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Hook, Jim; Shaeffer, PeggyWyoming Kindergartens: Past, Present, and Future.Wyoming Center for Educational Research Report Series1993, No. 4,Wyoming Univ., Laramie. Wyoming Center forEducational Research.93

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Wyoming Center for Educational Research, P.O. Box3374, Laramie, WY 82071 ($6).Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.Classroom Techniques; Curriculum Development;*Curriculum Evaluation; Early Experience;*Educational History; Educacional Policy;*Educational Trends; *Kindergarten; KindergartenChildren; Primary Education; Prior Learning; SchoolEntrance Age; School Readiness; Teacher Attitudes*Developmentally Appropriate Programs; University ofWyoming; *Wyoming

This report reviews the history of kindergartens inAmerica and in the state of Wyoming, and examines current trends andfuture directions of kindergarten programs. Wyoming's firstkindergarten was established in Sundance in 1891-92. The Universityof Wyoming began offering courses in kindergarten theory by the mid1940s, and the kindergarten became a regular part of the state's K-12programs by the mid 1970s. Today's academic focus in manykindergarten curricula, which seems to have begun in the early 1980sand continues as a national trend, creates for kindergarten teachersa conflict between what they believe to be best practice and whatthey are actually expected to do in the classroom. Kindergartenteachers are beginning to question the use of screening instrumentsprior to kindergarten entrance, the lowering of school entry age, theimplementation of kindergarten teaching strategies more suitable forolder children, and the practices of retaining kindergarten childrenor placing them in extra-year programs. Opportunities for spontaneousplay in rich environments are becoming a standard in manykindergartens. Districts across the state are carefully examiningpresent kindergarten practices and developing appropriate practicesbased on historical and empirical research. An integrated curriculum,making connections with previous learning, multi-age grouping, andalternative assessment are keys in re-designing curriculum for youngchildren. Notes contain 23 references. (AP)

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ARABLE

Wyoming KindergartensPast, Present, and Future

ByDr. Jim Hook

Dr. Peggy Shaeffer

Wyoming Center for Educational ResearchCollege of Education

The University of WyomingReport Series 1993 - No. 4

Jim Hook is a Professor at the University ofWyoming, College of Education, Division ofLeadership and Human Development.

Peggy Shaeffer is an Assistant Professor at theUniversity of Wyoming, College of Education,Division of Lifelong Learning and Instruction.

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I. Origin of Kindergartens

From a historical perspective FriedreichFroebel is credited with establishing the firstkindergarten in about 1840 in Blankenburg,Germany. Froebel's thesis was that a child'seducation should begin during the early years whenthe individual was considered to be "waxing" ininterest and development. The chief feature ofFroebel's kindergarten was "organized play."Children were provided curricular opportunities for"instructive diversions and 1althful games." Heheld a deep conviction that age five was theappropriate time to begin deliberate education. The"Garden of Children", as Froebel referred to hiskindergarten, was so popular that within 25 years ofits origin it flourished in the major cities of Europebefore making its way in 1873 to St. Louis,Missouri. By 1874, Philadelphia had alsoestablished a demonstration kindergarten.

America's The St. Louis and Philadelphiaeducators demonstrations convinced American educators thatbecame the kindergarten should become an integral part ofintrigued with the public school. The two programs followed thethe basic tenets of Froebel's school in Germany,kindergarten emphasizing pupil self-generated activities andas early as social participation in group experiences.1873.

Within a decade of the St. Louisdemonstration project, kindergartens had been

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established in most of America's major cities.Granted, many were still simplistic ventures, butthe idea had caught the attention of Americaneducators.

Currently the kindergarten is a fundamentalcomponent of the American public school system,with virtually all school districts across the countryparticipating in kindergarten education.

