PSYB4 - Approaches

Approaches

Biological Behaviourist Social Learning Theory Cognitive Psychodynamic Humanistic Eclectic

Biological - Assumptions

All behaviour has a biological basis. The causal level of analysis focuses on

physiological explanations. The functional level of analysis focuses on

evolutionary and genetic explanations. Genes can explain inherited

characteristics, such as aggression.

Biological – Causal level of analysis

The human body consists of millions of cells that communicate via electrical and chemical signals.

Behaviour is controlled by the nervous system.

Biological – Causal level of analysis

Nervous system

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Brain Spinal cord Autonomic NS Somatic NS

The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that radiate from the central nervous system.Furthermore, the PNS consists of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system. The former controls automatic body processes such as blood pressure and heart rate, whereas the latter controls muscles related to movement.

Biological – Causal level of analysis

The central nervous system consists of cells called neurons, which communicate with each other via neurotransmitters which pass between synapses.

Hormones and other similar chemicals act throughout the bloodstream.

Biological – Functional level Natural selection. This is the idea that those animals within a

species that will survive have particular traits that give them an advantage compared with the others.

These behaviours are adapted and is suited to the environment. These animals will be the ones that survive and have more offspring.

Biological – Functional level

Dowling (1994) – natural selection depends on three key principles:

Principle of diversity Principle of interaction Principle of differential amplification

Biological – Functional level

Sexual selection. Males can have as many offspring as

possible. Females are restricted, and so are choosy

when it comes to picking a male mate. Dawkins (1997) – suggested it is the

survival of the genes that matter, rather than the survival of the individual.

Biological - Genes Small mutations in DNA can lead to

changes in the next generation. DNA is made by combinations of the

bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.

Chromosomes decide one's biological sex – XX or XY (XXY or XO lead to differing characteristics).

Chromosomes are made through the processes of mitosis and meiosis.

Biological - Genes

Some proteins that affect behaviour are hormones, neurotransmitters and enzymes.

Bock and Goode (2006) – male mice showed a genetic tendency towards aggression.

A02 - Strengths

+ Scientific approach

+ Empirical evidence

+ Behaviour can be measured objectively

+ Practical applications, such as drug therapy

+ The approach makes sense e.g cases of Clive Wearing and HM, both of which were affected by changes in their biology

A02 - Weaknesses

- Deterministic

- Reductionist

- Dehumanising

- Methodological issues e.g measuring private subjective experience

- Ignores social and psychological factors that may affect behaviour

Behaviourist - Assumptions All behaviour is the result of conditioning,

past experiences and the environment. Sees humans as stimulus-response

machines. In operant conditioning, behaviour is either

rewarded through positive or negative reinforcement, or punishment.

Classical conditioning is learning through association.

Behaviourist – Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning involves pairing a naturally-occurring response caused by a stimulus with another, neutral stimulus.

For example, Pavlov paired salivation in dogs in the presence of food with the sound of a bell.

Dogs were trained to salivate at the sound of the bell. This was generalised to other bell-like noises.

Behaviourist – Classical conditioning Watson and Rayner (1920) 'The case of Little Albert' – was

conditioned to have a phobia of a white rat. The presence of the rat was accompanied

with a loud bang. This fear of the loud bang was associated with the rat, leading to the development of the phobia.

Little Albert generalised this phobia to all white and fluffy objects.

Behaviourist – Operant conditioning Operant conditioning focuses on learning that

occurs as a result of feedback about the consequences of that behaviour.

Thorndike (1898) – law of effect – a behaviour with positive consequences is more likely to be repeated in the future.

Skinner's rats: Rats + lever = food (positive reinforcement). Rats + lever = electric shock (negative

reinforcement).

Behaviourist – Operant conditioning

Types of reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement, partial

reinforcement, fixed interval reinforcement, variable ratio reinforcement, variable interval reinforcement.

Operant conditioning has been used in behaviour modification e.g token economy.

Behaviourist – Operant conditioning

Colsey and Hatton (1994) Operant conditioning principles were used

to change the maladaptive behaviours of 10 year old Sophie, who suffered with a severe learning disability.

After 20 days of treatment, the undesired behaviour ceased.

A02 - Strengths

+ Driving force in psychology as a science

+ Experimental method is rigorous – compatible with a scientific approach

+ Practical applications e.g token economy, aversion therapy and systematic desensitisation

+ Objective methods

+ Empirical evidence

A02 - Weaknesses- Determinisitc

- Dehumanising

- Reductionist

- Cannot compare animals to humans

- Behaviour therapy/modification do not attempt to seek the underlying causes of behaviour

- Learned helplessness principles critique classical conditioning findings

SLT - Assumptions

Combines behaviourist and cognitive principles.

Imitation of a model's behaviour is a key idea.

Behaviour occurs due to observation and expectancy.

SLT - Bandura

Devised two key principles of learning:

- Observational learning

- Expectancy Was devised in the 1960s as a response

to the determinisitc view of the behavioural psychologists.

