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Section BSpecimen Answers

The questions for this section are quite predictable; you must demonstrate knowledge throughout of the debates (e.g. Nature/nurture, Reductionism/Holism, Determinism/Free will, Psychology as a Science, The Usefulness of Psychological Research, Individual/Situational Explanations, Ethnocentrism) and use examples from studies to illustrate your answers.

Any question that asks you to compare is looking for similarities and differences. Remember to give balanced answers strengths and weaknesses (limitations).

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Developmental

Section B Questions: - Developmental

a) Using your knowledge of psychology, briefly outline the developmental approach to psychology. (4)

A main assumption is that cognitive, emotional and behavioural development is an ongoing process and that such changes result from the interaction of nature and nurture. The Developmental approach to understanding the human condition covers the whole lifespan. Of particular interest are changes over time. Researchers use a wide range of methods and techniques. The focus is on how behaviours are initiated and then develop. Typical areas of study include; emotional and moral development; how thinking develops and how children learn to communicate.

b) Describe two pieces of research that use the developmental approach to psychology. (8)

Samuel & Bryant expanded on Piaget’s original theory on Cognitive development and the development of the ability to conserve. They carried out an experiment based on Piaget’s conservation task using water, plasticine and counters, but added two extra conditions; - the one judgement task and fixed array. In the one judgement task children were shown the materials before and after transformation, but were only asked the question ‘which is bigger, has more?’ after the transformation had taken place. In the fixed array task children were just shown the materials after the transformation had taken place. Samuel & Bryant found like Piaget that children develop the ability to conserve number, before other materials (volume and mass), but they found that children could conserve at a far earlier age in the one judgement condition. This is because if you ask children the same question twice they automatically assume they got the answer wrong the first time and give a different answer.

Bandura wanted to find out if children will imitate aggression they have witnessed. He carried out an experiment where children witnessed a model (either male or female) acting in an aggressive or passive manner with a Bobo doll. When children were taken into a room with the same toys they imitated what they had seen, showing that children learn through the process of social learning theory. The children were more likely to imitate a model that was similar and relevant to them (same-sex model).

c) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the developmental approach using examples. (12)

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A strength of the developmental approach is that many studies in this area are longitudinal which means that they do get to investigate changes and how these changes are influenced. Freud’s study was a case study carried out over 2 years enabling the emotional development of a young boy to be investigated in great detail. Samuel and Bryant selected a sample of children aged from 5 years to 8.5 years old which again allowed the researchers to investigate developmental changes in the children. Furthermore the developmental approach enables psychologists to investigate different areas of development such as cognitive in the Samuel and Bryant study and emotional development in Freud’s study of Little Hans. However there is a tendency for developmental psychology to neglect adult development. None of the three core studies in this area take a life span approach. For example, it would be interesting to discover if adults are influenced by role models to the same extent as children.

Another strength of the developmental approach is that it can provide useful information about how we can better understand how children learn and deal with emotional difficulties and therefore improve the lives of children. For example, the findings of the Samuel and Bryant study could be used to identify and help children with cognitive developmental difficulties and Bandura’s findings have massive implications about how adults should act in the presence of children. Furthermore Freud’s psychodynamic approach has provided therapies mainly through talking cures that have enabled individuals to cope with earlier traumatic experiences.

A problem with the developmental approach is a tendency to generalise findings from often very limited samples. The developmental approach often looks for general patterns of development based on non representative samples. Freud, for example argued that all children experience psychosexual stages based on case studies such as the one carried out on little Hans and his own introspections. Samuel and Bryant generalised their findings about cognitive development from children in one town in the UK which ignores cultural differences relating to how children may learn in other parts of the world. However, many studies such as the one carried out by Bandura have been replicated in other cultures again showing the importance of role models on shaping children’s behaviour.

A further limitation with the developmental approach is the validity of measuring children’s behaviour and thoughts. We can therefore question if psychologists are actually measuring what they are attempting to measure especially as children may have qualitatively different thoughts to adults. For example, Bandura’s study could be criticised for interpreting the children’s behaviour towards the Bobo doll as aggression. Perhaps the children interpreted their own

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behaviour as play. Similarly we can question Freud’s interpretation of Hans’ behaviour as the case study is really Freud's interpretations of Hans' father's interpretation of his son's own phobia. Again this seriously reduces the validity of the study. However, the study by Samuel and Bryant could be seen as a more valid measurement of cognitive development as they were using tests that children in pre-schools and schools would be familiar with and such conservation tasks on a number of different materials are recognised ways of measuring the cognitive development of children.

d) Compare the developmental approach with any other approach. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer. (8)

Both the psychodynamic approach and the developmental approach are interested in childhood and the way in which it impacts on adulthood. Both conduct longitudinal studies to see changes over time, Freud famously carried out a longitudinal case study on ‘Little Hans’. Both see development as taking place over stages. Freud’s psychosexual stages of developmental: - Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency and Genital and Piaget’s stages of cognitive development: - Sensory motor, Pre-operational, Concrete operational and Formal operational.

