STRESS

EXAM PREPARATION

Physiological Psychology

Stress - Definition

“The non-specific response of the body to any demand.” Seyle (1950)

In other words – stress is a generalised reaction to a demand placed on the body.

Stress - Definition

“A state of psychological and physical tension produced...when there is a mismatch between the perceived demands of a situation (the stressor(s)) and the individuals perceived ability to cope. The consequent state of tension can be adaptive (eustress) or maladaptive (distress).”

Eysenck (2008)

Stress - Definition

Cox (1978) stated that stress could be understood as three inter-related subsystems:

(a) an external stimulus; (b) a bodily response (c) a perception of the situation's demands

and one's ability to meet those demands

Stress as an “ability to cope” (Transactional Model)

Lazarus (1984) proposed the cognitive appraisal model to explain individual differences in people's reactions to external life-events.

Lazarus claimed that stress arises from a mismatch between external demands and a person's own assessment of their ability to cope.

Stress as an “ability to cope” (Transactional Model)

This model suggests that stress is the product of intepretation, comprising of a:

primary appraisal (is this a threat or not)

secondary appraisal (can I cope)

re-appraisal (this is/ is not stressful).

Lazarus's model is sometimes called a 'transactional' model or 'interactionist' model.

Environmental Causes of Stress

Environmental causes of stress are called STRESSORS. They happen to a person! They are events which throw the body out of balance and force it to respond. Life events are

associated with stress related illness

Stressors could include noise, temperature, poor ventilation, commuting, conflict with manager, Shift-work or overwork.

Environmental Causes of Stress

Cox (1978) refers to this view as the ENGINEERING model of stress because it imagines stress as an external load that puts a person under strain (like a weight on a coiled spring).

Heavier loads produce more strain, and start to unravel the spring. without respite, the spring distorts, fractures and finally breaks. 

Environmental Causes of Stress

Employers should provide a stress-free work environment, recognise where stress is becoming a problem for staff, and take action to reduce stress.

Stress in the workplace reduces productivity, increases management pressures, and makes people ill in many ways, evidence of which is still increasing.

Workplace stress affects the performance of the brain, including functions of work performance; memory, concentration, and learning.

The Cost of Workplace Stress

In the UK over 13 million working days are lost every year because of stress.

Stress is believed to trigger 70% of visits to doctors, and 85% of serious illnesses (UK HSE stress statistics).

HSE = Health and Safety Executive

Stress as a Bodily Response

We must first understand the physiology of the arousal (the response to stress).

Your Nervous System (NS) is divided into two main sub-systems.

The Central Nervous System (CNS) – Brain and Spinal Cord.

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – all other cells in the body.

Stress as a Bodily Response

The PNS is then divided into:

The ANS is a largely automatic or self-regulating system, which means it responds with little or no conscious thought on your part. It is involved with vital functions such as eating, breathing and STRESS RESPONSE

The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – deals with voluntary movements of skeletal muscles

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)-Concerned with involuntary movements of non-skeletal muscles i.e. The heart.

Stress as a Bodily Response

The Autonomic Nervous System has two branches

Sympa

thet

ic A

rous

al

(Invo

lunt

ary)

Parasympathetic Arousal

(Involuntary)•Activates internal organs in situations needing energy and arousal.•Increases heart rate•Reduces stomach activity•Pupils become dilated•Bronchi of lungs relax•Glucose is released•Expends (used) energy•Acts as a trouble shooter (FIGHT or FLIGHT response)

Involved in trying to conserve and store resources – the opposite effects of the sympathetic nervous system.•Decreases heart rate•Increases stomach activity•Pupils become contracted•Bronchi of lungs restrict•Glucose is stored•Conserves energy

StressorHypothalamus

Adrenal Medulla

Releases adrenaline or noradrenalin

Fight or flight response(Increased heart rate, reduced activity in the stomach, pupils dilate etc...

Helps in emergencies, you can run fast to escape, or move quickly to prevent mishap.

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Adrenal Cortex (ACTH is released into bloodstream)

Release of Glucocorticoids (like Cortisol) into the bloodstream

Causes liver to release stored glucose.Suppresses the immune system.

