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psyc3122 lecture 5psyc3122 lecture 5

DissonanceDissonanceAttitude formationAttitude formation

Nature, Nurture, TV Nature, Nurture, TV

next week:next week: Easter breakEaster breakIn two weeks: In two weeks: Cool UQ researchCool UQ research

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TodayTodayDiscussion of book Discussion of book chch. 4. 4--55Review of last weekReview of last weekProcesses of behaviour Processes of behaviour --> attitude change> attitude change–– “Free will” decision to engage in behaviour with foreseeable, negative “Free will” decision to engage in behaviour with foreseeable, negative

consequences leads to more positive attitudes (consequences leads to more positive attitudes (dissonancedissonance))Attitude formationAttitude formation–– Learned cognitionsLearned cognitions

Evaluated with respect to goalsEvaluated with respect to goals–– Categorisation of novel objectsCategorisation of novel objects

Perceived Perceived prototypicalityprototypicalityMere exposureMere exposure

–– Inferences from BehaviourInferences from Behaviour–– Inferences from EmotionInferences from Emotion

Classical, evaluative, and operant conditioningClassical, evaluative, and operant conditioning–– Nurture & natureNurture & nature

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Last week: Last week:

Spontaneous behaviourSpontaneous behaviour–– The direct expression of attitudes varying in accessibility, strength, and The direct expression of attitudes varying in accessibility, strength, and

stabilitystability–– Temporarily salient because of priming, rumination, selfTemporarily salient because of priming, rumination, self--awarenessawareness–– Chronically salient because of involvement, direct experience, Chronically salient because of involvement, direct experience,

commitment, repeated expressioncommitment, repeated expression–– The MODE model The MODE model –– two modes of decisiontwo modes of decision--makingmaking

Processes of behaviour Processes of behaviour --> attitude change> attitude change–– LearningLearning –– can change properties of attitude (strength, stability, can change properties of attitude (strength, stability,

accessibility) or attitude content (positive/negative)accessibility) or attitude content (positive/negative)–– Forced inactionForced inaction --> increased positivity (reactance, white bear, > increased positivity (reactance, white bear,

scarcity heuristic)scarcity heuristic)–– OverOver--justified actionjustified action --> less positive attitudes (self> less positive attitudes (self--perception)perception)–– Behaviour leads to more positive attitudes (Behaviour leads to more positive attitudes (CommitmentCommitment: self: self--

perception, learning, direct experience)perception, learning, direct experience)

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TodayTodaybehaviour behaviour --> attitude change > attitude change

dissonancedissonanceLearning perspective: reward increases Learning perspective: reward increases positivity, facilitates actionpositivity, facilitates actionBUT: pos. consequences can erode BUT: pos. consequences can erode motivation; commitment can facilitate motivation; commitment can facilitate action in absence of rewardsaction in absence of rewardsAndAnd heap of research showing insufficient heap of research showing insufficient justification & negative consequences can justification & negative consequences can increaseincrease motivationmotivation

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Mrs. Keech & Seekers of TruthMrs. Keech & Seekers of Truth

Spiritual messages from the “Guardians”Spiritual messages from the “Guardians”“automatic writing” = belief system“automatic writing” = belief systemGreat impending disaster!Great impending disaster!–– A flood would engulf the worldA flood would engulf the world–– But, all who believedBut, all who believed

Spacemen would arriveSpacemen would arrive

Remove all metal, memorize Remove all metal, memorize passwords:passwords:–– “I left my hat at home”; “I am my own porter”“I left my hat at home”; “I am my own porter”

Rid personal belongings, quit jobsRid personal belongings, quit jobs

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When Prophecy FailsWhen Prophecy Fails

RealReal--world doomsday cult study world doomsday cult study (Festinger, (Festinger, Schachter, & Back, 1956)Schachter, & Back, 1956)

No flying saucer = 2 choices:No flying saucer = 2 choices:–– Quit cultQuit cult–– Stay with cultStay with cult

Result: “Message from God”Result: “Message from God”–– Our devotion saved the worldOur devotion saved the world–– Publicity seeking, more devotionPublicity seeking, more devotion