However, whilst the developmental approach concentrates on cognitive development (Samuel & Bryant – Conservation) and social development (Bandura – aggression), the psychodynamic approach is interested in emotional development (Freud – Little Hans). The psychodynamic approach is very pessimistic; it sees childhood problems leading to problems in adulthood. The developmental approach is more optimistic it studies development issues and makes practical suggestions for practical interventions to alleviate these problems. For example, early intervention in childhood problems can make all the difference. Whilst the psychodynamic approach relies solely on the case study method, the developmental approach uses a variety of methods including the experimental method (Samuel & Bryant, Bandura). The psychodynamic approach is seen as Untestable and unscientific, whilst the developmental approach uses a more scientific approach and larger samples to increase reliability and validity.

e) Discuss how the developmental approach can help our understanding of everyday life. (8)

An understanding of the approximate ages that children pass through certain developmental stages can be invaluable in spotting potential problems and taking early remedial action. For example the work of Piaget has been used to inform educational policy and help children whose development is slower than expected.

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Freud’s emphasis on the importance of early childhood experiences has informed modern social work practice. The importance of an early attachment bond is now seen as vital and children are placed with foster families rather than impersonal and potentially damaging children’s homes. Families are supported to resolve problems, as children need loving homes in order to reach their full potential.

The work of Bandura on the effects of role models on the learning of aggressive behaviour has informed media policies. It is now recognised that impressionable children need to be protected from violent and aggressive scenes in the media. This has led to classification systems and watershed times to try and ensure children are not exposed to these things. Knowing how easily children learn from role models has led to the use of positive role models to try and influence children for the better.

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Individual differences

Section B Questions: -

a) Outline one assumption of the individual differences approach in psychology (4)

The main assumption of the individual differences perspective is that to understand the complexity of human behaviour and experiences it is necessary to study the differences between people rather than those things we all have in common. For example, the individual differences approach largely focuses on things such as personality, problem behaviours (Gambling) and abnormality (e.g. MPD)

b) Describe two pieces of research that use the individual differences approach. (8)

Rosenhan carried out the famous ‘On being sane insane places’ studies. Rosenhan hypothesised that psychiatrists could not reliably diagnosis mental illness. Eight participants presented themselves at different American psychiatric hospitals and reported a single symptom, a voice saying the word ‘thud’. After admission they were instructed to behave perfectly normally. All were admitted for between 7-52 days and were eventually released with a diagnosis of schizophrenia in remission. This study shows that mental illness is very difficult to diagnosis and led to reforms in the mental health system.

Thigpen & Cleckley carried out a case study on ‘Eve’, a woman with multiple personality disorder. They discovered three quite separate personalities: - Eve White a shy, quiet respectable wife and mother, Eve Black a promiscuous party girl and Jane the most stable of the three personalities. Multiple personality disorder is usually linked to childhood trauma and this is why this study can be considered psychodynamic. Thigpen & Cleckley concluded that the solution to ‘Eve’s’ problems were to let Jane become the dominate personality and they aimed to achieve this through extensive therapy.

c) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the individual differences approach using examples. (12)

An issue that is often included in the section of individual differences is what psychologists refer to as abnormality. However the concept of abnormality is also a highly controversial issue. The

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judgement that somebody is abnormal is relative and is based on factors such as culture, class, religion, sexuality and so on.

A main strength of the individual differences perspective is that it can provide useful in improving the experiences of people with mental health problems. For example the Rosenhan study led to a revision of the way that people with mental health problems are both diagnosed and treated. Similarly the study by Griffiths suggests that a type of cognitive behavioural therapy may be successful with addicted gamblers.

A further strength of the individual differences approach has been the development and use of psychometric tests to measure the differences between individuals in qualities such as personality and intelligence. These psychometric tests provide reliable and quantitative data which can easily be analysed and therefore similarities and differences between individuals can be discovered. Psychometric tests were used in the study of multiple personality by Thigpen and Cleckley and have also been used in other studies on this course such as in the BBC experiment. However, not all tests are reliable and objective. For example, the projective tests used by Thigpen and Cleckley have little evidence to suggest that they are reliable and rely upon the subjective interpretation of the researcher.

A weakness of the individual differences approach is a reliance on dispositional explanations at the expense of situational explanations. That is the individual differences approach explains individual differences as resulting from a person’s own characteristics or disposition and has a tendency to ignore external factors such as the situation a person is in. For example many of Eve’s difficulties could also be explained by the expectations of being a wife in the US in the 1950s. The study by Rosenhan does highlight the weakness of this dispositional approach by showing how the behaviour of the pseudo patients was misinterpreted as being a consequence of their supposed illness when it was in fact a result of the hospital environment.