Good effects: Useful in coping with long-term stress and reducing initial shock response. Bad effects: Blood has excess glucose and some hormones; wound healing is slow; immune system is less effective at fighting disease.

SHOCK RESPONSE

COUNTER SHOCK RESPONSE

Stress as a Bodily Response

The stress response is an evolutionary reaction to any outside threat stimulus.

It was Hans Seyle (1956) who first claimed that stress activates a standard set of bodily changes that define a human being's response to a stressful encounter.

Essentially, there are TWO main features to this response: a fast-acting (neural) response involving the activation of the adrenal medulla and the release of adrenaline, and a slower (hormonal) response involving the activation of the adrenal cortex and the release of glucocortoids (stress hormones) to regulate the body's blood-sugar level.

RESEARCH – Brady 1958

Carried out research in which pairs of monkeys were given shocks every 20 seconds unless one in particular (called the “executive”) pressed a lever to prevent it.

Many executive monkeys died of perforated ulcers resulting from increased gastrointestinal hormone caused by stress.

RESEARCH – Brady 1958

The presence of the control monkeys who experienced the same shocks but did not have the responsibility of turning them off demonstrated that the ulcers were caused by stress, not shocks.

Indicates that too much stress at work, could cause stomach ulcers

Personality types

So far we have discussed common sources of stress and how the body responds to stress.

The 4 Sources of stress include;

Life changes (Moving house, going on holiday etc)Daily Hassles (Handing assignments on time,

computer dying)Workplace stressors (Job demands, Work overload

– think of Brady’s monkeys!)Personality factors (I.e type A, hardiness etc)

Personality Factors

Friedman and Rosenman (1959) identified two important personality types...

Type A Type B

Competitive Relaxed

Ambitious Carefree

Hostile

Restless Lack the other charateristics of Type A

Impatient

Pressured

Personality Factors

They found that men with TYPE A personalities were almost twice as likely to suffer coronary heart disease than Type B’s.

Type A’s had higher levels of adrenaline, noradrenaline and cholesterol.

Type A personalities are potentially very harmful to health – they are stressed individuals who, because of the stress, have an inhibited digestive system, which leads to high levels of cholesterol therefore increasing the risk of heart disease.

Stress Management - Cognitive

Cognitive techniques aim to manage stress by identifying and altering the thought processes that cause stress.

Meichenbaum (1985) developed the Stress Inoculation Technique (or Therapy) (SIT)

SIT introduces minor levels of stress to individuals, which allows them to psychologically adjust and prepare for stressful situations.

Stress Management - Behavioural

Behavioural techniques attempt to manage stress by changing the behaviour that causes it

This is often done through Biofeedback where physiological indicators (e.g heart rate, blood pressure etc.) are monitered in different situations and “fed back” to individuals.

This allows them to identify which experiences, feelings and emotions raise and lower their stress levels.

Individuals can then use this information to alter their stress levels by using physical measures such as MEDITATION or BREATHING CONTROL

Stress Management - Physiological

Physiological methods try to control the body’s response to stress by reducing physiological reactivity; for example, taking anti-anxiety drugs to decrease the “fight or flight” responses such as raised blood pressure.

Drugs:

Beta-Blockers (Reduce activity in the sympathetic nervous system. Decrease heart rate and lower blood pressure)

Stress Management - Physiological

DrugsAnti-anxiety drugs – Benzodiazapine

(valium, librium) decreases serotonin activity which reduces arousal. Takers are more likely to be involved in accidents due to side effects such as depression, drowsiness)

They are also addictive and withdrawal can lead to the return of the original feelings of stress and anxiety.

Stress Management

Strengths of Physiological and Behaviour treatments Both drugs and biofeedback are quickBoth drugs and biofeedback are effective at reducing

dangerous symptoms.

WeaknessesThey both only treat the symptoms of

stressDrugs have many side-effectsBiofeedback is difficult and expensive

to use – lab equipment.

Managing Stress

Many psychological and cognitive stress management tools try and achieve an “altered state” in the individual.

Giving up attempts to cope with stress is known as “learned helplessness” – see Seligman (1975) for further research.