PSCI 4997_ADV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY [Week 1 & 2].pptx

8/14/2019 PSCI 4997_ADV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY [Week 1 & 2].pptx

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PSCI 4997: ADVANCED

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Semester 1, 2013-2014

Instructor:

Ly Slesman @ Sulaiman Mohd Ali


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COURSEASSESSMENT

Method %

Course Work:

Midterm Exam

Research ReportPresentation of the

Report/Exercise/Quizzes

Class Participation &

Attendance

60

25

20

10

5

Final Examination 40

Total 100


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Week 1: 10th Sept. 2013

INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE & RESEARCH

What is Social Research?

Alternative to social research

The important of Social Science?

What is Science?

Scient i f ic Enquiry/Method

Type of Soc ial Research


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Research guide decisions.

Research helps individuals/leaders/policy-makers tomake the best choice out of available alternatives. How to reduce crime rate How to jump-start your economy Why democracies is the best form of governance relative to

the communism?...private vs. collective propertyownership Why more investment/foreign-aid does not always work in

low-qualities governance countries? Why open trade regime make everyone better off?.. Export-

oriented economic approach to national development.

BUT What is research? What do you understand about research?

What constitute research?



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What is research?

Research is a way of going out findinganswers to questions.

Research is a process through whichnew knowledge is discovered.

Social Researchis a collection ofmethodsand methodologiesthatresearchers apply systematically toproduce scientifically based knowledge

about the social world.



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Methodology is the a subfield of epistemology (i.e.the science of knowing).

Methodology encompassMethods

Methodology: understanding the socialorganizational context, philosophical (theoretical)assumptions, ethical principles, and politicalissues of the enterprise of social researchers whouse methods. It is the science of finding out.

Method: sets of specific techniques for selectingcases, measuring and observing aspects of sociallife, gathering and refining data, analyzing thedata, and reporting on results. It is the technical/scientific tool/instruments that

allow researcher to find out or answer his research



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In a social research process, researchers Think logically, Follow rules, Repeat steps over and over again Combines theories/ideas with facts in a

systematic way Use the imagination and creativity Plan and organize carefully Select the appropriate technique to address the

research question Treat people in the study ethically and morally Communicate with others

After all, it is the process of discovery.



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Alternative to Social Science Knowledge comes not always from

research but also the alternativessources:authority, tradition, personal

experiences, media, or even commonsense.

However

Social research is a more structured,organized, and systematic processesthan the alternatives.

Its more likely to be true with fewer

errors.



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AlternativesCont.

Authority We accept something as being true because

someone in authority say its true. Authoritative publication

In Islam, were obliged to do so (i.e. Quran& Sunnah, &other sources of Islamic law). So theres no issue hereregarding limitations.

Limitat ion(Western perspective) Overestimate/reliance and misused (experts can be

wrong). Scientific research can sometime refute. E. g. Galileo

discover on rounding earth v.s. Church/common belief atthe time that the earth is flat.

Tradition

Tradition is the authority of the past. Something true in the past may no longer be true now



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AlternativesCont.Common Sense

Ordinary reasoning or common sense (i.e. whatmake sense) E.g. it makes sense that crime is lower in countries

with capital punishment. E.g. Gamblers fallacy: after series of losses, I have

a better chance of winning. (probabilistic sense: 50-50)

Media Myth

Beside informing the public Media can create prejudice/stereotypes (e.g. in the

US most people receive welfare benefit are black) Forum for competing interest to win support from the

public.



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AlternativesCont.

Personal Experiences (Seeing is believing) Has a strong impact and is a forceful source of

knowledge. 4 Limitations Overgeneralization: statements that go far beyond

what can be justified based on the data or empiricalobservations that one has.

Selective observation: Making observation in a waythat it reinforces preexisting thinking, rather thanobserving in a natural and balanced manner.

Premature closure: Making a judgment, or reaching adecision and ending an investigation, before one hasthe amount or depth of evidence required by scientificstandards.

Halo effect:Allowing the prior reputation of persons,places, or thing to color ones evaluating all in a



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Natural science (physics,mathematics)

Social science (politicalscience, psychology,sociology)

Sciencerefers to both asystem for producingknowledge and theknowledge produced fromthat system.

The system: evolves and slowly changing

over time. combines assumptions about

the nature of the world andknowledge

is sets of procedures,

techniques, and instrumentsfor gaining knowledge.

INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE


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Scienceis often characterized as logico-empirical. Two pillar of science:

Logic Observation

A scientific understanding of the world must make sense andcorresponding to what we observe.