A further issue related to the individual differences approach is the ethical issues raised with labelling people as being different. The tendency to label people as being different, abnormal and so on can have a negative effect on individuals. Rosenhan was particularly critical about both the reliability of labelling and the negative effects such labelling has on the person. Furthermore such labels particularly negative ones can lead to a self fulfilling prophecy in which expectations about a person (or a group of people) can come true simply because of those expectations.

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d) Compare the individual differences approach with any other approach. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer. (8)

Both the individual differences approach and the physiological approach often look at abnormal behaviours, for example Thigpen & Cleckley studied multiple personality disorder, Rosenhan the diagnosis of schizophrenia and Bruner et al (1993) carried out a case study of violence in a family with genetic abnormality. Both use the scientific experimental method to investigate behaviour, Griffith used an experiment to investigate how gamblers think and Sperry did to investigate the brain function of split brain patients.

However, the individual differences approach concentrates on individual cases such as Thigpen & Cleckley’s Eve, and their problems, whilst the physiological approach seeks to find general rules that can be applied to most people. The physiological approach is much more reductionist and deterministic, it tends to rely on one factor explanations, biology. The individual differences approach considers the interaction between nature and nurture.

e) Discuss how the individual differences approach can help our understanding of everyday life. (8)

The individual differences approach has been very useful in furthering understanding of mental illnesses such as Schizophrenia (Rosenhan) and Multiple Personality disorder (Thigpen & Cleckley). It has also given us an insight into addictive behaviours such as gambling (Griffith). The Rosenhan study is important as it highlighted the problems with effective diagnosis of mental illness; it was an important study for the anti-psychiatry movement. Rosenhan’s study also highlighted the problems that individuals with a diagnosis of mental illness face, as the label mental illness is ‘sticky’. This means that once labelled as mentally ill it is very difficult to overcome the prejudice and fear associated with it, people find it difficult to accept that someone with a mental illness can recover and is not necessarily dangerous either to themselves or others.

Unlike other approaches in psychology the individual differences approach focuses on the individual, instead of trying to make generalisations about behaviour. This means it has a gestalt or holism approach; it is concerned with the whole person, not just their particular problems. The approach uses the case study method, as used in Thigpen & Cleckley’s study of Eve. This means that research is detailed and in-depth, as a variety of methods are used (triangulation), reliability and validity are increased. The individual differences approach has also led to improvements in therapies available to people with mental disorder,

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in particular humanist therapies. Humanism as an approach has arisen from the individual differences approach.

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Physiological

Section B Questions: -

a) Outline one assumption of the physiological approach in psychology (4)

This approach studies the biological basis of human behaviour. This may involve discovering localised function in the brain. This can be done by working with brain-damaged patients but more recently involves neuro-imaging techniques. It often focuses on the chemical basis for human behaviour e.g. serotonin and depression. It may also consider the genetic basis for behaviour.

b) Describe two pieces of psychological research that use the physiological approach. (8)

Dement and Kleitman's (1957) study investigates what happens when we sleep. They carried out a clinical case study in a sleep lab on nine participants. They aimed to discover the connection between rapid eye movement (REM), dreaming, length and content of dream. REM was measured by EEG. They discovered that those woken up during a period of REM were more likely to recall a dream, than those woken in NREM. They also found a positive correlation between estimated length of dream and length of REM. They also found a relationship between the content of the reported dream and the pattern of eye movements. This study shows that dreaming can be studied in an objective and scientific way. Previous studies had tended to rely on dream diaries which can be unreliable.

Maguire et al’s (2000) study looks at structural differences in the brains of London Cab drivers. She carried out a natural experiment using 16 right handed male taxi drivers and a control sample of 16 right handed males. There brains were analysed using Voxel Based Morphometry of MRI scans. She found that the taxi drivers had increased volume of grey matter in both right and left hippocampi in taxi driver brains. Correlational analysis found that the volume of the right posteria hippocampus increased as the length of time as a taxi driver increased. Taxi drivers had greater volume in the posterior hippocampus, but non-taxi drivers had greater volume in the anterior hippocampus indicating a redistribution of the grey matter in the hippocampus. This shows that the brain has a certain level of plasticity and can change in response to demands made upon it, in this case the need to develop very high navigational skills.

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c) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the physiological approach using examples. (12)

A main strength of the physiological approach is the use of sophisticated equipment such as MRI scanners which provide an objective and precise way of measuring brain structure. For example in the Maguire et al. study the researchers were able to scan living brains using MRI technology which enabled the researchers to gain lots of quantitative and objective data about the density of the grey matter of the hippocampus. Furthermore the physiological approach takes a scientific approach using laboratory type experiments. For example in the Dement and Kleitman study of sleep and dreaming the participants were studied under tightly controlled conditions.

A further strength of the physiological approach is the practical applications that it offers. Much of the research in this area is very useful as it may be used to diagnose and develop treatments and therapies for illnesses or problems. For example, Maguire et al. suggested that their study has implications for those who have suffered brain injury or disease because they demonstrate the plasticity of the brain, and Dement in later studies has demonstrated the importance of sleep in relation to mental health. However, the main applications of the physiological approach have been the development of anti-depressant drugs which are more controversial partly because of the side effects that may occur. Furthermore, the idea that changing a chemical in the brain will bring about changes in complex emotions is a reductionist one as depression probably involves other life events.