SLT – Cognitive processes Attention – concentrating on the model

and relevant behaviour. Retention – keeping what is seen stored in

the memory. Reproduction – being able to reproduce

the behaviour witnessed. Motivation – the presence of

reinforcement or punishment motivates the individual to reproduce the appropriate behaviour.

SLT - Models They need to be: Appropriate Relevant to the observer Similar to observer Warm and friendly Powerful Admirable Consistent in their behaviour

SLT – Bandura & The 'Bobo Doll'

Bandura (1961) Investigated the imitation of aggression in

children. Non-aggressive conditions, aggressive

conditions and control condition. Children witnessed aggressive or non-

aggressive behaviours by adults towards the Bobo doll.

SLT – Bandura & The 'Bobo Doll'

There were significantly more aggressive acts towards the Bobo doll in the aggressive conditions.

Boys had higher physical aggression scores, whilst girls had higher verbal aggression scores.

Children, therefore, learned the aggressive acts from watching the models.

SLT vs Operant ConditioningFeature Operant conditioning SLT

Reinforcement A response strengthener An informative and motivational operation

Feedback Working backwards from behaviour

Working forwards from a behaviour – individual thinks about expected

feedback

Cognitive Processes Does not account for cognitive processes

Individuals must memorise observed

behaviour and store it

A02 - Strengths+ Adds to the principles of behaviourism

+ Less deterministic than the behaviourist approach

+ Less reductionist than the behaviourist approach

+ SLT is good at explaining specific imitation of behaviour

+ Can explain the development of culture and complex behaviour

A02 - Weaknesses- Ignores subjective experience

- Lab experiments lack ecological validity

- SLT not good at explaining abstract ideas e.g principles of justice and fairness

- Bobo doll, one could argue, does not serve any other purpose but to hit

- Does not specify how observed behaviour is stored or reproduced

Cognitive - Assumptions

Focuses on cognitive processes on the individual

Compares humans to computers Individuals try to make sense of the world Stimulus – Organism - Response

Cognitive – Information Processing Computer:

Input Storage Retrieval Output

Human:

Stimulus Attention Memory Response

Information is received by the senses, further processed and then used to guide behaviour.

Cognitive – Making sense Thoughts, concepts and schemas are a

few ways in which information is organised. Cognitive scripts tell us how to act in

certain situations e.g in public. Episodic memory plays a role in

developing schemas about the world. Dodge (1986) – some people react to

ambiguous stimuli via the hostile attribution bias (aggressive behaviour towards stimuli).

Cognitive – Making sense

Mischel (1973) – distinguished five variables that influence a response to a stimulus, and consequently, behaviour:

- Competencies

- Encodings

- Expectancies

- Values

- Plans

A02 - Strengths

+ Takes individual differences into account

+ Less deterministic than other approaches

+ Takes a middle position in the nature-nurture debate

+ Uses rigorous methods of study

+ Practical applications e.g CBT

A02 - Weaknesses- Not possible to see cognitive processes at work

- Not able to explain why cognitive processes happen

- Reductionist

- Too much emphasis on information-processing approach

- Limitations with using experimental methods – hypothetical constructs e.g memory

- Evidence testing memory will lack content validity

Psychodynamic - Assumptions

Early childhood experiences determine the adult personality and adult behaviours.

Personality is made up of different elements (id, ego and superego).

Case study method is best for studying humans.

Defence mechanisms distort our understanding of our own behaviours.

Psychodynamic - Personality

Id – the pleasure principle. Driven by sexual and aggressive instincts. Present at birth.

Ego – the reality principle. Mediates between the id and the superego.

Superego – the morality principle. Develops during the phallic stage of development. Includes the conscience.

Psychodynamic – The Mind

Unconscious – usually anxiety-provoking material.

Pre-conscious – what we can switch our attention to.

Conscious – what we are aware of.

Psychodynamic – Psychosexual stages

Oral stage (Birth to ~ 1 years). Libido is focused around the mouth. Child sucks and bites for pleasure. Fixation in this stage can lead to smoking,

over-eating or thumb-sucking in adult life.

Psychodynamic – Psychosexual stages

Anal stage (1-3 years). Pleasure focused on bowel movements. Fixation can result in anal-retentive and

anal-expulsive personalities. Complications in this stage can lead to

OCD in later life.

Psychodynamic – Psychosexual stages Phallic stage (3-6 years) Gender development occurs through the

experience of the Oedipus and Electra complexes.

Libido focused in the genitals. Girls suffer from penis envy; boys suffer from

castration anxiety. Adopt the characteristics of the same-sex

parent.

Psychodynamic – Psychosexual stages

Latency – (6-12 years) Libido lies dormant. Genital – (12 – Adulthood) Here, individuals gain their appropriate

sexual identity as they progress into adulthood.

Psychodynamic - Post-Freudians

Post-Freudians paid more attention to the ego, development throughout life and the role of culture and society.

Erik Erikson devised psycho-social stages that covered the whole lifespan.

At the end of each stage, a person would gain an ego strength.

At each stage, a conflict is to be resolved.

