisfaction of a desire doesn’t mean that from the satisfaction of a desire doesn’t mean that this pleasant feeling was the ultimate goal of the this pleasant feeling was the ultimate goal of the desire. It might be nothing but a predictable side-desire. It might be nothing but a predictable side-effect.effect.


Self-deceptionSelf-deception: We’re often wrong about our own : We’re often wrong about our own motives. We often trick ourselves into believing motives. We often trick ourselves into believing that we’re more noble and virtuous than we really that we’re more noble and virtuous than we really are. So it’s likely that our hidden motives are really are. So it’s likely that our hidden motives are really selfish ones.selfish ones.

ObjectionObjection: Yes, we’re often wrong about our own : Yes, we’re often wrong about our own motives. But this doesn’t mean that we’re motives. But this doesn’t mean that we’re alwaysalways wrong. And this doesn’t mean that our hidden wrong. And this doesn’t mean that our hidden motives are selfish ones. Perhaps our hidden motives are selfish ones. Perhaps our hidden motives are unselfish.motives are unselfish.


Moral EducationMoral Education: The way you teach children to behave : The way you teach children to behave is by punishing them with pain and rewarding them with is by punishing them with pain and rewarding them with pleasure. It seems as though people won’t cooperate pleasure. It seems as though people won’t cooperate without getting some benefit for themselves. So this is without getting some benefit for themselves. So this is probably just human nature in general.probably just human nature in general.

ObjectionObjection: This isn’t the only way we teach children to : This isn’t the only way we teach children to behave. We encourage their development of a sense of behave. We encourage their development of a sense of empathy for others, and they begin to experience a empathy for others, and they begin to experience a sympathetic response to the feelings of others.sympathetic response to the feelings of others.


EvolutionEvolution: According to basic evolutionary : According to basic evolutionary theory, the organisms whose traits get passed theory, the organisms whose traits get passed along are the ones whose traits help them to along are the ones whose traits help them to survive and reproduce in their (often competitive) survive and reproduce in their (often competitive) environments. So only the most selfish organisms environments. So only the most selfish organisms will survive, and their selfishness will be inherited will survive, and their selfishness will be inherited by their offspring. So selfishness is a biological by their offspring. So selfishness is a biological inevitability.inevitability.


ObjectionObjection: First, many organisms engage in : First, many organisms engage in seemingly altruistic behavior. Wild dogs will seemingly altruistic behavior. Wild dogs will baby-sit pups while the rest of the pack hunts. A baby-sit pups while the rest of the pack hunts. A bird will give alarm calls to warn others about a bird will give alarm calls to warn others about a hawk, thereby making itself more vulnerable. A hawk, thereby making itself more vulnerable. A sterile insect will work for the benefit of its sterile insect will work for the benefit of its fellows. Evolution has to account for this fellows. Evolution has to account for this phenomenon.phenomenon.

But how can it do so?...But how can it do so?...

The evolution of altruismThe evolution of altruism There are two ways an individual organism can There are two ways an individual organism can

make sure that its genes are passed alongmake sure that its genes are passed along 1. it can make sure that 1. it can make sure that itit survives and reproduces survives and reproduces 2. or it can make sure that 2. or it can make sure that its close relativesits close relatives survive survive

and reproduceand reproduce After all, close relatives share genes.After all, close relatives share genes. The ‘inclusive fitness’ of an organism involves not The ‘inclusive fitness’ of an organism involves not

just how well its traits help just how well its traits help itit to survive and to survive and reproduce, but also how well its traits help reproduce, but also how well its traits help its its close relativesclose relatives..

The evolution of altruism, cont’dThe evolution of altruism, cont’d

This means that the genes that survive will This means that the genes that survive will belong to those organisms with altruistic traits belong to those organisms with altruistic traits (traits that lead the organism to help its close (traits that lead the organism to help its close relatives).relatives).

Organisms built to respond altruistically to Organisms built to respond altruistically to their close neighbors are likely to be helping their close neighbors are likely to be helping their own genes survive.their own genes survive.

So these altruistic traits will be selected for.So these altruistic traits will be selected for.