A problem with the physiological approach is that by using such a scientific approach and testing behaviour in laboratory conditions the measurement of behaviour often lacks validity. For example, Dement and Kleitman measured sleep in laboratory conditions which is not typical of how people normally sleep. Therefore asking people to sleep with electrodes attached to their scalp and face is low in ecological validity. Similarly Sperry’s participants were asked to complete unusual tasks which again are not typical of everyday behaviours. However the use of this laboratory approach does mean that the researchers have more control of their procedures ensuring that extraneous variables can be controlled

A further problem with the physiological approach is that because such studies can be costly and time consuming because of the use of sophisticated equipment and lengthy procedures. This often leads to such studies having small samples such as the Dement and Kleitman study which only studied 5 participants in depth. It is possible to argue that such a sample is not representative and therefore we should be careful generalising the results.

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Furthermore, Sperry was only able to 11 participants because he had a very limited number of participants to choose from, that is participants who had undergone disconnection of the cerebral hemispheres. However the increasing availability of MRI scanners is enabling researchers such as Maguire to increase their sample sizes and in subsequent studies Maguire et al. have been able to scan the brains of many more participants enabling the researchers to have a large database of many more brain scans to choose from.

d) Compare the physiological approach with any other approach. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer. (8)

The behaviourist approach contrasts strongly with the physiological approach. Whilst the physiological approach represent the nature side of the debate, the behaviourist approach represent the nurture side. The behaviourist approach is concerned with the way that behaviour is learnt, as in Bandura’s study the children learnt aggressive behaviour through watching aggressive role models, social learning theory. The physiological approach is concerned with biological explanations of behaviour, for example Sperry’s study demonstrated that different brain hemispheres are involved in different types of tasks and Maguire showed that brain structures could change to accommodate the demands made upon them.

Both the behaviourist and the physiological approach offer insights into human behaviour and they also offer practical solutions to problem behaviours. For example, the use of psychiatric drugs to control mental disorders such as schizophrenia and depression. Systematic desensitisation and aversion therapy are both examples based on the behaviourist approach. Both approaches use the experimental method, such as Maguire’s natural experiment on Taxi drivers and Bandura’s study on aggression. Both approaches can be seen as reductionist as they concentrated on one factor to explain behaviour: - biology or learning, completely ignoring the important role of cognition and emotion.

e) Discuss how the physiological approach can help our understanding of everyday life. (8)

Studies such as that by Maguire demonstrate why some people may be better at tasks such as navigation than others. The finding that the actual structure of the brain can change in response to the demands made upon it has huge implications for the rehabilitation of brain damaged patients. Research by Sperry has also increased our understanding of brain function. The more we understand about the brain the more we can help people with brain injuries. Research by Dement & Kleitman has increased our understanding of sleep and led to further research into sleep disorders.

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Understanding the biological basis of some mental illnesses has led to advances in treatment. Treating patients with drugs such as anti-depressants, minor and major tranquillisers can enable them to lead a normal life within the community. Increased understanding has also led to more understanding and less discrimination towards people with mental illnesses.

Research into the biological basis of criminal behaviour (Bruner et al) has shown that inherited genes are only part of the story, what is important is the interaction between nature and nurture.

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Social

Section B Questions: -

a) Outline one assumption of the social approach in psychology (4)

Social psychology (or the social approach) is interested in studying individuals in a social context, such as family, friends, institutions, and wider society. Social behaviour may involve activity within a group or between groups. According to social psychologists our behaviour is influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. One of the debates in psychology is whether an individual's behaviour is a result of their personality or their social context.

b) Describe two pieces of research that use the social approach. (8)

Milgram wanted to test the hypothesis ‘Germans are different’. He conducted a laboratory experiment using 40 ordinary American men. They thought they were taking part in an experiment into teaching and learning, but actually they were taking part in an obedience experiment. The experimenter instructed them to give increasing levels of electric shocks every time a learner gave an incorrect response or no response. All participants went up to 300 volts and 65% went to 450 volts, the maximum. This shows that people will blindly obey an authority figure. Milgram concluded that this is because we are socialised into obeying and because of the ‘agentic state’ – where we place the blame on the person giving the orders.

