Be able to recognize experimental vs survey vs case study vs naturalistic observation research ?The essential differences are as follows:

Experiments vs Observation and Survey:

With experiments you manipulate one variable then measure another, this means you know how changing one variable causally affects another and you can draw inferences about cause and effect. In observational studies and surveys you are not manipulating any variables so you can only draw correlational conclusions which indicate associations between variables rather than causal links.

Observation vs Survey:

In observational research you observe people in the natural environment, unually with them being unaware of this so you see their natural behaviour. e.g. If you see them use a candy machine you know they eat candy. With surveys they know they are being surveyed so you can get all sorts of things affecting the results such as demand characteristics. e.g. They may say they don't eat candy but how can you be sure?

Case Study Definition:A case study is an in-depth study of one person. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies.In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population.Types of Case Studies Explanatory: Used to do causal investigations.

Exploratory: A case study that is sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses.

Descriptive: Involves starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.

Intrinsic: A type of case study in which the researcher has a personal interest in the case.

Collective: Involves studying a group of individuals.

Instrumental: Occurs when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.Case Study Methods Prospective: A type of case study in which an individual or group of people is observed in order to determine outcomes. For example, a group of individuals might be watched over an extended period of time to observe the progression of a particular disease.

Retrospective: A type of case study that involves looking at historical information. For example, researchers might start with an outcome, such as a disease, and then backwards at information about the individuals life to determine risk factors that may have contributed to the onset of the illness.Know that research findings of one study must be replicated in other studies for us to be confident that the findings really are trustworthy ... test more than once to be absolutely certain / 100% sureUnderstand the concept of representsativeness of one's sample --Representative sampling is a type of statistical sampling in which a researcher attempts to select individuals which are representative of a larger population. In statistical sampling, people gather data from a small group and try to extrapolate the results to make generalizations about a larger group. Truly representative sampling is extremely hard to accomplish, and researchers may dedicate a great deal of time and funding to getting the most representative sample possible.As a research tool, statistical sampling is extremely valuable. It allows people to study a population without studying every single individual in that population. Average individuals are quite familiar with statistical sampling, even though they might not be aware of it; the next time you open a newspaper, look for an article which talks about the result of a study. A line like 67% of American pet owners sleep with their pets is the result of a representative sample of pet-owning Americans. Incidentally, that number comes from the Sealy Mattress Company.In order to get a representative sample, the researchers must first identify the population being sampled. In the example above, the researchers wanted to collect data on how many Americans slept with their animals, so the population was American pet owners. The next step for the researchers is finding a way to randomly select people from this population so that they can survey these individuals for data.If the researchers collect too heavily from one segment of the population, such as all American pet owners going to veterinary clinics in the city of Chicago, the result is not a representativesample of the population being studied. Therefore, researchers must think of a multitude of methods for collecting data to ensure that evenly samples all aspects of the population being studied.When you read a study which has been conducted with the use of representative sampling, it is a good idea to find out which methods the researchers used. Sampling error can yield incorrect results, and therefore you want to know how the data was collected, who it was collected from, and what sort of controls were in place to ensure that the sampling was representative. By using critical thinking to look at statistics and representative sampling, you will be able to determine whether or not they are truly useful and applicable.Chapter 6 - Learning Classical Conditioning Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology based on the assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions of this theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.One of the best-known aspects of behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.The Unconditioned StimulusThe unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.The Unconditioned ResponseThe unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.The Conditioned StimulusThe conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.The Conditioned ResponseThe conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.Classical Conditioning in the Real WorldIn reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.These techniques are also useful in the treatment ofphobias or anxiety problems. Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.More About Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning can be used to increase the amount of a behavior, but it can also be used to decrease behavior. Learn more about classical conditioning phenomena.Understand the basic process involved in acquiring a classically conditioned response to something ---Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response, while others describe the disappearance of a response. These elements are important in understanding the classical conditioning process.AcquisitionAcquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to the sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the bell. You can say the response has been acquired as soon as the dog begins to salivate in response to the bell tone. Once the response has been acquired, you can gradually reinforce the salivation response to make sure the behavior is well learned.ExtinctionExtinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.Sponteneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.Stimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus.DiscriminationDiscrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.GO to page 237 in the book How can a conditioned response become extinct ?? ----Extinction in Classical ConditioningConsider this example of extinction in classical conditioning.If the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) was no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), then the conditioned response (hunger) would eventually disappear.Extinction in Operant ConditioningConsider this example of extinction in operant conditioning:A teacher has been using positive reinforcement to encourage good behavior in her classroom. When a student raises his or her hand instead of shouting out the answers, the teacher rewards the student with a fruit-flavored candy. After several days of this, the children become sick of the candy, and stop raising their hands. Because the children have become satiated and the candy is no longer rewarding, extinction of the trained behavior has occurred.Understand recovery and renewal effects are pretty common, and what makes a renewal (relapse ) effect more likely ??? ---THE RENEWAL EFFECTAssociative learning occurs when an organism links two or more items of information. The simplest forms of associative learning are classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning. Classical conditioning is also known as Pavlovian conditioning in honor of Ivan Pavlov (18491936) who was the first person to conduct extensive research of this nature. In a typical experiment with dogs, Pavlov would present a neutral auditory stimulus such as a metronome immediately before applying sand or food powder to the dog's tongue, which produced salivation. After a number of these pairings, Pavlov presented the metronome alone, and the dog now salivated. Pavlov developed terminology for these components of classical conditioning: The dog experienced a relatively neutral stimulus or conditioned stimulus (CS, the metronome) in conjunction with a biologically significant stimulus or unconditioned stimulus (US, the food powder), which always produces an unconditioned response (UCR, salivation). After multiple CS-US pairings (i.e., acquisition), presentation of the CS alone elicited a response, the conditioned response (CR, also salivation), which is appropriate for its corresponding US. Following acquisition of the CR to the metronome CS, Pavlov also reported that presenting the CS alone a number of times would eventually eliminate the salivation CR, a procedure termed extinction.Although most classical conditioning experiments have used nonhumans, classical conditioning readily occurs in humans (e.g., Hermans, Craske, Mineka, & Lovibond, 2006). With nonhumans, many model systems have been developed to explore classical conditioning, including conditioned eyeblink, conditioned taste aversion, and conditioned approach/avoidance (Domjan, 2003). Clearly, these have little classroom application, but the most common classical conditioning paradigm, conditioned emotional response, is applicable. Conditioned emotional reactions can be either positive or negative. A positive conditioned emotional response is produced by pairing a relatively neutral stimulus with a US that elicits a positive emotion such as happiness. For example, a parent may use the preferred taste of cheese to cover the flavor of broccoli. After a few meals of cheesy broccoli, a child will be more willing to eat broccoli by itself (for a review of food preference learning, see Capaldi, 1996). Although it is possible to produce positive emotional reactions, broad application of this methodology has not been implemented (other than in advertising when an attractive model is paired with a product). In practicality, it may be difficult for a teacher to spend substantial time during the earliest portions of class to pair their presence with a positively affective US. One can imagine only the youngest of children would not see through an instructor plying them with candy or treats on the first day of class.Instead, the more commonly studied phenomenon, and the more likely classroom occurrence, is the negative conditioned emotional response. A classic example of conditioned fear in humans is the Little Albert Study conducted by Watson and Rayner (1920). Watson and Rayner examined if a phobia could be induced in a human, so they borrowed nine-month-old Albert from the nursery at Johns Hopkins University. After recording Albert's baseline responses to a range of stimuli such as animals and neutral objects, conditioning began two months later. During acquisition, a white rat was paired with a loud noise US (Watson clanged a steel bar with a hammer) seven times. Five days later, Albert was tested with a range of stimuli, including the white rat. Albert cringed and cried in response to the rat, behaviors that were quite different from his curiosity about the rat during the baseline phase. They tested long-term retention of fear 30 days later, and Albert was still scared of the white rat and other white objects such as a rabbit, white fur coat, and Santa Claus mask. In addition to demonstrating conditioned fear in humans, Watson and Rayner planned to examine the conditions necessary to extinguish Albert's fear. Unfortunately, on the day prior to the implementation of the extinction phase, Albert was released from the hospital with his fear intact.Understand the Role of classical or evaluative conditioning in political and product ads--- you should be able to diagram the US, UR, CS and CR for example ads ---Classical Conditioning in AdvertisingAdvertisers are always looking for new ways to push their products onto the average citizen. Ads can be seen and heard everywhere from television and the Internet to blimps and clothing. For decades, advertisers have been using classical conditioning in advertising to influence consumers on a subconscious level into buying the advertised product. Clear examples of this marketing technique is particularly prominent in ads for foods and drinks, and perhaps even more obviously so in political campaign ads.Foods and drinks depicted in ads on television, billboards, and other visual media are known for being exceptionally deceptive in their tantalizing, refreshing appearances. (When was the last time you received a Big Mac that looked as good as the ones you see on TV?) However, altering the appearance of their products is not the only trick that the marketing divisions of major food and drink companies use to make consumers buy their products; they often pair their product in ads with upbeat music and feel-good imagery. Take, for example, the Coca-Cola commercial that debuted during 2012s Super Bowl game. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S2nBBMbjS8w) NE_Bear is very visibly distraught about his teams performance in the game, but he clearly is much happier once he gets his paws on an ice-cold bottle of Coca-Cola. The emotional imagery presented serves as an unconditioned stimulus which is meant to condition the consumer to associate Coca-Cola, the conditioned stimulus, with positive feelings. Perhaps the stronger UCS in the ad is the use of Beethovens Fifth Symphony, which is a very well-known and respected piece of classical music. Another commercial which uses similar techniques is the Budweiser commercial revolving around prohibition, which also debuted during the 2012 Super Bowl. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGgosT-v5sw) The commercial depicts a massive celebration to commemorate the end of prohibition, which, just like the Coca-Cola commercial, aims to associate positive feelings of celebration (the UCS) with the product for sale, in this case Budweiser (the CS). The Budweiser commercial features well known, triumphant music, which further mirrors the Coca-Cola ad.Examples of classical conditioning are even more blatantly obvious in political ads, specifically in ads aiming to defame opposing candidates. Ironically, the aspects of classical conditioning in these ads are often so obvious that many people consider the ads to be counterproductive, even laughable. One strong example of classical conditioning in political advertising is an anti-Obama ad marketed toward women and focusing on Obamacare. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iys1BWUf-Nc) The entire video is structured and formatted like a Nazi public announcement. The Orwellian context and grim color scheme serve as unconditioned stimuli that are supposed to connect Obama, the conditioned stimulus, with oppressive, totalitarian government. Another ad, which targets Mitt Romney, does a better job of showing the more common stimuli that are used for classical conditioning through poltial advertising. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PtSeLTOeXBs) The majority of the ad is simply quotes and statistics about Romneys career as a businessman, but the presentation of these statements is where conditioning comes into play. The entire ad features dull, dark colors like gray and brown, without any music or any other appetitive stimulus. This is the model followed by most negative campaign ads.In conclusion, modern advertisements rely heavily on classical conditioning to influence consumers. Through the use of visual depiction of emotion, as well as other audiovisual stimuli, advertisers form a connection between the advertised product and positive feelings, or in some cases negative ones.Ope-rant Conditioning What Is Operant Conditioning?Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.Examples of Operant ConditioningWe can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.Components of Operant ConditioningSome key concepts in operant conditioning:Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.