II. Kindergartens in Wyoming

Wyoming's history reflects a commitment tothe kindergarten that can be traced to the mid1800's. The first public kindergarten in Wyomingwas established in Sundance during the 1891-92school year. The Superintendent's Biennium Reportof 1890-92 confirmed this claim.' According toStrouf, there is no evidence that the programcontinued to exist in subsequent years since norecords of kindergartens in Sundance were availableuntil the 1950's.2

Both Carbon County and Natrona Countysupported the notion of kindergarten with programsthat were initiated during the 1890's. Records ofthe history of Carbon County Schools reveal thatRawlins established a free public kindergarten in1894.3 The Board of Education in Rawlinsappropriated $700 to fund the program through1895. Natrona County records report that

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kindergarten methods were being successfully usedin that county's schools as early as 1892.4

The State Teacher's Association formed in1891 advanced the cause of education at all levels

Wyoming's in the state's schools. In 1894 during its thirdfirst annual meeting, Dr. E. Stuver, Chair of thekindergarten Teacher's Association School Law Committee, readwas a paper, Relation of Kindergarten to Public Schoolsestablished in which emphasized the benefits of kindergartenSundance in programs in the schools and pointed out that the1891-92. expenses of offering such programs were well

worth the taxpayer's costs.5

As a result of Dr. Stuver's efforts, theAssociation adopted a resolution recommending thatall schools in the state establish "free kindergartenswherever possible as a part of the regular work ofthe school".6

Permissive legislation for the establishmentof free public kindergartens was adopted by theWyoming Legislature in 1895. The legislationprovided that the board of trustees of any district,"Shall have the power to establish and maintain akindergarten system of instruction in the schools".7

By 1917 there were kindergarten programsin Carbon, Converse, Fremont, Goshen, HotSprings, Lincoln, and Sweetwater countiesaccording to the Biennial Report of the

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Superintendent of Public Insa-uction 1917-1918.8However, by 1931 only 9 percent of the children ofkindergarten age in Wyoming were enrolled inprograms. The State Board of Educationencouraged school boards to consider establishingkindergartens reporting that the programs, "Pay forthemselves in actual dollars and cents. i9

The 1930 President's White HouseConference of Child Health and Protectionsupported the nationwide public school kindergartenmovement. The conferees strongly recommendedthat school districts throughout the nation establishkindergarten programs.

By the mid 1940's there was a markedThe University increase in kindergarten enrollment in the state'sof Wyoming public schools. The University of Wyoming beganbegan offering course work in kindergarten theory andoffering observation in 1946-47 and again in 1948-49. Thecourses in University Bulletin reported that perspective

kindergarten elementary teachers could specialize in teachingtheory by the kindergarten, (5) primary grades (1-3) ormid 1940's. intermediate grades (4-6).10

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As late as 1950 only about 15 percent ofWyoming's eligible children were attendingkindergarten. Distance and sparse population inrural areas presented real problems for programimplementation. Innovative approaches forenrolling pupils in rural areas included brief spring

kindergartens, all-day every other daykindergartens, and riding the bus to school in thea.m. and having parents pick kindergartners up atnoon. Another dilemma facing school districts wasemploying qualified teachers for kindergarteninstruction. This was not only a concern forWyoming schools but also for schools across thenation.

The curriculum for Wyoming kindergartenprograms emphasized socialization of pupils andreadiness activities. Readiness activities focused oninstruction in language, numbers, literature, andpoetry. Teacher guides specifically suggested thatprograms should include "reading readiness,"preparation for reading. The guides were explicitin discouraging formal reading instruction.

Model kindergarten programs were begun inCasper, Cheyenne, Newcastle, Rawlins, RockSprings, and Sheridan in 1967." The programs

By the mid were designed to employ the best ideas, curriculum,1970's the materials, and equipment for kindergarten agekindergarten children. Summer workshops on the University ofhad become a Wyoming campus and teacher conferences toregular part ,develop a handbook for educators were held. Aof the state's Handbook for Kindergarten was published by theK-I2 Wyoming Department of Education in 1972. Theprograms. handbook contained information about the

developmental characteristics of five-year-olds, amodel program which included language arts,

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music, numbers and other, "growth promoting,"activities. A suggested typical day's activities wasalso outlined. The publication was widelydistributed throughout the state. By the mid 1970's,kindergartens had become a regular feature in thestate's school districts.

III. Kindergarten Today

With the appearance of A Nation at Risk ANation Prepared. Time for Results and otherpublications during the early 1980's decrying thesorry state of American education and the publicschools, the very nature of the kindergarten beganto evolve into a far different entity from that of itsoriginal visionaries.