Pilliavin carried out a field experiment on the New York Underground into helping behaviour. An actor playing either the part of a drunk or with a can fell over, whilst associates observed what happened. It was found that people did help quickly, but were more likely to help the person who appeared ill or disabled more often than the drunk. Pilliavin concluded that this behaviour can be explained by the arousal; cost/reward model. We are aroused by the events we witness and then have to decide what action to take to deal with this arousal (help or escape). We do this by weighing up the relative costs and benefits.

c) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the social approach using examples. (12)

A main strength of social psychology is the attempt to use real life situations when studying behaviour. Because social psychology is interested in human interaction this is best studied in real situations

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where participants have the opportunity to interact such as with the field experiment method used by Piliavin et al. or a simulated situation such as that carried out by Haslam and Reicher. Field experiments are experiments carried out in a real world situation. Field experiments are usually high in ecological validity and may avoid demand characteristics as the participants are unaware of the experiment. Simulated situations such as the BBC prison study are high in experimental realism because even though the situation is not high in ecological validity the participants still did believe in the situation. However with field experiments it is not possible to have the same level of control as with laboratory experiments. When laboratory experiments though are used by social psychologists such as the experiment carried out by Milgram we have to be careful generalising the findings as participants may behave differently in the real world.

Another strength of the social approach is the contributions it makes about understanding social behaviour. Social psychology makes useful applications because it can explain and even offer solutions to problems in the real world. For example, Haslam and Reicher demonstrate how the breakdown of groups can lead to conditions under which tyranny can flourish and Milgram identifies many situational factors which can lead to obedience. However we do have to recognise that studies which measure social behaviour may be specific to the time they were done. For example obedience rates in the 1960s might be different to obedience rates in the noughties.

A problem which arises when studying social behaviour relates to ethics. It is difficult to study social behaviour without negatively affecting the participants in the study. Nowadays psychologists have strict ethical guidelines which they should follow when conducting studies. The Milgram study is often criticised for the way in which participants may have been harmed in the study. For example it can be argued that Milgram did not take adequate measures to protect his participants from the stress and emotional conflict they experienced. However, the ethical guidelines that psychologists nowadays must follow were not introduced when Milgram carried out his study and Milgram did not expect the results that he found. Reicher and Haslam did anticipate that their study could have a negative effect on their participants but ensured that their study was monitored by independent psychologists and believed that their study demonstrates that large scale social psychological studies can be ethical.

A further problem with the social approach is related to the generalisability of the findings. The social approach attempts to make generalisations about social behaviour but often the samples used are very restricted. Both the Milgram study and the study by Reicher and Haslam were carried out on male participants and

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therefore we would have to be careful generalising these findings to females. Furthermore both of these studies used a self-selected sampling technique which may mean that participants who volunteer may not be representative of the target population for a number of reasons. For example, they be more obedient, more motivated to take part in studies and so on. This is in contrast to the Piliavin et al. study where participants were an opportunity sample of males and females.

d) Compare the social approach with any other approach. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer. (8)

Both the social approach and the cognitive approach use highly controlled experiments to investigate human behaviour. Milgram carried out a laboratory experiment to investigate Obedience, as did Loftus to investigate the effect of leading questions on cognitive development. Both approaches have practical applications, for example Piliavin’s study has highlighted the factors that make helping behaviour either more of less likely and Loftus’s study has implications for criminal justice. Milgram’s study demonstrates the dangers of blind obedience and Baron-Cohen’s highlights the cognitive difficulties associated with Autism.

However, the social approach concentrates on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured e.g. the number of people who helped and how quickly they helped in Piliavin’s study. The way people think cannot be objectively observed, cognitions must be inferred from behaviour or what people tell us, this makes the measurement less reliable. Many social psychology studies take place in real life settings, such as a subway train (Piliavin); cognitive studies tend to have less ecological validity as they are based on artificial situations, such as seeing a slide show of a car crash, rather than an actual event (Loftus).

d) Discuss how the social approach can help our understanding of everyday life. (8)

Research by Milgram has demonstrated how easily people obey without thinking. Understanding the reasons why this happens, socialisation, agentic state, foot in the door etc., can enable us to educate people about the dangers of blind obedience and teach strategies that encourage people to think before acting. Milgram was inspired by the holocaust and hopefully, his research has had an impact and may prevent a reoccurrence. Milgram’s research has also helped form modern ethical guidelines, which enable psychology to be respected as a science.

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The research by Reicher & Haslam, built on previous research by Zimbardo. This showed how situational factors can affect behaviour. These studies can further our understanding of how people are likely to behave in prisons and lead to prison reform.

As a society we need people to help and intervene in emergency situations. Piliavin’s study concluded that people weight up the cost and benefits of helping, the arousal: cost/reward model. This helps us understand situations like the James Bulger case, where even though lots of witnesses saw Jon Venables and Robert Thompson taking James away no-one intervened. By understanding the factors we can educate and encourage more people to help and perhaps further tragedies.

The social approach demonstrates how our behaviour is influenced and shaped by others.

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Cognitive

Section B Questions: -

a. Outline one assumption of the cognitive approach in psychology (4)

Cognitive psychology studies our mental processes or cognitions. These mental processes that cognitive psychologists focus on include memory, perception, thinking and language. The main concern of cognitive psychology is how information received from our senses is processed by the brain and how this processing directs how we behave. Cognitive processes are examples of hypothetical constructs. That is, we cannot directly see processes such as thinking but we can infer what a person is thinking based on how they act. Cognitive psychology has been influenced by developments in computer science and analogies are often made between how a computer works and how we process information. Based on this computer analogy cognitive psychology is interested in how the brain inputs, stores and outputs information.