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Why?Why?Theory of cognitive dissonance Theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957)(Festinger, 1957)–– “Cognitions” (thoughts, attitudes, beliefs) can be “Cognitions” (thoughts, attitudes, beliefs) can be

consonant, dissonant, or irrelevantconsonant, dissonant, or irrelevant–– Dissonant cognitions create unpleasant arousal Dissonant cognitions create unpleasant arousal

(dissonance) which indivs want to reduce(dissonance) which indivs want to reduce–– We do this by adding, subtracting, or substituting We do this by adding, subtracting, or substituting

cognitionscognitionsE.g., banned from smoking at work, not E.g., banned from smoking at work, not smoking, yet like to smoke:smoking, yet like to smoke:–– Add cognition “If I smoked I would lose my job” Add cognition “If I smoked I would lose my job” ––

creates sufficient justification to reduce arousalcreates sufficient justification to reduce arousal–– Delete cognition “I am not smoking at work” (denial)Delete cognition “I am not smoking at work” (denial)–– Change attitudesChange attitudes to smoking so become less to smoking so become less

positivepositiveFestinger & Carlsmith (1959) $1 vs $20 vs 0Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) $1 vs $20 vs 0

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Internalizing Conscience Internalizing Conscience Through DissonanceThrough Dissonance

Aronson & Carlsmith, Aronson & Carlsmith, 19631963How do kids become How do kids become moral actors?moral actors?–– Learning theory Learning theory

accountaccount–– Dissonance theory Dissonance theory

account?account?

IV: severe vs. mild IV: severe vs. mild threat not to play with threat not to play with target toy (pretarget toy (pre--measured to be 2measured to be 2ndnd

favourite)favourite)DV: number of Ps DV: number of Ps who change or don’t who change or don’t change their prechange their pre-- and and postpost-- manipulation manipulation ratings of target toyratings of target toy

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Aronson & Carlsmith ResultsAronson & Carlsmith ResultsIncreasing Staying the Same Decreasing

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Same day 6 wks later

DV: # of Ps increasing, decreasing, or leaving unchanged their preference for their second-favorite toy.

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Is it about inconsistency & arousal Is it about inconsistency & arousal or or selfself--perceptionperception ??

Bem’s selfBem’s self--perception theory was a challenge to perception theory was a challenge to dissonance workdissonance workSelfSelf--perception theory can explain some perception theory can explain some dissonance study findings + some findings that dissonance study findings + some findings that DT can’t account for DT can’t account for –– e.g., erosion of intrinsic motivation when you DO e.g., erosion of intrinsic motivation when you DO

something that you LIKE with REWARDsomething that you LIKE with REWARDSelfSelf--perception processes do operateperception processes do operateBUT selfBUT self--perception can’t explain key role of perception can’t explain key role of arousal arousal

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Arousal drives attitude change?Arousal drives attitude change?Steele: we engage in Steele: we engage in dissonance reduction dissonance reduction because of physiological because of physiological arousalarousalTuition hike exp’tTuition hike exp’t2 IVs 2 IVs –– essay written under forced essay written under forced

compliance compliance vs. vs. free choice free choice vs.vs. no essay controlno essay control

–– alcohol alcohol vsvs. no alcohol. no alcoholDV: attitude re. tuition DV: attitude re. tuition hikehikeSedating effects of Sedating effects of alcohol eliminate alcohol eliminate dissonancedissonance

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no choice free choice

alc no alc

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Is it arousal or Is it arousal or attribution for attribution for arousalarousal??

Dissonance leads to arousal Dissonance leads to arousal –– Ps given phenobarbitol show no dissonance Ps given phenobarbitol show no dissonance

after counterafter counter--attitudinal essayattitudinal essay–– versus Ps given amphetamines versus Ps given amphetamines –– increased Dincreased D

Attributing arousal to dissonance leads to Attributing arousal to dissonance leads to attitude changeattitude change–– placebo study placebo study –– misinformation re sugar pill’s misinformation re sugar pill’s

‘side effects’ of tension or relaxation led to ‘side effects’ of tension or relaxation led to reduced or enhanced dissonancereduced or enhanced dissonance

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PostPost--decision dissonancedecision dissonance

PostPost--decision dissonance:decision dissonance:–– dissonance that occurs after making an dissonance that occurs after making an

important decisionimportant decision––We enhance the chosen item and We enhance the chosen item and

derogate the nonderogate the non--chosen item to justify chosen item to justify our decisionour decision

––Rating household products Rating household products (Brehm, 1956)(Brehm, 1956)

original postdecisional1 = radio 1 = radio2 = --- 2 = ---3 = --- 3 = toaster4 = toaster 4 = ---5 = hair dryer 5 = ---6 = --- 6 = ---7 = --- 7 = hair dryer8 = --- 8 = ---

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Cultural differences in selfCultural differences in self--affirmation effects?affirmation effects?