Three major of social scientific enterprise:

Social theory: a system of interconnected ideas that condensesand organizes knowledge about the social world. Simply means a set of statements that predict thing s thatwi l l occu r in the future and explain th ings that happen inthe pas t.

Data collection: empirical evidences or information that onegathers/collects carefully according to rule or procedures. It canbe qualitative or quantitative data.

Data/Empirical analysis: what can be observed and experiencedirectly through human sense or indirectly using techniques thatextend the senses. Analyze the pattern exist in the data and make inference (i.e. compare,

predict, accept, or refute) about the social world being observed.



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Role of Scientific Community Scientific community: a collection of people

who share a system of attitudes, beliefs, andrules that sustains the production andadvance of scientific knowledge. Norm of scientific community: a set of informal

rules, principles, and values that governs howscientist conduct their research. Universalism: research is to be judged based on the

scientific merit (regardless of who/from where that conductthe research)

Organized skepticism: new idea/evidence are intenselyscrutinized

Disinterestedness: scientists must be neutral, impartial,and open to unexpected observation/new ideas/particularpoint of view.

Communalism:scientific knowledge must be shared with


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Scientific method refers to the ideas, rules,

techniques, and approach that the scientificcommunity use. It is a loose consensus within scientific community.

Scientific attitude is a way of thinking about and

looking at the world that reflects a commitment to thenorms and values of the scientific community.

Scholarly journal article is an article in aspecialized publication that has members of thescientific community as its primary audience. Its a means to disseminate new ideas and findings

within the scientific community.

Blind review: a process of judging the merits of aresearch.

Two way withheld of identity: It is unknown to each sides (theresearcher who conduct research and the one who review it .

Role of Scientific Community


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AskingQuestion

IdentifyImportantFactors

FormulatingHypothesis

CollectingRelevant

Information

Testing theHypothesis

Working withHypothesis

Reconsideringthe Theory

Asking NewQuestion

STEPS IN (SOCIAL) SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

METHOD


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AskingQuestion



CollectingRelevant

Information




Asking NewQuestion


METHOD

I wonder what would happen if

Question come out of your

curiosity/idea/hunchIs increase in soft-skilltraining really lead to increase in IIUMemployability?

Example: Can democratic institutions lead tobetter economic performance?

Good question lead to good hypothesis


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AskingQuestion



CollectingRelevant

Information




Asking NewQuestion


METHOD

After question is asked (e.g. Can democraticinstitutions lead to better economic performance?)

Identify the Factors:What are the factors defining democraticinstitutions: free & fair election, education,constraint on chief-executiveWhat do we mean by better economicperformance?...is it increase in gross domesticproduct (GDP) overtime?...Refer to theories and past studies/research (i.e.literature)


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AskingQuestion



CollectingRelevant

Information




Asking NewQuestion


METHOD

What is hypothesis: Educated guess Hypothesis result when the (research)question is transformed into statementthat express the relationship betweenvariables like an ifthen statement.

It may look like this:Country possess credible democratic

institution tend to perform better

economically than countries with low-credible democratic and non-democratic institutions.

A good hypothesis (which comes from atestable question) lead to good study.


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AskingQuestion



CollectingRelevant

Information




Asking NewQuestion


METHOD

Hypothesis posit a clear relationship betweendifferent factors (e.g. economic performanceand democratic institutions)

You need to collect information/empiricaldata that will confirm or refute your hypothesis

you set out in the earlier stage Measures/indicators of democratic

institutions, economic performance


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AskingQuestion



CollectingRelevant

Information




Asking NewQuestion


METHOD

Say hello to Inferential statistics

a set of tools that allow the researchers toseparate the effects of an isolated factor(s) (i.e. the

effects of the controlled factors under study, e.g.

democratic institutions) from effects that owing to

something else or luck/chance.

After collecting empirical data, you need totest your hypothesis so you can make

inference (based on the outcome of yourhypothesis testing). Measures/indicators of democratic institutions,economic performance


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AskingQuestion



CollectingRelevant

Information




Asking NewQuestion


METHOD

Interpret your result Results may/may not confirm

your hypothesis

Take a stock on what guide yourresearch in the first place. .

Its Theory ! Your finding (i.e. well-research) mayconfirm/refute hence modify the theory

A simple last step in this simplescientific enquiry is to ask new

question. Can education help democraticgovernance to deliver bettereconomic performance?


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TYPES OF SOCIALRESEARCH


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Generally there are two approaches to socialresearch: Quantitative Social Research refers to the

systematic empirical investigation of socialphenomena via statistical, mathematical orcomputational techniques (Wikipedia).