2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.

2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.Understand the processes involved in learning through operant conditioning --Psychologists use several key terms to discuss operant conditioning principles, including reinforcement and punishment.ReinforcementReinforcement is delivery of a consequence that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur more often. Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur more often. In this terminology, positive and negative dont mean good and bad. Instead,positive means adding a stimulus, and negative means removing a stimulus.PunishmentPunishment is the delivery of a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a response will occur. Positive and negative punishments are analogous to positive and negative reinforcement. Positive punishment is the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur less often. Negative punishment is the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur less often.Reinforcement helps to increase a behavior, while punishment helps to decrease a behavior.Primary and Secondary Reinforcers and PunishersReinforcers and punishers are different types of consequences: Primary reinforcers, such as food, water, and caresses, are naturally satisfying. Primary punishers, such as pain and freezing temperatures, are naturally unpleasant. Secondary reinforcers, such as money, fast cars, and good grades, are satisfying because theyve become associated with primary reinforcers. Secondary punishers, such as failing grades and social disapproval, are unpleasant because theyve become associated with primary punishers. Secondary reinforcers and punishers are also calledconditioned reinforcers and punishers because they arise through classical conditioning.Is It Primary or Secondary?To distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers, people can ask themselves this question: Would a newborn baby find this stimulus satisfying? If the answer is yes, the reinforcer is primary. If the answer is no, its secondary. The same idea can be applied to punishers by asking whether a baby would find the stimulus unpleasant.ShapingShaping is a procedure in which reinforcement is used to guide a response closer and closer to a desired response.Example: Lisa wants to teach her dog, Rover, to bring her the TV remote control. She places the remote in Rovers mouth and then sits down in her favorite TVwatching chair. Rover doesnt know what to do with the remote, and he just drops it on the floor. So Lisa teaches him by first praising him every time he accidentally walks toward her before dropping the remote. He likes the praise, so he starts to walk toward her with the remote more often. Then she praises him only when he brings the remote close to the chair. When he starts doing this often, she praises him only when he manages to bring the remote right up to her. Pretty soon, he brings her the remote regularly, and she has succeeded in shaping a response.Reinforcement SchedulesA reinforcement schedule is the pattern in which reinforcement is given over time. Reinforcement schedules can be continuous or intermittent. In continuous reinforcement, someone provides reinforcement every time a particular response occurs. Suppose Rover, Lisas dog, pushes the remote under her chair. If she finds this amusing and pats him every time he does it, she is providing continuous reinforcement for his behavior. In intermittent or partial reinforcement, someone provides reinforcement on only some of the occasions on which the response occurs.Types of Intermittent Reinforcement SchedulesThere are four main types of intermittent schedules, which fall into two categories: ratio or interval. In a ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a certain number of responses. In an interval schedule, reinforcement happens after a particular time interval. In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a set number of responses, such as when a car salesman earns a bonus after every three cars he sells. In a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a particular average number of responses. For example, a person trying to win a game by getting heads on a coin toss gets heads every two times, on average, that she tosses a penny. Sometimes she may toss a penny just once and get heads, but other times she may have to toss the penny two, three, four, or more times before getting heads. In a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement happens after a set amount of time, such as when an attorney at a law firm gets a bonus once a year. In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement happens after a particular average amount of time. For example, a boss who wants to keep her employees working productively might walk by their workstations and check on them periodically, usually about once a day, but sometimes twice a day, or some-times every other day. If an employee is slacking off, she reprimands him. Since the employees know there is a variable interval between their bosss appearances, they must stay on task to avoid a reprimand.Response PatternsThese different types of reinforcement schedules result in different patterns of responses: Partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement result in responses that resist extinction better than responses resulting from continuous reinforcement. Psychologists call this resistance to extinction the partial reinforcement effect. Response rate is faster in ratio schedules than in interval schedules. Ratio schedules depend on number of responses, so the faster the subject responds, the more quickly reinforcement happens. A fixed-interval schedule tends to result in a scalloped response pattern, which means that responses are slow in the beginning of the interval and faster just before reinforcement happens. If people know when reinforcement will occur, they will respond more at that time and less at other times. Variable schedules result in steadier response rates than fixed schedules because reinforcement is less predictable. Responses to variable schedules also cannot be extinguished easily.ExtinctionAs in classical conditioning, extinction in operant conditioning is the gradual disappearance of a response when it stops being reinforced. In the earlier example, Lisas dog, Rover, started to put the remote under her chair regularly because she continuously reinforced the behavior with pats on his head. If she decides that the game has gone too far and stops patting him when he does it, hell eventually stop the behavior. The response will be extinguished.Stimulus DiscriminationIf Lisa enjoys Rovers antics with the TV remote only in the daytime and not at night when she feels tired, Rover will put the remote under her chair only during the day, because daylight has become a signal that tells Rover his behavior will be reinforced. Daylight has become a discriminative stimulus. A discriminative stimulus is a cue that indicates the kind of consequence thats likely to occur after a response. In operant conditioning, stimulus discrimination is the tendency for a response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present.Stimulus GeneralizationSuppose Lisas dog, Rover, began to put the remote under her chair not only during the day but also whenever a bright light was on at night, thinking she would probably pat him. This is called stimulus generalization. In operant conditioning, stimulus generalization is the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it is the original discriminative stimulus.---- Know that " reinforcement" , whether pos or neg (1) has to do with the pay-off or reward the person recieves and ( 2) increases the behavior that leads to that pay off ---Reinforcement Choosing a ScheduleKnowing what shaping means ??ShapingShaping modifies behavior byreinforcingbehaviors that progressive approximate the target behavior (operant response). Shaping can be used to train organisms to perform behaviors that would rarely if ever occur otherwise.