Cover storyCover story: personality and music : personality and music preference preference (Heine & Lehman, 1997)(Heine & Lehman, 1997)

(1)(1) Fill our personality surveyFill our personality survey(2)(2) Rate 10 CDsRate 10 CDs(3)(3) Choose between CDs rated 5 and 6Choose between CDs rated 5 and 6(4)(4) IV: positive, negative, or no feedback on IV: positive, negative, or no feedback on

personality surveypersonality survey(5)(5) ReRe--rate the 10 CDsrate the 10 CDsDV: changes in preference for CDs DV: changes in preference for CDs previously rated 5 and 6previously rated 5 and 6

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ResultsResults

U.S. Japan

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Positive Feedback

Control Negative Feedback

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Current state of the field:Current state of the field:Four steps to dissonance and its reduction:Four steps to dissonance and its reduction:–– AttitudeAttitude--discrepant behavior must produce discrepant behavior must produce unwanted unwanted

consequencesconsequences–– Subjects must feel Subjects must feel personal responsibilitypersonal responsibility for the unwanted for the unwanted

consequencesconsequencesFree Free choicechoiceBelief that unwanted consequences were Belief that unwanted consequences were foreseeableforeseeable

–– Physiological Physiological arousalarousal–– AttributionAttribution of physiological arousal to the attitudeof physiological arousal to the attitude--discrepant discrepant

behaviorbehaviorSelfSelf--perception processes are more likely to lead to perception processes are more likely to lead to attitude formation in novel contexts; motivate attitude attitude formation in novel contexts; motivate attitude change when attitude and behaviour are similarchange when attitude and behaviour are similarWhen attitude and behaviour are very different, When attitude and behaviour are very different, dissonance processes drive attitude change.dissonance processes drive attitude change.Cultural differences observed but reasons not well Cultural differences observed but reasons not well understoodunderstood

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Thinking this through Thinking this through

Implications for teaching your kids / significant Implications for teaching your kids / significant others others –– Can you create positivity to boring/aversive Can you create positivity to boring/aversive

behaviours?behaviours?Insufficiently justified actions (dissonance)Insufficiently justified actions (dissonance)Aversive foreseeable consequences (dissonance)Aversive foreseeable consequences (dissonance)

Implications for resisting salespeopleImplications for resisting salespeople–– Beware of (mis)attributed arousal Beware of (mis)attributed arousal –– when choices go when choices go

badly, consider negativity. badly, consider negativity. ☺☺–– Be aware of people trying to increase your adrenalineBe aware of people trying to increase your adrenaline

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One step back One step back -- Attitude formationAttitude formation

1. Cognitively mediated learning1. Cognitively mediated learning–– As seen in TPB As seen in TPB –– when learn about costs and when learn about costs and

benefits develop negative or positive attitudebenefits develop negative or positive attitude–– Attitudes formed based on beliefsAttitudes formed based on beliefs–– Instrumental or utilitarian functionInstrumental or utilitarian function

NB impact of beliefs depends on what NB impact of beliefs depends on what goals you have at the timegoals you have at the time

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How much would you pay for a How much would you pay for a lottery ticket to win . lottery ticket to win .