B) Describe two pieces of research that use the cognitive approach to psychology (8)

Loftus & Palmer looked at the effect of leading questions on eye-witness testimony. In a laboratory experiment they showed students a slide show of a car crash. After the slide show students were asked to estimate the speed of the cars when the accident happened. The verb used in the question was varied for each group. (How fast was the car going when they ……contacted, hit, bumped, collided, smashed?) They found that estimates were higher when the verb smashed (40.8mph) was used rather than contacted (31.8mph). In a follow up experiment they asked if the participants had seen any broken glass, those that had originally heard the word smashed were more likely to reply yes (32%), even though there was no broken glass. This shows that eye witness testimony can be unreliable and is easily contaminated by the questions used.

It has been argued that humans are unique in possessing the ability to communicate with language which involves very sophisticated cognitive skills.  However, this argument is challenged by the study from Savage-Rumbaugh (1986) who observed a chimpanzee named Kanzi learn to communicate with humans by observing its mother. Kanzi’s mother Matata was a language trained chimp, she communicated with a lexigram. Kanzi was observed to learn to communicate with the trainers by observing his mother (social

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learning theory). He later learnt more complex communication through a system of reinforcements from the trainers (Operant Conditioning).

c) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the cognitive approach using examples. (12)

A main strength of cognitive psychology is that this approach has tended to use a scientific approach through the use of laboratory experiments, as shown in Loftus’ study. A strength of using laboratory experiments is that they are high in control therefore researchers are able to establish cause and effect. Furthermore, such standardised experiments are easy to test for reliability. However, as many cognitive studies are carried out in laboratory settings they can lack ecological validity. When cognitive processes such as memory and theory of mind are studied in artificial situations it may be difficult to generalise the findings to everyday life.  A further strength of the cognitive approach is the useful contributions that have arisen from this approach. For example, many modern types of therapy are based on the cognitive approach. Understanding cognitive processes allows us to help people to improve their cognitive processes such as memory and language. The Baron-Cohen et al. study enables us to better understand the behaviour of people with autism, Loftus and Palmers’ study highlights the limitations of eye-witness testimonies and the ape research may offer strategies to help children with language difficulties to develop language or to use strategies such as the lexigram system. Furthermore the cognitive approach has become the dominant approach in psychology particularly since it has become allied with neurology. The cognitive approach nowadays is often called cognitive science and is able to provide a very sophisticated understanding of how the brain processes information.  A weakness of the cognitive approach relates to the validity of measuring cognitive processes. We can only infer what a person is thinking and therefore the cognitive approach relies heavily on self report measures and observation. There are a number of reasons why we have to question the validity of self report measures and observation. For example we can only infer that adults with autism have theory of mind difficulties from the results of the Eyes Task or that pygmy chimps are really using language when they communicate through a Lexigram. However, because of the developments of brain scanning techniques we are able to record the active parts of the brain more accurately nowadays and cognitive science is providing a more and more detailed description

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of how cognitive processes work. For example, brain scanning techniques are giving great insights about how memory works.  It has been argued that a weakness of the cognitive approaches reliance on the computer analogy leads to a reductionist and mechanistic description of experiences and behaviour. Reductionism is the idea that complex phenomena can be explained by simpler things. The cognitive approach often takes this narrow focus and ignores social and emotional factors which may impact on cognition. For example, the autism study investigated just one central cognitive deficit as an explanation for autism. However the reductionist approach does have strengths. An advantage of the reductionist view is that by breaking down a phenomenon to its constituent parts it may be possible to understand the whole. This type of single mindedness has lead to some great discoveries in psychology as it has in the 'natural' sciences.

d) Compare the cognitive approach with any other approach. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer. (8)

Both the social approach and the cognitive approach use highly controlled experiments to investigate human behaviour. Milgram carried out a laboratory experiment to investigate Obedience, as did Loftus to investigate the effect of leading questions on cognitive development. Both approaches have practical applications, for example Piliavin’s study has highlighted the factors that make helping behaviour either more of less likely and Loftus’s study has implications for criminal justice. Milgram’s study demonstrates the dangers of blind obedience and Baron-Cohen’s highlights the cognitive difficulties associated with Autism.

However, the social approach concentrates on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured e.g. the number of people who helped and how quickly they helped in Piliavin’s study. The way people think cannot be objectively observed, cognitions must be inferred from behaviour or what people tell us, this makes the measurement less reliable. Many social psychology studies take place in real life settings, such as a subway train (Piliavin); cognitive studies tend to have less ecological validity as they are based on artificial situations, such as seeing a slide show of a car crash, rather than an actual event (Loftus).

e) Discuss how the cognitive approach can help our understanding of everyday life. (8)

The research by Loftus demonstrates how easily eye witness testimony can be contaminated by leading questions. This research has led to reforms in the area of criminal justice and Loftus is often

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called as an expert witness in cases which involve mistaken identification. This work led to the development of the cognitive interview technique by Geiselman & Fisher to enable detectives to use psychological principles to improve the quantity and quality of information they receive from witness in a police interview.