For example, to teach a child to write his or her first name, you initially give praise for writing the first letter correctly. After the child has mastered that first step, letter-by-letter you give praise until the entire name is correctly written.

Shapingis aconditioningprocedure used primarily in theexperimental analysis of behavior. The method used isdifferential reinforcementof successive approximations. It was introduced byB.F. Skinner[1]with pigeons and extended to dogs, dolphins, humans and other species. In shaping, the form of an existing response is gradually changed across successive trials towards a desired target behavior by rewarding exact segments of behavior. Skinner's explanation of shaping was this:

We first give the bird food when it turns slightly in the direction of the spot from any part of the cage. This increases the frequency of such behavior. We then withhold reinforcement until a slight movement is made toward the spot. This again alters the general distribution of behavior without producing a new unit. We continue by reinforcing positions successively closer to the spot, then by reinforcing only when the head is moved slightly forward, and finally only when the beak actually makes contact with the spot. ... The original probability of the response in its final form is very low; in some cases it may even be zero. In this way we can build complicated operants which would never appear in the repertoire of the organism otherwise. By reinforcing a series of successive approximations, we bring a rare response to a very high probability in a short time. ... The total act of turning toward the spot from any point in the box, walking toward it, raising the head, and striking the spot may seem to be a functionally coherent unit of behavior; but it is constructed by a continual process of differential reinforcement from undifferentiated behavior, just as the sculptor shapes his figure from a lump of clay.[2]Difference between negative reinforcement and punishment psychology

Definition:Punishment is an important part of B. F. Skinner's theory operant conditioning. According to Skinner, punishment involves applying a stimulus after a behavior in order to reduce likelihood that the behavior will occur again in the future.

People often confuse punishment withnegative reinforcement. One of the easiest ways to remember the difference between the two is to note that punishmentalwaysinvolves reducing a behavior while negative reinforcementalwaysinvolves increasing a behavior.

Learn more about this concept including the types, effectiveness and potential drawbacks in this definition ofpunishment.

Negative Reinforcementstrengthens a behavior because anegative conditionis stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behavior.ex: a rat is shocked until it presses a lever in the cage, the shock stops. when it lets go of the lever, the shock starts again. therefore, the rat learns to hold the lever down in order to avoid being shocked.

Punishment, on the other hand, weakens a behavior because a negative condition is introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behavior.Example: a rat is in a cage and when it presses the lever, it is shocked. When it lets go, the shock stops. It learns not to press the lever so it wont get punished.

Understand that punishment tends to decrease the punished behavior How to extinguish operantly conditioned responses ?

Extinctionis observed in bothoperantly conditionedandclassically conditionedbehavior. When operant behavior that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences the behavior gradually stops occurring.[1]In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone, so that it no longer predicts the coming of the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned responding gradually stops. (For example, afterPavlov'sdog was conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, it eventually stopped salivating to the bell after the bell had been sounded repeatedly but no food came.)

Extinction

In operant conditioning,extinction(the cessation of a particular response) occurs when a response no longer results in reinforcement; it occurs in classical conditioning, as discussed earlier, when the CS no longer produces a CR. One way to measure the strength of the learning that has occurred (calledresponse strength)is to see how many unreinforced trials must occur before extinction takes place, (calledresistance to extinction).Sometimes, in both classical and operant conditioning,spontaneous recoveryoccurs; that is, the response in question begins again even though there has been no reinforcement (for example, a rat presses the bar even though the action no longer produces a food pellet).

InPositive Reinforcementa particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence of experiencing a positive condition. For example:

A hungry rat presses a bar in its cage and receives food. The food is a positive condition for the hungry rat. The rat presses the bar again, and again receives food. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is strengthened by the consequence of receiving food.InNegative Reinforcementa particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence of stopping or avoiding a negative condition. For example:

A rat is placed in a cage and immediately receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The shock is a negative condition for the rat. The rat presses a bar and the shock stops. The rat receives another shock, presses the bar again, and again the shock stops. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is strengthened by the consequence of stopping the shock.InPunishmenta particular behavior is weakened by the consequence of experiencing a negative condition. For example:

A rat presses a bar in its cage and receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The shock is a negative condition for the rat. The rat presses the bar again and again receives a shock. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is weakened by the consequence of receiving a shock.InExtinctiona particular behavior is weakened by the consequence of not experiencing a positive condition or stopping a negative condition. For example:

A rat presses a bar in its cage and nothing happens. Neither a positive or a negative condition exists for the rat. The rat presses the bar again and again nothing happens. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is weakened by the consequence of not experiencing anything positive or stopping anything negative.Schedules ofReinforcementInoperant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response.