00.20.40.60.8

11.21.41.6

Bursar Cafeteria

Chart Title

Tuition waiver

Same amount of cash

See Fig 5.3 in the book

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Attitude formationAttitude formation

Belief about consequences’ probability Belief about consequences’ probability and valueand valueEvaluation of the importance depends on Evaluation of the importance depends on goalsgoals

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Attitude formationAttitude formation

2. Categorisation of novel objects2. Categorisation of novel objects–– From prototype compatibility previously:From prototype compatibility previously:

the way you categorize an the way you categorize an objectobject leads to different leads to different activated beliefsactivated beliefs

–– Object can “plug into” an existing network in Object can “plug into” an existing network in several waysseveral ways

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Revisiting network modelsRevisiting network modelsMemory = system of semantic (‘meaning’) nodesMemory = system of semantic (‘meaning’) nodesConnected w associative links of varying strengthConnected w associative links of varying strengthActivation spreads along the links between nodes Activation spreads along the links between nodes increasing how increasing how accessibleaccessible they arethey areWhen activation exceeds a threshold, info comes to When activation exceeds a threshold, info comes to mind (mind (attentionattention))Over time activation decaysOver time activation decaysInherent salience, frequency of activation, Inherent salience, frequency of activation, connectedness all increase connectedness all increase chronic accessibilitychronic accessibilityRecency of activation from situational cues Recency of activation from situational cues --> > temporary accessibilitytemporary accessibility

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E.g. of a networkE.g. of a network

shopping

groceries

Costs $ tasty food

Point for our purposes is that a “new” attitude depends on how the attitude object is categorized:• Attitude to “going to store with partner tonight”• Which way you categorise depends on chronic and temporary accessibility

Need to eat

Annoying muzak

Category 1(bad)

Category 2(good)

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Revisiting ruminationRevisiting ruminationWilson et al. (1993) poster preferences:Wilson et al. (1993) poster preferences:–– 95% spontaneously picked impressionist 95% spontaneously picked impressionist

painting as the one they liked best (vs. 5% painting as the one they liked best (vs. 5% ‘funny’ poster)‘funny’ poster)

–– After analysing why they liked the posters, After analysing why they liked the posters, 64% picked impressionist painting64% picked impressionist painting

Remember how for inexperienced ppl, Remember how for inexperienced ppl, pondering the costs & benefits produces pondering the costs & benefits produces worse worse decisions than “gut”decisions than “gut”–– through concentrated attention can explore through concentrated attention can explore

multiple subtle links in netmultiple subtle links in net–– but some links are not usually active but some links are not usually active ––

because not chronically important to you or because not chronically important to you or consistently linked to attitude objectconsistently linked to attitude object

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A third point about novel objects: A third point about novel objects: Mere ExposureMere Exposure

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Mere exposure Mere exposure (Zajonc, 1968)(Zajonc, 1968)

The more we see it, the more we like it (up to a The more we see it, the more we like it (up to a point)point)Complex stimuli have a stronger effect Complex stimuli have a stronger effect Brief stimulus exposure (1 sec.) has a stronger Brief stimulus exposure (1 sec.) has a stronger effect than longer stimulus exposure (5 sec.).effect than longer stimulus exposure (5 sec.).The longer the favorability measurement is The longer the favorability measurement is delayed after seeing the stimuli, the stronger the delayed after seeing the stimuli, the stronger the effect (sleeper effect).effect (sleeper effect).Not demand characteristics b/c effect is bigger Not demand characteristics b/c effect is bigger when stimuli presented subliminallywhen stimuli presented subliminallyNot really clear why we have ME yetNot really clear why we have ME yet

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Attitude formationAttitude formationCognitively mediated learningCognitively mediated learning–– Beliefs and goalsBeliefs and goals

Categorisation of novel objectsCategorisation of novel objects–– PrototypicalityPrototypicality–– Mere ExposureMere Exposure

4. Behaviour4. Behaviour–– Very often infer our novel attitudes from behaviour (“I Very often infer our novel attitudes from behaviour (“I

am doing this so I must like this”) am doing this so I must like this”) -- selfself--perceptionperception–– Esp where attitude is weak or ambiguousEsp where attitude is weak or ambiguous

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5. Attitudes through nurture5. Attitudes through nurtureInsko (1965) phones students & enquires re Insko (1965) phones students & enquires re views on “the Aloha springtime festival”views on “the Aloha springtime festival”–– Interviewer says “good” every time say + (50%) or Interviewer says “good” every time say + (50%) or ––

(50%)(50%)–– 1 week later can still see effects of conditioning1 week later can still see effects of conditioning

