PSY 150 Research and Psychology.pdf

7/30/2019 PSY 150 Research and Psychology.pdf

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General Psychology (PSY 150)

Research and Psychology

Harry I. Cain, MA

Edgecombe Community College

Tarboro, NC

The Scientific Method

An approach to discover relationships between

events

In psychology the relationship between

environmental events (S) and behavior (R)

Technically, do not discover cause; only

establish relationship

A strong relationship suggests a causal link Science supports ideas, does not prove ideas

Qualitative (Descriptive) Research

Observing and Describing Pattern Naturalistic Observation: observe and measure in

a naturalistic setting. Do not control or

manipulate the situation. Does allow noting and

descriptions of patterns

Case Study: in depth study of a case or a few

cases. May cite other reports of similar cases to

generate an explanation or hypothesis.

Archival methods: going through the archives;

reviewing files, charts, numerous case histories.


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From Qualitative to Quantitative

Using Qualitative methods: observed a chosen phenomena and

collect certain facts noted patterns among the facts Develops a plausible explanations of

the pattern- a hypothesis

The Researcher wants to conductcontrolled observations or measureswith larger groups of people-Quantitative Research

Quantitative Methods of

ObservationMethods used in collecting data on larger

number of people.

Surveys

Tests

Questionnaires

Interviews: typically with specific questionsto be answered

By collecting large amounts of data maynotice patterns that support the hypothesis.

But not changing the situation or conditions

Question?

Psychology studies the relationshipbetween environment and behavior

The Research Question is: how doesbehavior change if make a change inthe environment?

So if a psychologist is going to doresearch,

1. What will be changed?

2. What will be measured?


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The Experimental Method

Experiment: conduct observationsunder conditions of strict control.

Since Psychology wants to determine therelationship between environment and

behavior, an experiment involves changingthe environment and measuring how

behavior changes

Change conditions or situation and measurehow behavior change

Change Environment Behavior Change?

Independent and DependentVariables

Independent Variable:what theexperimenter controls or varies; usually anenvironmental variable; changing conditions

Dependent Variable:what is observed ormeasured. In psychology, behavior andmental processing

Change Environment Behavior Change?(Independent Variable) (Dependent Variable)

Operationalism: Making things observable

Notice that when testing the hypothesis,researchers can clearly observe the change inconditions (independent variable) and thechange in behavior (dependent variable)

Operationalism: Scientific Theories must begrounded in observable events that can bemeasured.

By making events observable, are making theevents public- anyone can carry out theoperations.

Example: Mild vs. Moderate vs. Heavy Exercise


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Experimental Groups

The group exposed to the changedconditions

A procedure is done to this group; theprocedure changes the situation orconditions. Change Environment (independent variable)

Compare the behavior of the experimentalgroup to the control group (and perhapsplacebo group) Measure Behavior (dependent variable)

Control and Placebo Groups

Control Group: a group that does notexperience the experimentalprocedure

Placebo Group a group that receivean intervention that has no impact onwhat is being observed Common in medication studies

FYI: The Power of Placebos

Expectancy: People report feeling better aftera treatment or procedure is done. Examplesinclude:

29% improvement in depression study andmigraine headache study

36% in a duodenal ulcer study

Some studies where the person becomesaddicted to the placebo.

Therefore, need to determine how muchchange is the treatment vs. expectation,especially in psychotherapy research.


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Example 1

Room Temperature and Classroom behavior

Experimental Groups

Group 1: elevate temperature to 85 degrees Group 2: lower temperature to 60 degrees

Control Group: temperature remains at 75degrees

Independent Variable: Temperature

Dependent Variable: Classroom behavior

Example 2

Tea Drinking and Test PerformanceExperimental Group

Group 1: one 8 oz cup of tea before study 1 hr

Group 2: two 8 oz cup of tea before study 1 hr

Control Group: no tea study 1 hr.

Placebo Group

Group A: one 8 oz cup of tea flavored fluid

Group B: two 8 oz cup of tea flavored fluidIndependent Variable: amount of tea

Dependent Variable: test performance

What to Consider in Designing anExperiment

Who?

Gender: Both Males and Females or just

Males or Females?

Age: young adults, older adults, teens?

Demographics: Ethnic, Race,

Urban/Rural, Socioeconomic,

Educational level, etc


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How are People Assigned to theGroups?

Random Assignment: helps to insure

that groups are similar. Statistical procedures require or assume

random assignment.

How about Experimental Bias? It ispossible that the experimenterspreconceived ideas can impactobservations

Do we blind the researchers?

Interpreting Results

How did the Experimental Group Change?

Did the Control Group change?

Did the Placebo Group Change?

Is the change in the Experimental Group greater

than the change in the Control or Placebo Group?

Is This Difference statistically significant?

How Lasting is the Change? The issue of Follow-up

What Can be Concluded?

Can the Results be Generalized? The need for replication

Do the Findings Suggest FutureResearch?

How Do the Findings Fit into OtherResearch Findings?

Support a theory?Note that ahypothesis and theory are supported,NOT

PROVEN!!!


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Scientific Consensus: Converging

the EvidenceAnswers emerge slowly- have a gradualsynthesis of findings (a brick by brick process)rather than a breakthrough Conclusions not based on one single study; instead

on the data from numerous studies and meta-analysis of these studies.

Because one study disputes the conclusion of otherstudies, it does not mean there is controversy. Nosingle crucial study is definite in establishing aconclusion.

So if a handful of studies say no but hundreds sayyes there likely is a convergence of evidence.

FYI: Chance and Probability in Research

Findings of research suggest a probability butthe finding will not occur in all cases.