A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instances of a behavior will be reinforced. In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all. Eitherpositive reinforcementornegative reinforcementmight be used, depending on the situation. In both cases, the goal of reinforcement is always tostrengthenthe behavior and increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.

In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be reinforced each and every time they occur. For situations where you are purposely trying to train and reinforce an action, such as in the classroom, in sports or in animal training, you might opt to follow a specific reinforcement schedule. As you'll see below, some schedules are best suited to certain types of training situations. In some cases, training might call for starting out with one schedule and switching to another once the desired behavior has been taught.

Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. There are two types of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous Reinforcement

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforcedevery single timeit occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

2. Partial Reinforcement

In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced onlypart of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant toextinction.

There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:

1. Fixed-ratio schedulesare those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.

2. Variable-ratio schedulesoccur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.

3. Fixed-interval schedulesare those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.

4. Variable-interval schedulesoccur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Choosing a Schedule

Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can depend upon a number of factors. In cases where you are specifically trying to teach a new behavior, a continuous schedule is often a good choice. Once the behavior has been learned, switching to a partial schedule is often preferable.

Realistically, reinforcing a behavior every single time it occurs can be difficult and requires a great deal of attention and resources. Partial schedules not only tend to lead to behaviors that are more resistant to extinction, they also reduce the risk that the subject will become satiated. If the reinforcer being used is no longer desired or rewarding, the subject may stop performing the desired behavior.

GO OVER CONCEPT CHECK P 250 256

Observational Learning

Observational LearningByGILLIAN FOURNIERReplicating others novel behavior through observation and imitation; also known asvicarious learning, modeling, orsocial learning. This theory was proposed by Albery Bandura.

Basically, to learn in an observational manner someone must notice something someone else is doing, remember it or record it in their mind, and finally replicate the behavior. The behavior may or may not happen again. The choice to continue exhibiting the behavior depends on the outcome (positive or negative, reward etc). The only things that limit this type of learningare the intelligence level and the level of ability to copy the person well that the learner possesses.

Example: In a famous experiment, social psychologist Al Bandura showed young children a video of a woman hitting and kicking an inflatable Bobo doll. When left alone with a similar doll, children copied the womans aggressive gestures.I think this site demonstrates the ideas of social learning theory/observational learning theory quite well:

Observational Learning

People and animals dont learn only by conditioning; they also learn by observing others.Observational learningis the process of learning to respond in a particular way by watching others, who are called models. Observational learning is also called vicarious conditioning because it involves learning by watching others acquire responses through classical or operant conditioning.

Example:Brian might learn not to stand too close to a soccer goal because he saw another spectator move away after getting whacked on the head by a wayward soccer ball. The other spectator stopped standing close to the soccer goal because of operant conditioninggetting clobbered by the ball acted as positive punishment for standing too close. Brian was indirectly, or vicariously, conditioned to move away.

Bandura and the Bobo DollsThe person best known for research on observational learning is psychologist Albert Bandura, who did some landmark experiments showing that children who watched adults behaving aggressively were more likely to behave aggressively themselves. His most famous experiment was the Bobo doll study. Bandura let a group of kindergarteners watch a film of an adult violently attacking an inflatable plastic toy shaped like Bobo the Clown by hitting it, sitting on it, hammering it, and so forth. He then let the children into a room with Bobo dolls. The children precisely imitated the adults behavior, gleefully attacking Bobo. Their behavior was a type of observational learning.

Featured Study p 259 Did filmed aggression influence childrens aggressive acts ????? check that book Violent Behavior: SummaryThe research evidence shows clearly that media violence is a causal risk factor for aggressive and violent behavior. There is considerably less evidence concerning violent crimes, but the few cross-sectional and longitudinal studies that included violent crime measures also found similar links with media violence. The size of the media violence effect is as large as or larger than that of many factors commonly accepted by public policymakers and the general public as valid risk factors for violent behavior. Figure 7 illustrates the current best estimates of several risk factors for youth violence. The figure does not include the longitudinal violent video game effect because the one relevant study did not include a specific measure of violence that is comparable to the other factors. However, several studies have directly compared video game and TV violence using the same participants and the same measures; they generally find a somewhat larger effect for video games. Thus, we expect that the effect of violent video games on long-term violence will be larger than that of TV violence and smaller than that of gang membership. Furthermore, it is likely that overall media violence exposure has a somewhat larger effect than any individual type of media violence. In any case, the figure makes clear that media violence exposure has a larger effect on later violent behavior than does substance use, abusive parents, poverty, living in a broken home, or having low IQ.132

Findings

Virtually since the dawn of television, parents, teachers, legislators, and mental health professionals have been concerned about the content of television programs and its impact, particularly on children. Of special concern has been the portrayal of violence, especially given psychologistAlbert Bandura's workon social learning and the tendency of children to imitate what they see. As a result of 15 years of consistently disturbing findings about the violent content of children's programs, the Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior was formed in 1969 to assess the impact of violence on the attitudes, values and behavior of viewers. The resulting Surgeon General's report and a follow-up report in 1982 by the National Institute of Mental Health identify these major effects of seeing violence on television:

Children may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others

Children may be more fearful of the world around them

Children may be more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways toward others

Research by psychologists L. Rowell Huesmann, Leonard Eron and others found that children who watched many hours of violence on television when they were in elementary school tended to also show a higher level of aggressive behavior when they became teenagers. By observing these youngsters into adulthood, Drs. Huesmann and Eron found that the ones who'd watched a lot of TV violence when they were eight years old were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults. Interestingly, being aggressive as a child did not predict watching more violent TV as a teenager, suggesting that TV watching may more often be a cause rather than a consequence of aggressive behavior.

Violent video games are a more recent phenomenon; therefore there is less research on their effects. However, research by psychologist Craig A. Anderson and others shows that playing violent video games can increase a person's aggressive thoughts, feelings and behavior both in laboratory settings and in actual life. In fact, a study by Dr. Anderson in 2000 suggests that violent video games may be more harmful than violent television and movies because they are interactive, very engrossing and require the player to identify with the aggressor.

Dr. Anderson and other researches are also looking into how violent music lyrics affect children and adults. In a 2003 study involving college students, Anderson found that songs with violent lyrics increased aggression related thoughts and emotions and this effect was directly related to the violent content of the lyrics. "One major conclusion from this and other research on violent entertainment media is that content matters," says Anderson. "This message is important for all consumers, but especially for parents of children and adolescents."

Significance

A typical child in the U.S. watches 28 hours of TV weekly, seeing as many as 8,000 murders by the time he or she finishes elementary school at age 11, and worse, the killers are depicted as getting away with the murders 75% of the time while showing no remorse or accountability. Such TV violence socialization may make children immune to brutality and aggression, while others become fearful of living in such a dangerous society.

With the research clearly showing that watching violent TV programs can lead to aggressive behavior, The American Psychological Association passed a resolution in 1985 informing broadcasters and the public of the potential dangers that viewing violence on television can have for children. In 1992, the APA's Task Force on Television and Society published a report that further confirmed the link between TV violence and aggression.