Insko & Butzine (1967) experimenter flatters or Insko & Butzine (1967) experimenter flatters or offends Ps, then reinforces attitudeoffends Ps, then reinforces attitude–– Effect bigger with flattery but present with offenseEffect bigger with flattery but present with offense

Referent informational influence perspective Referent informational influence perspective from decisionfrom decision--making lecturemaking lecture–– Salient identities and norms shape attitudes in a Salient identities and norms shape attitudes in a

contextcontext

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Bennington College StudyBennington College Study(Newcomb, 1943, 1991)(Newcomb, 1943, 1991)

Over the course of a fourOver the course of a four--year degree at a year degree at a liberal arts college, students became liberal arts college, students became increasingly progressive / liberalincreasingly progressive / liberalE.g., support for conservative Alf Langdon: 62% E.g., support for conservative Alf Langdon: 62% incoming students; 43% sophomores; 15% incoming students; 43% sophomores; 15% juniors & seniorsjuniors & seniorsEducation is correlated with lefty views (because Education is correlated with lefty views (because lots of righty views are based on ignorance)lots of righty views are based on ignorance)But at the same time, degree of shift was But at the same time, degree of shift was correlated with popularity and prestige (!)correlated with popularity and prestige (!)

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Why?Why?Operant / instrumental conditioningOperant / instrumental conditioning –– approval of approval of group feels good so adopt behaviours (social group feels good so adopt behaviours (social identity function of attitude identity function of attitude –– “normative influence”)“normative influence”)Approval of group is Approval of group is heuristicheuristic that identifies the that identifies the appropriate attitude to achieve goals (“informational appropriate attitude to achieve goals (“informational influence” influence” –– instrumental attitudes) instrumental attitudes) –– shortshort--cut to cut to costcost--benefit analysesbenefit analysesSelfSelf--stereotypingstereotyping –– salient group identities and salient group identities and norms activate attitudes norms activate attitudes –– need not be deliberative need not be deliberative processing at allprocessing at allObservational learningObservational learning –– learn to categorize learn to categorize objects and what costs/benefits are through objects and what costs/benefits are through observation of sig. others in ingroupsobservation of sig. others in ingroupsMore on this in “persuasion” lecturesMore on this in “persuasion” lectures

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Attitude formation through natureAttitude formation through natureGenetic attitudes?Genetic attitudes?–– Attitudes are supposed to guide approach & Attitudes are supposed to guide approach &

avoidance (earliest formulations) avoidance (earliest formulations) –– so obviously good so obviously good to have some ‘builtto have some ‘built--ins’ins’

–– Babies 1 hr old prefer to look at specific faceBabies 1 hr old prefer to look at specific face--like like configurations (Tesser & Martin, 1996)configurations (Tesser & Martin, 1996)

Evolutionary argumentEvolutionary argument–– humans prefer sweet and fatty food (b/c caloriehumans prefer sweet and fatty food (b/c calorie--rich rich ––

ancestors with this motivation had more & healthier ancestors with this motivation had more & healthier babies, etc.) and lush vegetation with trees to deserts babies, etc.) and lush vegetation with trees to deserts & grasses (b/c ‘ancestral’ resources)& grasses (b/c ‘ancestral’ resources)

–– Some say this approach reifies modern Western Some say this approach reifies modern Western preferences (what is, must be biology!)preferences (what is, must be biology!)

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Is beauty / mate selection Is beauty / mate selection genetically conditioned?genetically conditioned?

Most prefer same speciesMost prefer same speciesMost cultures define beauty in re health (e.g., facial Most cultures define beauty in re health (e.g., facial symmetry) & wealth (‘tans’ vs paleness in the West) symmetry) & wealth (‘tans’ vs paleness in the West) ––b/c good for babies?b/c good for babies?Men like hourMen like hour--glass shaped women glass shaped women (Singh, 1993)(Singh, 1993) –– but not but not the Matsigenka the Matsigenka (Yu & Shepard, 1998)(Yu & Shepard, 1998)Men like casual sex > womenMen like casual sex > women–– Clark & Hatfield (1978, 1989) approached by an opp sex Clark & Hatfield (1978, 1989) approached by an opp sex

stranger who says “I have been noticing you around campus. I stranger who says “I have been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive.” find you very attractive.”

invite to go out invite to go out come over to flat come over to flat go to bedgo to bed

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1970s propositioning1970s propositioning

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womenmen

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10 years on (after AIDS)10 years on (after AIDS)

19781978 19891989WomenWomen

Go outGo out 5050 4646ApartmentApartment 55 33

BedBed 00 00MenMen

Go outGo out 6060 6565ApartmentApartment 7070 7070

BedBed 7070 7272

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Is beauty / mate selection Is beauty / mate selection genetically conditioned?genetically conditioned?