The evolution of altruism, The evolution of altruism, cont’dcont’d

WorryWorry: Isn’t this : Isn’t this reallyreally selfish? selfish? After all, there’s a difference between After all, there’s a difference between

evolutionary evolutionary altruism and altruism and psychologicalpsychological altruism.altruism. Just because organisms behave in a way that Just because organisms behave in a way that

sacrifices their own reproductive success for that of sacrifices their own reproductive success for that of others, doesn’t mean they have feelings of direct others, doesn’t mean they have feelings of direct concern and love.concern and love.

We need to know what kind of motivational We need to know what kind of motivational psychology is in place.psychology is in place.

The evolution of altruism, cont’dThe evolution of altruism, cont’d But why not psychological altruism?But why not psychological altruism? For all we know, the most successful way to For all we know, the most successful way to

get organisms to respond altruistically to their get organisms to respond altruistically to their close neighbors is to give the organisms close neighbors is to give the organisms genuinegenuine feelings of concern and love. feelings of concern and love.

Egoistic organisms whose genes drive them to Egoistic organisms whose genes drive them to merely merely simulatesimulate concern and love might lose concern and love might lose out in the competition.out in the competition.

Is there any reason to expect fake love to beat Is there any reason to expect fake love to beat out real love?out real love?

A final worry forA final worry forpsychological egoismpsychological egoism

Psychological egoism purports to be a Psychological egoism purports to be a scientific theoryscientific theory namely, it’s an empirical thesis about human namely, it’s an empirical thesis about human

psychologypsychology There is a classic test for scientific theories: There is a classic test for scientific theories:

“What sort of possible evidence would count “What sort of possible evidence would count against this theory?”against this theory?”

The falsifiability testThe falsifiability test Good scientific theories, some think, must Good scientific theories, some think, must

be falsifiable – there must be some possible be falsifiable – there must be some possible evidence that would disprove (or at least evidence that would disprove (or at least disconfirm) the theorydisconfirm) the theory

Why? Because we have to know how to Why? Because we have to know how to testtest the theory.the theory.

We have to know what evidence to look for, We have to know what evidence to look for, as a means of confirming or disconfirming as a means of confirming or disconfirming the theory.the theory.

An example of aAn example of anon-falsifiable theorynon-falsifiable theory

Psychic phenomenaPsychic phenomena In order to see if certain people have psychic In order to see if certain people have psychic

abilities, scientists have run tests in observed and abilities, scientists have run tests in observed and controlled environments.controlled environments.

The ‘psychics’ almost always perform at the The ‘psychics’ almost always perform at the success rate of mere chance.success rate of mere chance.

When the results come back, the psychics claim When the results come back, the psychics claim that the test environment interfered with their that the test environment interfered with their psychic ability (e.g., the scientists’ skeptical psychic ability (e.g., the scientists’ skeptical ‘vibes’ disrupted the psychic phenomena)‘vibes’ disrupted the psychic phenomena)

An example of aAn example of anon-falsifiable theory, cont’dnon-falsifiable theory, cont’d

This means that no matter how many tests we This means that no matter how many tests we perform, in whatever circumstances, we can perform, in whatever circumstances, we can never confirm or disconfirm psychic never confirm or disconfirm psychic phenomenaphenomena

After all, the very test process itself might be After all, the very test process itself might be interfering with the psychic’s abilitiesinterfering with the psychic’s abilities

So the theory is So the theory is beyond evidencebeyond evidence; it’s not ; it’s not scientific.scientific.

Application toApplication topsychological egoismpsychological egoism

Psychological egoists have to tell us what Psychological egoists have to tell us what evidence would count against their theory.evidence would count against their theory.

We have to know how to test it.We have to know how to test it. Otherwise, its status as a legitimate scientific Otherwise, its status as a legitimate scientific

theory can be questionedtheory can be questioned

The worry withThe worry withpsychological egoismpsychological egoism

The way psychological egoists respond to The way psychological egoists respond to alleged cases of unselfish behavior is alleged cases of unselfish behavior is worrisome.worrisome.

They always explain away the unselfishness in They always explain away the unselfishness in terms of some hidden motives.terms of some hidden motives.

If they get too gung-ho about this strategy, If they get too gung-ho about this strategy, they might end up placing their theory beyond they might end up placing their theory beyond evidence.evidence.

A challenge toA challenge topsychological egoistspsychological egoists

What sort of possible evidence would count What sort of possible evidence would count against your theory?against your theory?

Is there any way we could show that your Is there any way we could show that your theory is wrong?theory is wrong?

Psychological egoism It’s a theory about human nature -- about how humans work. It’s a theory...

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