Practical Application

In 1990, Congress passed the Children's Television Act (CTA), which outlined new regulations for commercial broadcast stations. As a result of the CTA (which was updated in 1996), stations are required to air at least three hours of programming "that furthers the education and informational needs of children 16 years and under in any respect, including children's intellectual/cognitive or social/emotional needs." These programs must be labeled with the designation "E/I" and have clearly stated, written educational objectives. These educational programs generally contain both direct and indirect messages fostering cooperation and compassion rather than aggression. Parents now have positive options when it comes to choosing TV programs for their children. Research on television and violence has also led to the development of content-based rating systems that allow parents to make judgments about the programs' content before allowing their children to watch a show.

Besides warning of the harmful effects of violent media content, psychology has a strong history of bringing out the best in television. For example, Daniel R. Anderson, a professor of psychology at the University of Massachusetts, has worked with producers of children's programs like Sesame Street and Captain Kangaroo to help TV shows educate children.

Chapter 11 Development

Understand why we view development as a polygenic, multi-factorial process of Nature and nurture, not nature vs nurtureThe term polygenic inheritance is used to refer to the inheritance of quantitative traits, traits which are influenced by multiple genes, not just one. In addition to involving multiple genes, polygenic inheritance also looks at the role of environment in someone's development.

Because many traits are spread out across a continuum, rather than being divided into black and white differences, polygenic inheritance helps to explain the way in which these traits are inherited and focused. A related concept ispleiotropy, an instance where one gene influences multiple traits.

Early Mendeliangeneticsfocused on very simple genetic traits which could be explained by a single gene. For example, a flower might appear in either orange or yellow form, with no gradation between the colors. By studying plants and the ways in which they mutated, early researchers were able to learn more about the gene which determined flower color. However, by the early twentieth century, people were well aware that most traits are far too complex to be determined by a single gene, and the idea of polygenic inheritance was born.

One easily understood example of polygenic inheritance is height. People are not just short or tall; they have a variety of heights which run along a spectrum. Furthermore, height is also influenced by environment; someone born with tall genes could become short due to malnutrition or illness, for example, while someone born with short genes could become tall through genetic therapy. Basic genetics obviously wouldn't be enough to explain the wide diversity of human heights, but polygenic inheritance shows how multiple genes in combination with a person's environment can influence someone'sphenotype, or physical appearance.

Skin color is another example of polygenic inheritance, as are many congenital diseases. Because polygenic inheritance is so complex, it can be a very absorbing and frustrating field of study. Researchers may struggle to identify all of the genes which play a role in a particular phenotype, and to identify places where such genes can go wrong. However, once researchers do learn more about the circumstances which lead to the expression of particular traits, it can be a very rewarding experience.

In pleiotropy, on the other hand,onegene is responsible for multiple things. Several congenital syndromes are examples of pleiotropy, in which a flaw in one gene causes widespread problems for a person. For example, sickle cellanemiais a form of pleiotropy, caused by a distinctive mutation in one gene which leads to a host of symptoms. In addition to causing mutations, pleiotropy also occurs in perfectly normal genes, although researchers tend to use it to track and understand mutations in particular.

Genes versus Environment

When researchers analyze the origins of disease, the terms used to describe causation are "genetic" versus "environmental," but the issues are the same as those in the nature-versus-nurture debate. Conditions considered to be primarily genetic are ones in which the presence or absence of genetic mutations determines whether an individual or population will develop a disease, independent of environmental exposures or circumstances. A disease considered to be primarily environmental is one in which people of virtually any genetic background can develop the disease when they are exposed to the specific environmental factors that cause it.

Even the conditions and diseases once believed to be at either end of the continuumcaused by either purely genetic or purely environmental factorsmay not be exclusively attributable to one or the other. For example, an automobile accident that results in an injury might be deemed entirely environmentally caused, but many geneticists would contend that risk-taking behaviors such as the propensity to exceed the speed limit are probably genetically mediated. Furthermore, the course and duration of rehabilitation and recovery from an injury or illness is also very likely genetically influenced.

At the other end of the continuum are diseases believed to be predominantly genetic in origin, such as sickle-cell anemia. While this disease does not have an environmental cause, there are environmental triggers that may determine when and how seriously the disease will strike. For example, sickle-cell attacks are more likely when the body has an insufficient supply of oxygen, so people who live at high altitudes or those who engage in intense aerobic exercise may be at increased risk of attacks. There are many more conditions for which the risk of developing the disease is strongly influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Multiple genes and environmental factors may be involved in causing a given condition and its expression.

Understand why it is not the case the one gene or one environmental factor can account for everything about a certain developmental process or outcome

Look Above

Gene Expression Many genes play an important role in what you look like, how intelligent you may become, and perhaps even aspects of your personality. Increasingly, as work on the human genome continues, researchers are linking specific genes to psychological functioning and behavior. Linking, however, is an important qualifier. In many cases, your genotype, which is your genetic makeup, does not entirely determine your phenotype, which is who and what you actually are. The link between genotype and phenotype can range from simple to exceedingly complex.

Simple Dominance-Recessiveness

Some characteristics are determined by a single gene and are affected little if at all by the environment of an individual. An example is the texture of your hair, which is directly determined by a single gene. The allele for curly hair let's call it C is dominant over the recessive allele for straight hair call this S. This means that whenever either or both of the alleles for hair texture are C, the person will have curly hair, and only when both alleles are S will a person have straight hair.

Suppose both parents are CS for hair texture. Thus, their child can be CC, CS, SC, or SS for these alleles. The child will then have a 75 percent chance of having curly hair (3 combinations out of 4) and only a 25 percent chance of straight hair (1 out of 4). If either parent is CC, no SS combination is possible.

Partial Dominance-Recessiveness

Allele combinations can also display partial dominance and recessiveness. A classic example is the sickle-cell trait, which occurs primarily among people of African ancestry and is believed to have developed originally because it enhanced the chances of survival. Here, the partially recessive gene that produces sickle-shaped red blood cells which are less efficient than normal ones at transporting oxygen are at the same time highly resistant to the mosquito-transmitted malaria that is rampant in Africa's wet regions. Thus, a person in these regions who has one allele for normal red blood cells and the other for sickled ones has a better chance of survival than does a person who has all normal blood cells. A mix of the two works best in an environment where malaria is a strong possibility.

Alleles that fall in the category of codominance are neither dominant nor recessive. The result is a blend of the two, which happens in certain blood types. If a person has one allele for A positive and the other for B positive, the person's blood type will be AB positive.

People with the mix of red blood cells tend to experience joint pains from time to time and need to avoid high altitudes where the oxygen content of the air is low. But they survive. In contrast, those who have all sickled cells as a result of both alleles being the recessive for the trait have much more severe symptoms and cannot survive without regular transfusions of normal blood.

Genotype, Phenotype, and Polygenic Expression

Even where one pair of genes is concerned, genotype doesn't always determine phenotype. Hair type, blood traits, and blood type aren't affected by environmental factors, but many other physical characteristics are. For example, genes may set the stage for how tall or heavy or muscular a person may be, but environmental considerations such as nutrition and exercise are important factors too. Malnutrition, especially during early childhood, can make the phenotype much less than what it was genetically set to be. Exceptionally good nutrition, exercise, and so on can instead enhance the phenotype.