Research by Baron-Cohen on Autism has greatly increased our understanding of this condition. His research has led to earlier detection and invention programmes which greatly increase a person chance of leading a normal and productive life. His work has also broken down prejudices and discrimination.

Many mental disorders are caused by irrational thoughts. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) has proved extremely useful for treating and managing a range of conditions, vastly improving people’s quality of life.

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Behaviourist

Section B Questions: -

a) Outline one assumption of the Behaviourist approach in psychology (4)

All behaviour is learnt. Either by the process of classical conditioning (Pavlov – association), Operant conditioning (Skinner – Reinforcement) or Social Learning (Bandura – Imitation).

b) Describe two pieces of research that use the behaviourist approach to psychology. (8)

Bandura wanted to find out if children will imitate aggression they have witnessed. He carried out an experiment where children witnessed a model (either male or female) acting in an aggressive or passive manner with a Bobo doll. When children were taken into a room with the same toys they imitated what they had seen, showing that children learn through the process of social learning theory. The children were more likely to imitate a model that was similar and relevant to them (same-sex model).

Savage-Rumbaugh carried out a case study on a Bonobo chimp called Kanzi. Kanzi’s mother Matata was a language trained chimp, she communicated with a lexigram. Kanzi was observed to learn to communicate with the trainers by observing his mother (social learning theory). He later learnt more complex communication through a system of reinforcements from the trainers (Operant Conditioning).

c) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the behaviourist approach using examples from any study involving behaviourism. (12)

The strengths of the behaviourist perspective are that it offers an alternative to the biological model that dominated early psychology. It is based on observable behaviour and can be test using laboratory experiments. Experiments such as those used by Bandura are highly controlled and reliable. They can suggest cause and effect relationships. Evidence from experiments is usually objective, although in Bandura study, there was still a degree of subjectivity in the definitions of behaviours observed in the children. Behaviourism is a very logical theory; we can see everyday examples of how people learn, through association, reinforcement and imitation. Many successful therapies for removing problem behaviours have been based on behaviourist techniques.

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However, a major weakness is that most of the early research by Pavlov and Skinner is based on animal experiments. Animals lack language and higher cognitive function, so there is a limit to how much we can generalise to humans. Behaviourism offers a very reductionist and determinist view of human behaviour; it ignores other factors that can shape behaviour such as genetics and cognitive factors. There are a great deal of individual differences, some people learn much faster than others for example. In animals food and sex are the main reinforces of behaviour, for humans it is more complex, finding a motivating reinforcement is often very difficult. Human behaviour is the result of a complex interaction between factors, not simple cause and effect.

d) Compare the behaviourist approach with any other approach. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer. (8)

The behaviourist approach contrasts strongly with the physiological approach. Whilst the physiological approach represent the nature side of the debate, the behaviourist approach represent the nurture side. The behaviourist approach is concerned with the way that behaviour is learnt, as in Bandura’s study the children learnt aggressive behaviour through watching aggressive role models, social learning theory. The physiological approach is concerned with biological explanations of behaviour, for example Sperry’s study demonstrated that different brain hemispheres are involved in different types of tasks and Maguire showed that brain structures could change to accommodate the demands made upon them.

Both the behaviourist and the physiological approach offer insights into human behaviour and they also offer practical solutions to problem behaviours. For example, the use of psychiatric drugs to control mental disorders such as schizophrenia and depression. Systematic desensitisation and aversion therapy are both examples based on the behaviourist approach. Both approaches use the experimental method, such as Maguire’s natural experiment on Taxi drivers and Bandura’s study on aggression. Both approaches can be seen as reductionist as they concentrated on one factor to explain behaviour: - biology or learning, completely ignoring the important role of cognition and emotion.

d) Discuss how the behaviourist approach can help our understanding of everyday life. (8)

An understanding of how behaviour is learnt from the environment can enable us to control and modify behaviour. It has been extensively used in animal training as well as with humans.

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The work of Bandura on the effects of role models on the learning of aggressive behaviour has informed media policies. It is now recognised that impressionable children need to be protected from violent and aggressive scenes in the media. This has led to classification systems and watershed times to try and ensure children are not exposed to these things. Knowing how easily children learn from role models has led to the use of positive role models to try and influence children for the better.

The behaviourist approach has led to the development of therapies to treat unwanted behaviours such as phobias. The assumption is that you can learn to replace unacceptable or unwanted behaviours with more positive behaviours. Systematic desensitisation, Aversion therapy, Flooding and Implosion therapy are all based on the principles of classical conditioning, where positive associations are encouraged. Token economy is based on the principles of Operant conditioning where positive behaviours are reinforced, school house credit systems are based on this.