National Trends. Until quite recently,kindergartens were protected from the pressures thatwere being felt throughout the rest of theeducational continuum. As the call for highereducational standards became our national educationtheme, the kindergarten fell victim to increasedpressure to become more academic. Thekindergartens that most adults fondly rememberwith naps, cookies, and play quickly fell out offavor during the 1980's. Once a haven that wasdesigned to support the child in his/her transition toschool, kindergartens have become sweatshops,intent on producing young children that can meetthe challenges of first grade. Academics are now

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the major focus of many kindergartens. It is notunusual to observe five year old children beingsubjected to standardized tests, pencil and paperexercises, large group instruction, and content areateaching. These kindergarten practices arereflections of policy trends that are affecting alllevels of education. A review of the literaturesuggests that several recurring trends can beidentified that are having this affect on programs.

include:

o Refocusing of kindergartencurriculum from activities that aredevelopmentally appropriate to moreacademic work;

Unfortunately, o Issues related to school entry age andacademics are readiness for school;currently themajor focus in o Screening prior to school entrance tomany determine readiness, and,kindergartens.

o Retention inkindergarten.12,13

In order to better understand the impact of thesetrends, each will be discussed individually.

Academic focus in kindergarten curriculum.The call for increased standards across theeducational experience has had a profound impact

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on kindergarten. What was formerly reserved forfirst grade is now expected in the kindergartencurriculum. Referred to as an escalated curriculum,academics has taken a firm grip on kindergartens.Teachers in kindergarten may recognize theinappropriateness of such a movement but feel thatthey have no choice but to follow the lead. In arecent study in Oregon, a survey of kindergartenteachers indicated that there was a clear conflictbetween what they believed to be the best practicesfor teaching young children and what they wereactually doing in the classroom.14 When asked toidentify WHY they continued to teach in ways thatwere in direct conflict with their philosophicalbeliefs about children, they responded that pressurefrom administration, parents and other teachers inthe system left them with little choice but tocomply. If the very professionals who KNOWbetter are perpetuating inappropriate practices in theteaching of young children, there is little wonderthat the move toward more developmentallyappropriate practices is a difficult one to achieve, atbest.

School entry age. Typically, the age forkindergarten entrance is five years of age. Theactual date that the child turns five is at issue. In1968, the dates of choice were December 1 orJanuary 1.15 Today, the typical cut-off date isSeptember 15 with more and more statesconsidering moving the date back to March 15.

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This shift in the date by which children mustturn five has been influenced by the belief that thechild's age has been one of the primary contributingfactors in kindergarten failure. In a round aboutway, this may be true, but not solely because of thechild's age. The match between the child's age and

Surveys of the teaching strategies used in the classroom is ofkindergarten real importance. In any typical group of 5-yearteachers olds, there will usually be a developmental ageindicate that range of about two years.there is aclear conflict Teaching strategies that are more and morebetween what frequently being implemented in kindergarten arethey believe to drawn from what is happening in the upperbe the best elementary grades. Apparently, the assumption ispractices and that if we are teaching with more of an acauemicwhat they are focus in our kindergarten, we must employactually strategies that are used in teaching academics toexpected to do older children. This usually implies that childrenin the are exposed to large group instruction, with tasksclassroom. surrounding content areas being assessed through

pencil and paper tasks. Clearly, this would proveto be difficult, if not impossible, for a child who,according to Piagetian philosophy, is problemoperating in the preoperational stage of cognitivedevelopment. We know that children at this levelrequire hands-on, active exploratory learning--theantithesis of the practices being implemented. Ourassumption, therefore, that the children are failingbecause they are "too young" for the task may beabsolutely true.

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The logical solution to this problem mightseem to be to change the cut-off date. That waychildren attending kindergarten are older and wecould m'nimize if not eliminate this problem of"youngness". With a little more thinking, however,the error of this type of move becomes clear.While in fact the problem may be temporarilysolved, we will ALWAYS have a youngest child ina class. The move, for example, from a September15th cut-off date to a March 15th cut-off date (asrecommended for the State of South Dakota inMarch of 1990) would simply result in thosechildren with January, February, and Marchbirthdays replacing the children with June, July, andAugust birthdays as the youngest in the class.Research suggests that the curriculum issue may beresolved for a brief time, but that within two and

Every month one half years, the adjustments made for the older,in the life more "capable" children are lost, and we againof a young begin to fail children who are "young". Thechild is practice of holding "immature" children fromcritical for entering the kindergarten until age six actuallydevelopment. increases the chronological age range in the class.