An additional complication is polygenic expression, which is characteristic of psychological traits such as intelligence and personality. The prevailing view is that a multitude of yet-to-be identified genes are responsible for complex characteristics such as these, and in turn that these are strongly affected by the environment in which a person grows up. The interaction between heredity and environment will be further examined at various points in this book.

Can genes be turned on and off in cells?

Each cell expresses, or turns on, only a fraction of its genes. The rest of the genes are repressed, or turned off. The process of turning genes on and off is known as gene regulation. Gene regulation is an important part of normal development. Genes are turned on and off in different patterns during development to make a brain cell look and act different from a liver cell or a muscle cell, for example. Gene regulation also allows cells to react quickly to changes in their environments. Although we know that the regulation of genes is critical for life, this complex process is not yet fully understood.

Gene regulation can occur at any point during gene expression, but most commonly occurs at the level of transcription (when the information in a genes DNA is transferred to mRNA). Signals from the environment or from other cells activate proteins called transcription factors. These proteins bind to regulatory regions of a gene and increase or decrease the level of transcription. By controlling the level of transcription, this process can determine the amount of protein product that is made by a gene at any given time.

Epigenetic marks can be inherited, understand why this underscores an interactionist view of development

Epigeneticinheritance is the transmittance of information from one generation to the next that affects the traits of offspring without alteration of theprimary structureofDNA(i.e., the sequence of nucleotides) or from environmental cues. The term "epigenetic inheritance" is used to describe both cellcell and organismorganism information transfer, whiletransgenerational epigeneticstypically refers only to the latter. Although these two levels of epigenetic inheritance are equivalent in unicellular organisms, they may have distinct mechanisms and evolutionary distinctions in multicellular organisms.

Genetically identical mice with different DNA methylation patterns causing kinks in the tail of one but not the other.[1]Four general categories of epigenetic modification are known:[2]1. self-sustaining metabolic loops, in which amRNAorproteinproduct of a gene stimulatestranscriptionof the gene; e.g.Wor1gene inCandida albicans[3]2. structural templating in which structures are replicated using a template or scaffold structure on the parent; e.g.prions, proteins that replicate by changing the structure of normal proteins to match their own

3. chromatinmarks, in which methyl or acetyl groups bind to DNAnucleotidesorhistonesthereby altering gene expression patterns; e.g.Lcycgene inLinaria vulgarisdescribed below

4. RNA silencing, in which small RNA strands interfere (RNAi) with the transcription of DNA or translation of mRNA; known only from a few studies, mostly inCaenorhabditis elegans[4]For some epigenetically influenced traits, the epigenetic marks can be induced by the environment and some marks are heritable, leading some to view epigenetics as a relaxation of the rejection ofsoft inheritanceof acquired characteristics.

EPIGENETICS AND INHERITANCE

We used to think that a new embryo's epigenome was completely erased and rebuilt from scratch. But this isn't completely true. Some epigenetic tags remain in place as genetic information passes from generation to generation, a process called epigenetic inheritance.

Epigenetic inheritance is an unconventional finding. It goes against the idea that inheritance happens only through the DNA code that passes from parent to offspring. It means that a parent's experiences, in the form of epigenetic tags, can be passed down to future generations.

As unconventional as it may be, there is little doubt that epigenetic inheritance is real. In fact, it explains some strange patterns of inheritance geneticists have been puzzling over for decades.

Overcoming the Reprogramming Barrier

Most complex organisms develop from specialized reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals). Two reproductive cells meet, then they grow and divide to form every type of cell in the adult organism. In order for this process to occur, the epigenome must be erased through a process called "reprogramming."

Reprogramming is important because eggs and sperm develop from specialized cells with stable gene expression profiles. In other words, their genetic information is marked with epigenetic tags. Before the new organism can grow into a healthy embryo, the epigenetic tags must be erased.

At certain times during development (the timing varies among species), specialized cellular machinery scours the genome and erases its epigenetic tags in order to return the cells to a genetic "blank slate." Yet, for a small minority of genes, epigenetic tags make it through this process and pass unchanged from parent to offspring.

Reprogramming resets the epigenome of the early embryo so that it can form every type of cell in the body. In order to pass to the next generation, epigenetic tags must avoid being erased during reprogramming.

Inheritance Is Not Just about the GenesTraditional genetics goes far in explaining how unique biological traits are passed on from parents to children. DNA from each parent mixes together in a child and this DNA contains discrete stretches of coded instructionsgenesthat are used to make all the proteins we are made of. A child is basically a mixed amalgam of proteins half from the genes of each parent. However, biology is rarely so neat. Genes only provide the bits of information that make an organism. Like words that make up a story, genes need to be used at the right place and right time to produce a meaningful result. Context is key and cells have several controls to activate and shut down genes at the right times as needed.

Sometimes genes are not just turned on or off temporarily but more permanently shut down, folded up, and put in a type of long-term storage. The controls that shut down, and occasionally resuscitate genes, are "epigenetic controls" meaning "over and above the genes." Recently, it has been discovered that some of the epigenetic patterns of shut down and reactivated genes can be passed from parents to children. This idea of epigenetic inheritance has lead to general reevaluation of how inheritance works and whether some traits, especially those associated with certain life experience and environmental diseases, can be passed from generation to generation.

Why Is Epigenetic Inheritance Important?It is the observation that the patterns of genes that are shut down or activated in response to our experience, combined with the discovery that gene expression patterns can be passed on to our children, that makes epigenetics so interesting. These two observations suggest the surprising conclusion that our life experience may be able to affect intrinsic inherited traits we pass on to our children. First seen in bacteria and individual cells where certain "learned" responses to chemicals in the environment were passed to their progeny. Now, it seems that individuals may also inherent certain traits based on their parents or grandparents experience.

According to classical genetics, although we are each the result of an interaction of our genes and our environment, the way we live shouldn't directly affect the genetic traits passed to our children. The understanding derived from Darwinian evolution is that we pass on one fresh unmarked variant of each of our approximately twenty three thousand genes to our progeny. Except in the extreme sense where there is physical DNA damage from toxics or radiation, our environment or life experience should not alter the basic characteristics of these genes. The idea that inheritable gene changes occur in response to our environment or experience was abandoned almost as soon as it was first proposed byLaMarck(a rival of Darwin). However, it appears that Lamarck may have been at least little right and we may, in fact, pass on genes that are marked up based on our own experience.

Examples of Epigenetic InheritanceThere are very clear examples of epigenetic inheritance in lower animals. Fruit flies exposed to certain chemicals have baby flies with bristly outgrowths on their eyes. More interesting examples in higher animals, though, suggest how life experiences may shape the genetic deck of cards children receive. For example, with rats, it has been shown that stressed mothers have more anxious rat babiesthe hormonal difference and anxious behaviors can be reliably measured in the progeny through adulthood. Although this tendency can be explained by nurture, it turns out that, even when the rat babies are transferred to a less stressful environment with an unstressed adoptive mother, the progenystill grow up just as apprehensive. It seems the genetics have been reprogrammed as a result of the mother's experience. In another example, researchers found that, in an isolated community in Northern Sweden, people whose parents and grandparents gorged themselves through a few rare years when an overabundant amount of food was available havemuch shorter livesthan people whose ancestors consistently struggled to get enough to eat and occasionally were near starvation due to crop failures.