Men: evolutionarily predisposed to be promiscuous so as Men: evolutionarily predisposed to be promiscuous so as to scatter sperm like the wind?to scatter sperm like the wind?–– evolutionary context for humans = heaps of parental investment evolutionary context for humans = heaps of parental investment

by both sexesby both sexes–– Compare cane toadsCompare cane toads

Also frequent marriage breakAlso frequent marriage break--ups and cheating thoughups and cheating though–– Compare gibbonsCompare gibbons

Gender differences in mate selection decrease with Gender differences in mate selection decrease with gender equality in society (Eagly & Wood, 1999)gender equality in society (Eagly & Wood, 1999)Divorce > likelihood in modern Western culturesDivorce > likelihood in modern Western culturesProbably a genetic component to gender differences in Probably a genetic component to gender differences in mate selectionmate selectionProbably also a cultural component to modern Probably also a cultural component to modern evolutionary theories!evolutionary theories!

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Attitudes from natureAttitudes from natureTwin studies show up to .5 (50%) heritability on Twin studies show up to .5 (50%) heritability on liking jazz, attitudes to capital punishment, white liking jazz, attitudes to capital punishment, white supremacy and patriotism . What???supremacy and patriotism . What???Genetic underpinnings of attitudes are likely for Genetic underpinnings of attitudes are likely for key mediators key mediators (Tesser, 1993)(Tesser, 1993)–– Abilities (e.g., intelligence) Abilities (e.g., intelligence) –– we like what’s easywe like what’s easy–– Temperament / activity level (e.g., risk aversion, Temperament / activity level (e.g., risk aversion,

extraversion)extraversion)–– Preferences (sensory structures for taste, hearing)Preferences (sensory structures for taste, hearing)–– Responsiveness to conditioning (ability to learn Responsiveness to conditioning (ability to learn

should mean you’re more culturally informed in your should mean you’re more culturally informed in your attitudes )attitudes )

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A note about nature and nurtureA note about nature and nurtureRe attitudes, almost all biological aspects would Re attitudes, almost all biological aspects would be culturally mediatedbe culturally mediated–– Risk aversion originally = avoiding wild animals; in Risk aversion originally = avoiding wild animals; in

one culture = 30% debt load; in 2010 Australian one culture = 30% debt load; in 2010 Australian culture, 300% debt load; in 2020 ?culture, 300% debt load; in 2020 ?

Biological predisposition may be elicited / Biological predisposition may be elicited / triggered in some circs & suppressed / corrected triggered in some circs & suppressed / corrected in othersin others–– E.g., fear of snakes, taste aversion with nauseaE.g., fear of snakes, taste aversion with nausea

Culture is biologically mediated as well (requires Culture is biologically mediated as well (requires neuronal / hormonal learning & changes)neuronal / hormonal learning & changes)

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Summary: Attitude formationSummary: Attitude formationLearned cognitionsLearned cognitions–– Evaluated with respect to goalsEvaluated with respect to goals

Categorisation of novel objectsCategorisation of novel objects–– Perceived prototypicality (can be unstable)Perceived prototypicality (can be unstable)–– Mere exposureMere exposure

Inferences from BehaviourInferences from BehaviourNurture & natureNurture & nature–– Definitely not a dichotomyDefinitely not a dichotomy

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Next week: Attitude formation byNext week: Attitude formation by inferences from inferences from emotion (conditioning)emotion (conditioning)Cool research on attitudes and social cognition Cool research on attitudes and social cognition at UQat UQ–– Reading:Reading: nonenone–– Optional meetings w/ Dr. LouisOptional meetings w/ Dr. Louis

In the In the tutestutes this week:this week:–– No tutes No tutes –– Easter breakEaster break