The oldest child may be nearly 30 percent olderthan the youngest entering kindergarten.

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Every month in the life of a young child iscritical for development. The trend to change thebirth date to accommodate the child's lack ofsuccess in school, simply is a band-aid approach.The truth of the matter is that the trend does little

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to nothing to support the child and, in fact,exacerbates the problem by contributing to theescalation of the curriculum. This practice may infact be detrimental to the child's personal and socialdevelopment.

Screening prior to kindergarten. Therecognition that children were failing at a rapid ratein kindergarten moved professionals to closely re-examine present practices. It appeared that one wayto remediate the problem was to identify thosechildren who would be at high risk for failing inkindergarten. As a result, the 1980's witnessed atrend in screening children prior to kindergarten inan effort to prevent future academic failure. Atfirst glance, this might seem like a sound idea.

A myriad of measures have been used forthis purpose. The tool of choice in most instancesis the Gesell Screening Inventory. Throughout the1980's, training programs in the administration andinterpretation of the Gesell Inventory burgeonedaround the nation. Proponents of identifyingchildren who might be at risk because of theirdevelopmental level, referred to the "gift of time"as being the solution to the high rates of childrenfailing in kindergarten. The Gesell ScreeningInventory IS NOT a valid or reliable predictor ofchildren's future academic success.16 At best, it isa reasonable measure of where the child is presentlyperforming and could possibly be used to facilitate

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curriculum development. Under no circumstancesshould it be used to determine whether a childshould be allowed to enter school. In fact, the useof the tool to recommend alternative programming

The use of is also at issue. Unfortunately, it continues to bescreening used for just that purpose. Districts around theinstruments country rely on the information gleaned from theprior to Gesell to make long term decisions about a child'skindergarten academic programming. While several who do useentrance is a the Gesell claim that it is just one of severalcritical issue. measures that are used, it is educationally unsound

to suggest that ANY screening or assessment beused to hold a child out of school for one year, orperhaps enter into an alternative program.

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In practice, that is just what researchindicates happens when a screening instrument isused prior to kindergarten. Children who areidentified "delayed" or perhaps at risk for academicfailure for any other reason, will more than likelynot be recommended for kindergarten. Instead, itmay be suggested that the child stay at home for anextra year. For some children, this may be just theopposite of what they need. The home environmentmay not be providing the youngster with richexperiences that would serve as the base for schoolsuccess. Program options, such as a preschool ordevelopmental kindergarten, may be presented butthese simply add an additional year to the child'seducation experience and there is no guarantee thatthey will be quality experiences. In either situation,

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however, thc result is the same. The youngsterdoes not attend kindergarten.

What impact does this have on thekindergarten? If the practice continues over aperiod of time and if the recommendationconsistently is headed for parents to keep theirchildren out of kindergarten until they are "olderand hence more ready," the average age of thekindergarten population is going to increase.Admittedly, with increased age may comematuration and with maturation the child's ability toperform on more academic type problems mayincrease. The curriculum of the school changes to

The meet the skills of these incoming "older"educational kindergartners and the cycle intensifies. A wholepurposes of new group of children, more than likely thosescreening children who are legitimately in kindergarten byhave been their chronological age, will begin to experiencelost. failure. The purpose of screening has been lost and

the practice has only contributed to the dilemmafacing schools today.

Retention in kindergarten. The escalation ofthe curriculum and the use of screening tests hasadded to the problem of retention of children in theprimary grades. The notion of FAILINGkindergarten seems preposterous for mostprofessionals, but the reality of the practice isevident. Shepard and Smith report that in someschool districts, the retention rate for kindergartners

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reaches as high as 60%.17 Throughout the researchon retention, there are insufficient data to suggestthat the practice is positive.I8,19,20 The myth is

perpetuated, hoWever, that if a child IS going to beretained, the YOUNGER the child is, the better.As a result, and perhaps reflecting the beliefs ofteachers that retention MAY NOT be positive, asystem has developed to soften the concept. Forthe past twenty years, extra year programs haveproliferated in our schools. Referrt. i to by avariety of names, depending primarily on when theextra year is implemented, these programs arenothing more than glorified retention practices.Developmental kindergartens are typical names forprograms for children not ready for kindergartenand transition rooms or transition first grades arelabels for rooms for children who have attendedkindergarten but are not ready for first grade.Despite their names, despite the attempts atreceiving the support of parents and despite thepractice of "preparing" children so that the harmfuleffects of retention will not be realized, childrenknow when they have been retained.