Although not as well established as the studies above, there is also some evidence to suggest that the tendency forsome psychological disorders to run in familiesmay be a result of epigenetic inheritance and some researchers even go so far as to suggest thatsome lifestyle behaviors or habits may develop into inheritable traits. While a few of these conclusions may be far reaching based on current data, there does seem to be a strong link betweenhealth, including metal health, and epigenetic changesin DNA. This observation has made epigenetics a very hot topic in many areas of medical research.

understand that risk and protective factors are negative and positive life ingredients that influence development and be able to identify them in case examples; understand that they are probabilistic, not deterministicChapter 4Risk and Protective Factors

Neglect occurs to children of all races, socio-economic classes, religions, family structures, and communities. However, there are some factors that appear to make children more or less likely to be neglected. Having one or more risk factors does not necessarily mean that a child will be neglected; families and children react to personal and societal factors differently. But they are warning signs, nevertheless.

One or two major risk factors for neglect may have little effect on a child's development, but having three or more risk factors exponentially increases the potential for developmental problems. Risk factors may be cumulative so that the more risk factors a child or family is exposed to over the course of the child's development, the greater the potential for problems to arise.98The risk and protective factors in a child or family's life also may interact with each other.Exhibit 4-1provides a conceptual model of the interplay of various risk and protective factors related to child neglect.

An instance of possible neglect may be related to one or more contributing factors. For example, if a child is exposed to lead paint in the home, there may be many contributing factors to the neglect. The parent may be unwilling or unable to move to a home where lead paint is not present, the landlord may be unwilling to remove the lead paint from the walls, the city may not have an adequate lead abatement program, or the community may not have placed enough emphasis on making sure that low-income housing is safe.99The caseworker would need to assess the situation to determine if this is a case of neglect by the parent.

Child welfare professionals and others who interact regularly with children and families should be able to recognize risk factors so that they can identify situations where neglect is likely and determine the most effective interventions. This chapter highlights several types of risk and protective factorsenvironmental, family, parent or caregiver, and childfor neglect.

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Environmental Factors

Neglectful families do not exist in a vacuum; numerous environmental factors can contribute to child neglect. Some of these include poverty, community and society characteristics, and access to social supports. These factors may be interrelated (e.g., families who are poor often live in high-risk or unsafe communities or lack social supportsD-link

Poverty

The level of child well-being in a State is strongly associated with its rate of child poverty.100While child poverty has declined over the past decade, it currently stands at 17.6 percent.101Compared to other types of child maltreatment, neglect is more directly associated with poverty.102Of course, most poor people do not neglect or otherwise maltreat their children, but poverty, when combined with other risk factors, such as substance abuse, social isolation, financial uncertainty, continual family chaos, or a lack of available transportation and affordable child care can put a child at greater risk for neglect.104Another study found that within an economically disadvantaged sample, particular aspects of poverty are more strongly correlated with physical neglect reports than others.105For example, theperceptionby the caregiver of economic hardship was positively correlated with child neglect, even more than actual variations in household incomes. Therefore, self-reports of economic hardship may be an important signal for engaging in interventions with families to prevent subsequent neglect. In contrast, employment had an inverse relationship to reports of physical neglect. No difference existed between income groups for rates of fatal injury or emotional neglect.106It is important to note that many poor families are well adjusted and competent; they have healthy marriages and do not express their stress in violent or otherwise hurtful ways. Many children who live in poverty are able to perform well in school, are socially well-adjusted, do not engage in illegal activities, and are not poor as adults. These children may have protective factors, such as affectionate parents, high self-esteem, or a role model, that help them to achieve these positive outcomes.107As discussed inChapter 2,Definition and Scope of Neglect, many States include an exception for poverty in their definitions of neglect. There is usually a distinction between a caregiver's inability to provide the needed care based on the lack of financial resources and a caregiver's knowing reluctance or refusal to provide care, even though the initial effect on the child is the same.108For example, a family may not be able to afford food for their children; therefore, their children's basic nutritional needs will not be met. If the parents do not know about food assistance, they would not be considered neglectful, but if they have been told about a food assistance program and failed to use it, they may be guilty of neglect.

Risk & Protective Factors

Research has shown that there are a variety of factors that influence whether or not a young person will struggle with problems such as underage drinking, drug abuse, delinquency or violent behavior. Risk factors may increase the probability that a youth will engage in such risky behaviors. Protective factors, on the other hand, may decrease the probability a youth will engage in risky and unhealthy behaviors.

Both risk factors and protective factors are complex and cumulative. Their impact on a persons future behavior depends on how many risk or protective factors occur at the same time, how intense they are and how long they persist.

For example, having positive relationships with caring adults is a powerful protective factors for youth in avoiding a variety of risky and unhealthy behaviors. A strong relationship with an adult role model over a number of years will have a more protective impact than a positive, but short-term, connection with the same adult over the course of a single event (e.g. a guest speaker at a school assembly).

While a child may be exposed to certain risk factors over his or her whole life (such as the negative impact of growing up in a poor neighborhood), the negative influence of such risk factors may be lessened by other protective factors such as a structured and nurturing home environment, and a connection to religious or community groups.

know what a turning point is and the common reasons for positive turning points in peoples lives ??? STILL DONT KNOW

know the list of things that matter for development from lecture; understand the concept of linked lives

Both in Notebook

know that we develop all our major organ systems and limbs in the first 2 months of our gestational life (embryonic phase)The embryonic period comprises thefirst 8 weeksof pregnancy. It is divided into apreembryonic phase(from the 1rst to the 3rd week), in which the three germinal layers arise, and into theembryonic phaseproper (from the 4th to 8th week), in which the embryonic organ anlagen arise.Development takes place thanks to thegeneticprogram andenvironmentalfactors that are precisely tuned to each other.

During the embryonic periodthe risk of congenital abnormalitiesis the greatest. Before, spontaneous miscarriages mostly occur. Later, the frequency of abnormalities and their effects are smaller.The most important teratogenic factors areinfectious diseases,chemical substances, medications, andionizing radiation.

know how tobacco, alcohol & other drug use by mothers and fathers affect pre- and post-natal development; know that there is no safe level of alcohol during pregnancy or safe phase of pregnancy in which to drinkThe lives of millions of children are touched by substance use disorders (SUDs). The 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health reports that 8.3 million children live with at least one parent who abused or was dependent on alcohol or an illicit drug during the past year. This includes 13.9 percent of children aged 2 years or younger, 13.6 percent of children aged 3 to 5 years, 12.0 percent of children aged 6 to 11 years, and 9.9 percent of youths aged 12 to 17 years.48These children are at increased risk for abuse or neglect, as well as physical, academic, social, and emotional problems.49A predictable, consistent environment, coupled with positive caregiver relationships, is critical for normal emotional development of children. Parental substance abuse and dependence have a negative impact on the physical and emotional well-being of children and can cause home environments to become chaotic and unpredictable, leading to child maltreatment. The children's physical and emotional needs often take a back seat to their parents' activities related to obtaining, using, or recovering from the use of drugs and alcohol.50This chapter discusses how prenatal and postnatal substance use by parents affects fetal and early childhood development. It is intended to help child protective services (CPS) caseworkers understand the behaviors and problems that some children in the child welfare system may exhibit and that hold implications for their potential need for services.