Stage Age Name Ego strength

1 0 - 1 Trust vs mistrust Hope

2 1 - 3 Autonomy vs shame and doubt

Will

3 3 – 5/6 Initiative vs guilt Purpose

4 7 - 12 Industry vs inferiority

Competence/achievement

5 12 - 18 Identity vs role confusion

Fidelity/strong identity

6 20s Intimacy vs isolation

Love

7 20s- 60s Generativity vs stagnation

Care and wider outlook

8 60s+ Integrity vs despair

Wisdom

Psychodynamic - Erikson

A ninth stage was added after his death. Reflection vs frailty (80s – 90s). Ego strength = genotranscendence.

Psychodynamic – Freud vs EriksonFreud Erikson

Similarities

- Parts of the personality - Parts of the mind- Genetically determined stages- Conflict at each stage

- Parts of the personality- Parts of the mind- Genetically determined stages- Conflict at each stage

Differences

- Case studies- Conflict related to family- Focused on id- Stages in childhood

- Anthropological studies et al- Conflict related to family, school and peers- Focused on ego- Stages over lifespan

Psychodynamic - Horney Devised the Neo-Freudian discipline.

Claimed that only neurotic women experienced penis envy.

Claimed men suffered from 'womb envy', and their success drive was a substitute for the inability to carry, nurture and bear children.

Saw the Oedipal complex as being caused by a disturbance in the parent-child relationship.

Presented a holistic, humanistic view of the individual psyche which emphasised the importance of culture and society.

A02 - Strengths+ Case studies used as a cure, as well as a

research method.

+ Case studies allow rare and unusual phenomena to be studied.

+ Emphasises importance of childhood experiences.

+ Takes a middle position in many debates.

+ Practical applications e.g dream analysis and free association.

A02 - Weaknesses- Unscientific.

- Unfalsifiable.

- Id, ego and superego are hypothetical constructs.

- Cannot generalise case study findings.

- Subjective e.g case of Little Hans.

- Doubly determinisitc – childhood experiences and the unconscious.

Humanistic - Assumptions

Individuals are free to choose their own behaviour.

Focus is on subjective experience and conscious awareness.

Focus on personal growth in order to self-actualise.

Humans are potentially good.

Humanistic – Conscious awareness

Only approach that believes in free will. We have autonomy, and so can choose

our behaviours. We have 'situated freedom', and so we are

constrained in some ways e.g we cannot choose when to be born and who to.

Our conscious/subjective experience is important to the individual.

Humanistic - Maslow

Studied 'peak experiences'. These are when the individuals are

completely at peace in the world. Devised the hierarchy of needs. In order to

move up to the next level, the basic needs need to be fulfilled.

Maslow said that individuals rarely achieved self-actualisation.

Humanistic - Maslow

Humanistic - Rogers Highlighted importance of personal growth.

Individuals live in their own subjective world. The self is composed of subjective experience

and the evaluation of others. Developed client-centred therapy in the 1950s in

order to overcome incongruence. In order for CCT to be successful, the therapist needs to give the client unconditional positive regard.

In CCT, therapist acts as a mirror, relaying what is said back to the client.

A02 - Strengths+ Considers free will

+ Seeks an alternative to the deterministic explanations of behaviour

+ Not reductionist

+ CCT has been useful for people in order to reflect and strive to achieve personal growth

+ Face validity e.g moving up the career ladder

+ Practical applications e.g hierarchy of needs in schools and in the workplace

A02 - Weaknesses

- Too positive about human nature – does not explain criminality

- Too much emphasis on subjective experience

- Difficult to measure subjective experience

- CCT does not help those with severe problems

- Culturally biased – people in poverty cannot exercise free will

- Can be seen as determinisitc – says all people strive to self-actualise

Eclectic - Forms Theoretical eclecticism – combination of different

theoretical ideas.

Methodological eclecticism – combination of different research methods.

Epistemological eclecticism – combination of different positions in the debates.

Applied eclecticism – combinations of approaches in applied psychology e.g treatments.

Selective eclecticism – use of different ideas to explain something e.g anorexia.

Eclectic - Definition

Combination of approaches. Most often used in applied psychology e.g

therapy. An example is using drugs and CBT to

treat depression.

Eclectic – Trimodal theory Stevens (1996). Three modes of understanding behaviour. Primary – biological processes. Secondary – meanings/learning. Tertiary – Reflexive awareness (free will). An example used is gender development. e.g genes (XX or XY), imitation of same-sex

model, free will choice to be feminine or masculine.

A02 - Strengths

+ Takes the best part of all approaches and combines them to give a better understanding of behaviour

+ Useful in therapy

+ Human behaviour is too complex to be understood in one approach

+ Plenty of overlap between approaches

A02 - Weaknesses- Irreconcilable differences between approaches e.g

biological and psychodynamic

- Not clear how approaches are combined in practice

- Trimodal theory places too much emphasis on tertiary mode – not applicable in disorders such as schizophrenia

- Being eclectic means having not theoretical basis

- 'Pick and mix' of approaches may result in no better than common sense

- Therapist may be a 'jack of all trades' and not specialise in a single approach