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Psychodynamic

Section B Questions: -

a) Outline one assumption of the psychodynamic approach in psychology (4)

The psychodynamic approach is based on the work of Freud. It sees childhood experiences as influential. Based on unconscious motivations. Personality: - Id, Ego, Superego. Psychosexual stages: - Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency and Genital. Oedipus & Electra complexes

b) Describe two pieces of research that use the psychodynamic approach. (8)

Freud carried out a case study on a little boy between the ages of 3-5 years know as ‘Little Hans’. Little Hans was referred to Freud by his father for his phobia of horses. Over the years Freud corresponded with his father and offered advice. Freud concluded that ‘Little Hans’ was a normal boy going through the psychosexual stages of development. During this time he progressed through the anal stage (he was preoccupied with faeces and going to the toilet) to the phallic stage (a big interest in his ‘widdler) and had an unresolved Oedipus complex. Freud concluded that Little Hans had displaced his fear and resentment of his father, who he saw as a rival for his mother’s affections, onto horses. By the end of the case study Little Hans had resolved his Oedipus complex and his phobia of horses.

Thigpen & Cleckley carried out a case study on ‘Eve’, a woman with multiple personality disorder. They discovered three quite separate personalities: - Eve White a shy, quiet respectable wife and mother, Eve Black a promiscuous party girl and Jane the most stable of the three personalities. Multiple personality disorder is usually linked to childhood trauma and this is why this study can be considered psychodynamic. Thigpen & Cleckley concluded that the solution to ‘Eve’s’ problems were to let Jane become the dominate personality and they aimed to achieve this through extensive therapy.

c) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the Psychodynamic approach using examples. (12)

The strengths of the psychodynamic perspective are that it offers an alternative to the biological model that dominated early psychology. In fact, Freud’s theories have shaped modern psychology. Although, often now dismissed as outdated, they at least sparked

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debate and led to the formation of alternative theories such as behaviourism, humanism and cognitive psychology. Freud’s work has implications for many modern therapies such as psychoanalysis, dream analysis etc. and marked the beginning of the ’so-called’ talking cure. Freud used the case study method extensively. Case studies are detailed and in-depth. His case studies were actual patients so he was able to suggest ways of alleviating their problems as a result of his studies. Freud recognised the importance of the family and early childhood experiences. This has led to improvements in child care practices and government policies.

However, because Freud focuses on unconscious motivations and desires his theory is seen as untestable and unscientific. However, this means it can’t be proved wrong either! The theory is deterministic and pessimistic as it sees problems in childhood as automatically causing problems in later life. This ignores individual differences in coping strategies and the effects of other factors. Whilst, our childhoods inevitable shape us, adult experiences also have an influence. Freud over emphasises the influence of the family and the theory is based on an outdated concept of the nuclear family. It is sexist as it is based on stereotypical gender roles within the family. The theory suggests that boys that grow up without a father figure will become homosexual and we know that this is not the case.

d) Compare the psychodynamic approach with any other approach. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer. (8)

Both the psychodynamic approach and the developmental approach are interested in childhood and the way in which it impacts on adulthood. Both conduct longitudinal studies to see changes over time, Freud famously carried out a longitudinal case study on ‘Little Hans’. Both see development as taking place over stages. Freud’s psychosexual stages of developmental: - Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency and Genital and Piaget’s stages of cognitive development: - Sensory motor, Pre-operational, Concrete operational and Formal operational.

However, whilst the developmental approach concentrates on cognitive development (Samuel & Bryant – Conservation) and social development (Bandura – aggression), the psychodynamic approach is interested in emotional development (Freud – Little Hans). The psychodynamic approach is very pessimistic; it sees childhood problems leading to problems in adulthood. The developmental approach is more optimistic it studies development issues and makes practical suggestions for practical interventions to alleviate these problems. For example, early intervention in

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childhood problems can make all the difference. Whilst the psychodynamic approach relies solely on the case study method, the developmental approach uses a variety of methods including the experimental method (Samuel & Bryant, Bandura). The psychodynamic approach is seen as Untestable and unscientific, whilst the developmental approach uses a more scientific approach and larger samples to increase reliability and validity.

e) Discuss how the psychodynamic approach can help our understanding of everyday life. (8)

The work of Freud is important to psychology as it represented the first challenge to the physiological approach and led to the development of all the other alternative theories in psychology. Freud is seen as the father of modern psychology. Freudian terminology and theories have become a part of everyday life. The idea of the unconscious mind affecting the individual is very important. Also, the development of psychoanalysis, free association and dream analysis revolutionised modern psychiatry and led to the prominence of the so-called talking cure.

Freud’s emphasis on the importance of early childhood experiences has informed modern social work practice. The importance of an early attachment bond is now seen as vital and children are placed with foster families rather than impersonal and potentially damaging children’s homes. Families are supported to resolve problems, as children need loving homes in order to reach their full potential.

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