Qualitative Social Researchis asocial/behavioral research that explores the

processes that underlie human behavior usingexploratory techniques such as interview,surveys, case studies, and other relative personaltechnique. E.g. sociological & anthropological research

(ethnographic researchresearch on culture)


TYPES OF SOCIAL


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Quantitative Social

Research Measure the objective

facts

Focus on variable

Reliability is the key

Value free

Theory & data areseparate

Independent of context

Many cases, subject

Statistical analysis

Researcher is detached

Qualitative Social Research

Construct social reality Focus on interactive process,

events

Authenticity is key

Values are present & explicit Theory & data are fused

Situationally constrained

Few cases, subjects

Thematic analysis

Researcher is involved


TYPES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH


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Social research method is primarily differed based on: Nature of the question being asked

The method used to answer it The degree of precision the method brings to answering the

question.

Generally, there are two types of research methods:

Non-experimental Research Methods: includes a varieties ofdifferent methods that describe relationship between variables. Descriptive Research: describe the characteristics of an existing phenomena.

E.g. Census survey Correlational Research: provide a picture of events that are currently

happening and have occurred in the past. It is beyond a mere descriptive to include the likely relationship between events/variables.

Qualitative Research: includes case studies, ethnography and historicalstudies.

Experimental Research Methods: the research methods that seek toestablish a causal relation among variable. True Experimental Research: assign the participants into groups: treatment

groups (treatment variable/condition) and the non-treatment base on somecriteria.

TYPES OF SOCIAL RESEARCHMETHODS


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Theory,

Research and

Practice

Week 2: 12thSept. 2013


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What is Theory?

Social Theory: a system of interconnectedideas that condenses and organizesknowledge about the social world. Simply means a set of statements that predictth ings that wi l l occu r in the future and expla in

thing s that happen in the past.

A good theory is a parsimonious theory.Parsimony means simpler/simple. Less complex theories is

likely to be good theory.

It explain things with minimal complexity, with no redundant

and excess elements.An awareness of how theory fits into research

process would lead to better research design,easier to understand, and better conductedstudy.

Social Theory Not Philosophy or


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Social Theory, Not Philosophy orBelief

Social theory has to do with what is not with

what should be. Social philosophers liberally Mixed their observations of what happened around them, Their speculation about why, And their ideas about how things ought to be.

Social scientists focus on how things actually areand why. Science does not involve solving the debate on value. For

example: It cannot determine whether capitalism is better than socialism.

What it can do is to determine how these system performs in termof some set of agreed-upon criteria. For example, Human dignity and freedom [Agreed way of measure these

terms] Economic activities [How to measure this]

Once the definition and measurement is agreed, the finding is

limited to such measure.


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Ideology a nonscientific quasi-theory, often

based on political values or faith, withassumptions, concepts, relationshipsamong concepts, and explanations.

It is a closed system that resists changeCannot be falsified with empirical data.

Makes normative claims

Opposite is true for scientific theories.

Social Theory vs. Ideology


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Components of Social Theory

There are four parts of social theory:

Assumption Concepts Level of abstraction

Single vs. Clusters Simple vs. Complex

Scope (narrow vs. broad)

Relationship

Forms of relationship Proposition & Hypothesis

Unit of analysis

A ti


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Theories contain built-in assumptions. Assumptions is an untested starting point or

belief in a theory that is necessary to build atheoretical explanation.

It is also can be calledpostulates (or axioms):fundamental assertions (on which a theories

is grounded). It is basically statement about the natures of things

that are not observable or testable. We accept them as true for our starting point. E.g. nature of human being, social reality, or a particular

phenomenon. E.g. voters are rational; everyone desires for material comfort;

everyone care for their own self-interest or maximization ofself-interest.

It is often hidden or unstated.

Assumption


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Options Pattern of votes Result

$20 vs. $5 A: 5 B: 5 C: 20 5

$10 vs. $20 A: 10 B: 10 C: 20 10

$10 vs. $5 A: 5 B: 10 C: 10 10

Example: Median voter theory (MVT)states a majority rule voting

system will select the outcome most preferred by themedian voter. Assumpt ions: (1) Voters can place all election alternatives along a one-dimensional

political spectrum. (2) Voters preferences are single-peaked. (means that voters choosealternat ives clo sest to their most preferred outcome).

(3) Voters always vote for their true preferences

(4) Median voter theory applies best to majoritarian election system. How these assumptions work to allow MVT to predict. Let apply to

three friends who choose restaurant to eat: Ahmad (RM. 5),Baharum (RM.10), Chow (RM.20)Which one to win?