The Person Who: when results arereported, a case can be found thatcontradicts the finding. Data may suggestthat expect the result 95% of the time but 5%the result wont occur. Example: Person who smoked 30 yrs. and no

cancer. This case does not invalidate theconnection between smoking and lung cancer

Chances are if you eat right and exercise youPROBABLYwill be healthy, NOTyouWILL Be

Summarizing the Scientific Method

1. Theory(explanation 0f phenomena) generates a2. Prediction (the hypothesis) based on the theory

3. Test- the experiment to see if the prediction issupported. The test is set up to show that the theoryis shown to be false (the falsifiability criteria.)

4. Modify the Theorybased on the test (the results.)

5. Testing tends to get more powerful as progress.

Note: the Theory is either supported by data or it isnot. A theory is not proven but the theory will lose itsplace or discarded if not confirmed by the collecteddata. If data tends to support the theory, the theorycontinue and will continue to be tested and modified.


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Research: Replication and PubliclyVerifiable Knowledge

Research is submitted to the scientific

community for testing (replication) andcriticism. Original research made availablefor other scientists to extend. Peer Review publications: submitted research

critiqued by several scientists in the specialtyarea before it is published

Research findings always under scrutiny

Non scientific community will bypass theresearch community and go directly to themedia with their findings.

Correlational Methods

Procedure to see how much events orcharacteristics go along with each other.

Looking at the co-relationship between twovariables. Relationship between smoking and lung cancer

Relationship between aggression and watching TV

Relationship between stress level and depression

Correlational Research

Variables

Behaviors,events, or othercharacteristicsthat can change,or vary in some

way For example

Smoking and lungdisease

SAT scores andschool

Correlational Research

The relationshipbetween two sets ofvariables is examinedto determine whetherthey are associated, orcorrelated

Correlation does notmean causation

Ranges from +1 to -1


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Correlational Method (cont)

Describing Correlation (see next slide) Positive vs. Negative Line of best fit

Limits of Correlational Studies Describe relationship but does not explain the

relationship (or direction of cause): theDirectionality Problem

Variables may be related because of anothervariable- the 3rdvariable problem

Example: Depression and Stress Does stress cause depression? Depression result in stress Depression and stress associated with poverty-

the 3rdvariable.

Directionality

Problem

The 3rd Variable ProblemThe reason viable X and Y correlate is not

because of one causing another; it is because ofa 3rdvariable (Z) Use of Birth Control (X) correlated with number of

electrical appliances in the home (Y) because ofvariable Z: level of income

Private school instruction provides betterachievement than public; private cause betterachievement. A correlation based on a 3rdvariable:

economic advantage (SES)There are statistical procedures that addressthe 3rdvariable problem by factoring out theinfluence of the extraneous variables.

Illusory Correlation

As mentioned, research deals with probability andmulti causation.

Correlation only says how two events go along with orare associated with each other. But cannot infer causebased on correlation.

However, people tend to connect two random eventsthat occur together- see connection when there is not.

Blind date leads to marriage.

Missing a bus and then meet an old friend.

Coincidence will happenno need to explain (but wewill.) Even rare events happen


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Correlation Research

More on Correlation Research

Attempt to Identify Relationship between two

variables or how the variables change together.

1.00 A perfect relationshipthe two factors always

go together. A direct relationship

.76-.99 Very strong relationship

.51-.75 Strong relationship

.26-.50 Moderate relationship

.01-.25 Weak relationship 0 No relationship; two factors never occur together

Can be Positive (+) or Negative (-)

Ethics of Research: the Nuremberg Code

Created during the Nuremberg Trials ofNazi doctors in 1948

The Voluntary Consent of the human subject

is absolutely essential.

Freely Give Consent to Participate in Research

Freedom from Coercion

Have the Capacity to Consent


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FYI: US Studies with Ethical Concerns

Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)

Radiation Studies (mid 1940s-mid 1970s)

Willowbrook Cancer Studies (1956-1970)

Jury Trial Studies (1953)

Milgrams Obedience Studies (1964)

Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital: Hepatitis Studies(1963)

Tea Room Trade Study (1965-1968)

San Antonio Contraception Study (1971)

Simulated Prison Study (1971)

Lead to the writing ofFederal Regulations (45 CFR 46)of research and the Belmont Report (1979)

Research Ethics: Principles of the

Belmont Report

Respect for

Person

Benef icence Just ice

InformedConsent

Risk andBenefits

SampleSelection

Voluntary

Participation

Qualified

Researcher

Inclusion

Confidentiality

and Privacy

Appropriate

Research Design

Notes on Ethical Animal Research

Animals are protected by Laws that govern

research. (Human protections are regulations,

not laws.)

Laws are strict: must take steps to guard the

well-being of animals.

Must justify the need to sacrifice the animal:

benefit vs. harm

Mathematical Modeling often used to reduce

number of animals necessary


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FYI (Not on Test)

Clinical TrialsWould You Volunteer?When a drug (or device) is being tested, it first

is done with animals. Then the need to test

with people.When would you volunteer? Phase 1: does it harm- is it or when is it

toxic?

Phase 2: does it help with the disease,illness, or medical condition?

Phase 3: large scale testing with largesamples

Phase 4: post-approval research. Testingmedications (and devices) in use

A Note on Reference Sources

Several Slides were developed from thebook How to Think Straight aboutPsychology, 10th Ed. by Keith Stanovich(Pearson, 2013.) The slides coming fromthis book are titled in Green

Other slides come from Feldmans

textbook and other sources.

PSY 150 Research and Psychology.pdf

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