A Definition of Child Maltreatment

The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, reauthorized in the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-36), provides the minimum standards for defining child physical abuse, neglect, and sexual abuse that States must incorporate into their statutory definitions in order to receive Federal funds. Under this Act, child maltreatment is defined as:

"Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caregiver, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm."51A "child" under this definition generally means a person younger than age 18 or who is not an emancipated minor. In cases of child sexual abuse, a "child" is one who has not attained the age of 18 or the age specified by the child protection law of the State in which the child resides, whichever is younger.52

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The Impact on Prenatal Development

In 2006 and 2007, an average of 5.2 percent of pregnant women aged 15 to 44 years used an illicit drug during the month prior to being surveyed, and 11.6 percent had consumed alcohol.53Nationwide, between 550,000 and 750,000 children are born each year after prenatal exposure to drugs or alcohol.54These children often are medically fragile or born with a low birth weight. Some are born prematurely and require intensive care.

Identifying the effects of drugs and alcohol on fetuses has posed challenges for researchers. While there has been some success researching the effects of alcohol on fetal development, securing accurate information regarding the use of illicit drugs from pregnant women or women who have given birth has proven to be very difficult. In addition, women who abuse substances often have other risk factors in their lives (e.g., a lack of prenatal care, poor nutrition, stress, violence, poor social support) that can contribute significantly to problematic pregnancies and births.

The sections that follow summarize some of what is known about the effects of substance use on prenatal development.

know the risks that STIs pose to infantsWhat Effects Can STDs Have on My Baby?

Different STDs pose different health risks for pregnant women and their babies. Here is a list of some of the more common STDs and the threats they pose to a healthy pregnancy:

Herpes/Genital Herpes:Herpesis one of the most common STDs a pregnant woman can be infected with; fortunately, however, herpes do not pose any major risks to a developing fetus. However, any lesions that are exposed near the vaginal opening during delivery could cause the disease to be passed on to the infant. That is why many women with herpes or other genital warts choose to deliver via a cesarean section.

Chlamydia:For mothers affected by chlamydia, you should be aware that you are at an increased risk of miscarriage and preterm delivery. Furthermore, if the baby is exposed to the disease during delivery, he or she could be at risk for eye infections or pneumonia.

HPV:Genital warts resulting from HPV usually take the form of itchy cauliflower-like clusters. These warts may enlarge during pregnancy due to hormones. Unlike some other STDs, treatment for HPV will likely be postponed until after giving birth. If the warts are large enough, however, they could present an obstacle to delivery, resulting in a cesarean section.

Syphilis:Because syphilis is a viral infection, it can be easily passed along from mother to child, which can pose a variety of very serious risks including fatality. Babies that do survive are often born prematurely and tend to have birth defects affecting their brain, eyes, ears, skin, heart and bones.

Gonorrhea:If gonorrhea is contracted during pregnancy it will likely become noticeable in the form of vaginal discharge and a burning sensation during urination. Left untreated, pregnant women with gonorrhea are at an increased risk of miscarriage and premature birth. If the infection is present at the time of birth the baby may be born blind, or with a joint or blood infection.

HIV/AIDS:Due to recent medical advancements in HIV/AIDS research, transmission of HIV/AIDS from mother to child has become almost completely preventable. That said, without treatment it is likely the baby will be born with the virus.

Hepatitis B:Hepatitis B is disease that affects the liver, and as such it can be passed to the baby through the placenta during pregnancy as well as childbirth. Women with hepatitis B are also more likely to give birth prematurely. With screening and vaccines now available, however, it is hoped that the disease will soon become a thing of the past.

Trichomoniasis:Symptoms of trichomoniasis include yellowish vaginal discharge and painful sex and urination. Having this STD during pregnancy can increase your risk of preterm birth and, more rarely, cause the newborn to contract the disease during delivery.Other harmful effects of STDs in babies may include stillbirth, neurological damage (such as brain damage or lack of coordination in body movements), deafness, acute hepatitis, meningitis, and chronic liver disease.

How Can STDs be Treated During Pregnancy?

Treatment for STDs generally includes a combination of medications, including antiviral pills and antibiotics. Treatment is especially promising for bacterial infections such as herpes, gonorrhea, syphilis and Chlamydia, as these can almost always be cured through the use of antibiotics. Recently, natural cures for herpes have become popular as well.

Certain diseases may require postponed treatment due to possible risks treatment may pose to the fetus, as is the case for HPV (genital warts).

But as is the case with any STD, the best treatment is prevention, so be sure to undergo routine screening for STDs and always practice safe sex. For more information on STDs, check out thisguideprovided byepigee.org.

know what Rene Spitz found re: infants and toddlers who were fed and housed, but not given any nurturance/close human contact and holdingknow that infants/toddlers form attachments to both mothers and fathers; know that we form attachments to various close others across our lifespan; understand that our sense of attachment, secure or insecure/avoidant, both reflects the realities of a particular relationship and influences the quality of our (usually future) close relationships (as well as influencing a range of other long-term outcomes)Attachment is the emotional bond of infant to parent or caregiver. It is described as apattern of emotional and behavioural interactionthat develops over time, especially in contexts where infants express a need for attention, comfort, support or security. Parents ability to perceive, interpret and react promptly to their infants needs and attention, in turn influence thequality of their attachment relationships. Based on Bowlbys attachment theory, the relationship developed with primary caregivers is the most influential in childrens lives. A secure relationship fosters not onlypositive developmental outcomesover time, but also influences the quality of future relationships with peers and partners.

Secure parent-child relationships help children to a) regulate their emotion in stressful situations, b) explore their environment with confidence, and c) foster their cognitive, emotional and language development. Furthermore, children who are securely attached are predisposed to display positive social behaviours (e.g., empathy and cooperative behaviours) helping them todevelop future positive relationships. On the other hand, insecure and disorganized attachment put children at increasing risk ofproblem behaviours and psychopathologies. Examples include preschool and school-aged aggression, depression and emotional dysregulation.

So far, we have seen that there is a link between the quality of infant attachment and the quality of care an infant receives during the first year of life. Although interesting, this research would be less important if the effects applied only to the first year. They do not. Alan Sroufe, a psychologist at the University of Minnesota, and his colleagues continue to report on a longitudinal study of a large group of low-income families who were originally recruited in Minneapolis in the early 1970s (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2005). Researchers observed these families' infants with their mothers in the Strange Situation when the infants were 12 and 18 months of age, and they then collected information on these children as they grew older. During the preschool years, teachers and observers rated children who had been securely attached as infants as happier and more socially skilled, competent, compliant, and empathetic than children who were insecurely attached as infants. Preschoolers with secure attachments also were more popular with their peers, had higher self-esteem, and were less dependent and negative.

By age 10 years, children in the securely attached classification were still less dependent and received higher ratings on self-esteem, self-confidence, social skills, and emotional health. They made more friends than did children who had been insecurely attached as infants, and they spent more time with their friends.

Adolesce