Concept


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Concept Concept is a building block of a theory. It is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words. E.g. Y = f (L, K, T); democracy (DEM), election (ELEC), Voter

(VOT), employability (N), welfare (Y), inflation (p).

Level of Abstractionconcept varies by level of theirlevel of abstraction. Abstract concepts refers to aspects of the world we do not

directly or easily experience but they help organize thought

and expand understanding. Lower-level abstract concepts (e.g. bottom, speed, distance) Higher-level abstract concepts (e.g. aggression is more abstarct

that hit, shout, push, yell).

Single vs. concept clusters.Concept are rarely used in

isolation. E.g. If we want to explain urban decay (cluster concept) wewould need a number of concepts like Urban expansion,economic growth, urbanization, suburbs, city center)

Other types of concepts may take a range of value: e.g.amount of income, year of schooling.

These Concepts are called Variables

Concept Cont


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Simple vs. Complex Concepts.

Some concepts are simple and vary (change) along

a single dimension, while other have multipledimension.

E.g. A group of scholars define democracyalong threedimensions:

1. Regular, free elections with universal suffrage.

2. An elected legislative body that controls government

3. Freedom of expression and association.

They then group three concept together (aggregate) and

define type of regime: Totalitarian (low on all three) vs.Democracy (high on all three).

Different way to approach complex concepts:

Combine many simple concept to form a meaningfulconcept.

Classify them into category.

ConceptCont.


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Scope. Concept vary by scope. It is an abstract elements representing

classess of phenomenon within the field ofstudy.

Some are narrow and applied to a specificsocial setting. Other are broad and appliedmany context.

Narrow concept tent to be less abstract. E.g. Karoshi(death by overwork); Economic growth.

Example of concepts with broad scope: physicalaggression, labor, institutions.

ConceptCont.


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Relationship

In addition to making assumptions andproviding concepts, social theory specifyrelationship among concepts (orvariables).

It will inform us whether concepts relate to oneanother (weakly/strongly, negatively orpositively), how and why it is related or notrelated, and what kind of those relationship(correlation, structural, or causal relation, orother).

E.g. Production Theory: Y = f (L(+), K(+), T(+))

Output (Y) is produced using labor (L) and capital (K) inputplus technology (T).


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Theories often contain propositions or statementsabout the connection among concepts.

Proposition is a theoretical statement that specifies therelationship between two/more concepts and sayssomething about the kind of relationship it is. E.g. poverty is a cause of bad economic management/low

economic growth. E.g. Theory: fair and better quality of democratic institutions lead

to better economic performance. Why? Because betterdemocratic institutions ensure people freedom to self-determination (they can choose what best for themselves: profitmaximize, better protection on their property rights, no

expropriation from authority, i.e. the powerful elites) [rule oflaw] which lead to increase the incent ive to do what best forthemselves.

Hypothesis is an empirically testable version of aproposition.

Proposition and Hypothesis


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Many different unit/level within any

analysis: Individual

Groups

National Sub-national

Institutions, organizations..

Concept like democracy can be appliedacross nations, sub-national or evenorganization, firms

Unit of Analysis


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Assumptions/postulates

Propositions

Hypothesis

Theory

Elements of Social Theorysummary

A t /F f S i l


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Aspects/Form of SocialTheory

There are four major aspects of socialtheory:

1. Direction of theorizing [Deductive orInductive]

2. Level of analysis [Macro, Micro or the Middle(Meso)]

3. Focus of the theory [Substantive or FormalTheory]

4. Form of Explanation [Causal, Structural orInterpretative]

Di ti f th i i


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Direction of theorizing Researchers approach the building and

testing of theory from two direction:Deductive & Inductive Reasoning. Deductive Reasoning: you begin with abstract

concepts or a theoretical proposition that outlinesthe logical connection among concepts and then

move toward concrete empirical evidence. E.g. Relationship between study habit andperformance in the examDeductive approach:

Deductive approach how it works


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Deductive approach how it works [Part a] We know that doing well in

exam reflects student ability to recalland manipulate information. Both of these activities should be

increased by exposure to informationbefore the exam.

We can extract the hypothesis that depictthe positive relationship between numbersof hours spend studying and the grade

earn on the exam. So it is positive relationship. [Part b] Then, we need to make/collect

relevant observations (data) to test ourhypothesis. .

The shaded area represent

hundred/thousands of data on studentshours of study & grade they receive.

[Part c] compare the hypothesis andthe observationswe may need

statistical methods [hypothesis

testing]

Another example: Deductive Reasoning


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Another example: Deductive Reasoning[Traditional Model of Science]

Di ti f th i i


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Inductive Reasoning: An approach to developingor confirming a theory that begins with concrete

empirical evidence and works toward moreabstract concepts and theoretical relationships. You begin with observing the empirical world and then

reflect on what is taking place, and move in a moreabstract ways towards theoretical concepts andpropositionsTheory generate through Inductive

approach can be called Grounded theory. (see figurebelow)

E.g. Relationship between study habit andperformance in the examInductive approach:

Direction of theorizing

Inductive approach how it works


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[Part a] Curious about the relationshipbetween study habit and grade earned,you collect the data on student hours

spend and their grade. Look for the pattern exist in the data.

Inductive approach how it works

[Part b] We notice the pattern that:

Student spend time studying between

1-15 hours, each successively hourswould yield higher grade.

But between 15-25 hours, each hourincrease would produce slightly lowergrade.

However, when he go for more than 25

hours, grade start to increase

[Part c] from pattern identify from the data,we can draw some tentative conclusion.

We do so because we do not test it butjust observe out of our collected data.


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L l f A l i


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Micro-level theory: focus on the micro-level of sociallife that occur over short duration. [individual levels]

E.g. face-to-face interaction and encounter among smallgroups/individuals.

Macro-level theory: focus on macro-level of social lifeand process that occur over long duration. [largeraggregate level]

E.g. social institutions, major sector of society, worldregion.

E.g. study on black-white race relation, colonialexperience,

Meso-level theory: focus on the relations, processes,

and structures at a midlevel of social life and eventsoperating over moderate duration. [Link micro &macro level] E.g. organization, movements and communities. E.g. study on the relationship between economic inequality

and schooling.

Level of Analysis

Focus of theory and form of


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Focus of theory and form of

theoretical explanation

Theory can be on specific (on substantiveissue/topic) or general (on the process andstructure that span across area).

Theoretical explanation come in many forms:

Simple explanation that logical argument that tellyou why something take a specific form or occur. Causal Explanation (Cause & Effects relationship):

explain about causal relationship between two ormore things.

Structural Explanation: explain socialprocess/factors/ events that take place within alarger structure. Interpretative Explanation: attempt to explain or

discover the meaning of an event or practice by

placing it within a special social context.


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Links Between Theory and


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Links Between Theory andResearch In the deductive model of reasoning,

research is used to test the theory In the inductive model of reasoning, theories

are developed from the analysis of researchdata.

How in practice theory is linked with researchin the actual scientific enquiry? Sometime theoretical issues are introduced

merely as a background for empirical analysis.

In other cases, empirical data/finding are cited tomake case for theoretical argument.

Sometime theory are modified in a way that servethe tool for researcher to suit his/her study on a

specific issue understudy.


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How to Do your ResearchReport

How to Do your Research


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Report Form your group compose of 5 persons

Discuss among yourself a specific issuerelated to Political Economy (or InternationalPolitical Economy) that your group intend to

research on.E.g.: Political rights and Inequality

Economic freedom and economic performance.

Government stability and rule of law

After deciding on what issue your groupintend to do, follow the following:

Read Chapter 13 of Salkind, N. J., (2006).

Exploring research. Upper Saddle River, NJ:



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Then do the following:

Your must briefly provide the following [2.5 pages,One page for cover page and 1.5 pages for yourresearch issues (font 12, double-space, TimesNew Roman)]: Cover Page [Title of your Research (Research Topic) and

Group member names and other necessary Info] Briefly state what your group want to do: Briefly introduce the issues [one-two paragraph] Introduce Research question [one paragraph] State your problem statement. [one paragraph]

Answer this question: Is this research issue can bemeasured with the data? If Yes, thats doable If no, and not clear, discuss it with me. [will have a session for this]

Due date: 13 December 2013

Submit both hard copy [in class] and through email:[email protected]


Report

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Format of your Research Report:

I. IntroductionI. Problem StatementII. Rational for the research [why is it important that you think

(i.e. based on your reading on the issues from journalarticles, books,) therere no/unsatisfactory answers to theresearch issue at hand]

I. Statement of your research objectives [what is your object inresearching the issue]

III. Research HypothesisIV. Definition of the relevant terms [How you define it and

operationalize/measure it with relevantindicators/measurement]

II. Brief Review of the LiteratureIII. Data and MethodologyIV. Finding, Interpretations and ImplicationV. ConclusionVI Reference


Report

PSCI 4997_ADV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY [Week 1 & 2].pptx

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