IV. Wyoming's Kindergartens Today

How do all of these trends reveal themselvesin Wyoming? Descriptions about the remoteness ofWyoming are common and are supported throughour exposure in national periodicals. Indeed, it iscommon for academia to refer to Wyoming as the

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last "frontier" when writing federal grants. It mightbe assumed, therefore, that we are somewhatimmune to the educational trends that arepermeating the rest of the country. In fact, such is

Despite the not the case. Capturing the spotlight severalattempt to decades ago, kindergarten education has been asoften the fundamental component of the public schools inconcept of Wyoming for many years. Educators in Wyomingretention take great pride in their educational system and aspractices, changes in schools sweep across the country, so,children know too, do they change in Wyoming. The Wyomingwhen they Association of Elementary School Principalshave been designated 1991-92 as the year to focus on earlyretained. childhood programs in their schools. Their

enthusiasm and support has resulted in thedevelopment of some innovative programs andcertainly has raised early childhood to new levels ofattention in the public school. Over the past twoand one half years, two education professors at theUniversity of Wyoming have been studying thestatus of early childhood programs in the publicschools of the state. Through surveys, interviews,and site based observations it has become clear thatcurrent practices in early childhood education in ourpublic schools reflect the trends that we areobserving at the national level. All of Wyoming's49 school districts offer kindergarten programs.The majority, 69 percent, have half-day classes.Some 30 percent, rural and sparsely populatedareas, offer full-day, every other day programs.Three districts operate all day every day

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kindergartens as pilot projects or for specialpopulations but no district reported having a fullday kindergarten, every day, available for allchildren. Fourteen percent have summerkindergarten programs. Each of the trendsmentioned earlier will be discussed as they arereflected in Wyoming practices.

Academic focus in kindergarten curriculum.Do Wyoming kindergartens reflect more of anacademic or developmental perspective? Theanswer to the question is found not in what thosesurveyed said, but more m what they didn't say. Insurveying, intervie,..ing, and observing inkindergartens tnroughout Wyoming, it becomesclear that while educators and administrators maybe aware of the inappropriateness of forcing toomuch, too soon on the young learner, the focus oflarge numbers of programs is academic in nature.While this may not be articulated by the

In most cases participants, it becomes clear when those"extra" year interviewed were asked to describe the differenceprograms do that existed between their "traditional" kindergartennot have the and any extra year programs (such as transitionalintended first grade or developmental kindergarten). Timebeneficial and time again, the respondents referred to the extraeffect on year programs as being much less academic, andchildren's more hands on in nature. The extra year programsdevelopment. were described as being more child centered, with

smaller teacher/child ratios. Field trips and real lifeexperiences play a major role in the curriculum of

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these programs. Whole language, learning centers,and small group or individual instruction ascompared to large group instruction were describedas the norm. What does this tell us? The nature ofthe curriculum in the traditional kineLigartens hasbecome more academic. Respondents described theemphasis on preparing the child to succeed in firstgrade as a force in their curriculum. Mention ofworksheets, large group instruction, and concern forthe numbers of children that weren't ready to moveon to first grade are evidence of the shift towardmore academic programs.

School entrance age and readiness; screeningprior to school entrance. While there was somemention during a recent legislative session regardingthe entrance age for children to enter publicschools, there has not been an organized effort oflate to move our entrance date. This is more thanlikely due in large part to Wyoming's strongsupport of local control in matters of schooldecisions. Presently, Wyoming follows the nationaltrend toward a September 15 cut-off date foryoungsters to enter kindergarten. There are reportsthat parents have been encouraged to not have theirchild begin school, even though the child was of"legal" age because of the child's performance ona preschool /kindergarten screening (Personalconversation and school reports). Screening priorto kindergarten, however, has taken hold in asignificant number of districts in the state. Of the

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state's 49 school districts, 47% indicated thatscreening of prekindergarten or pre-first gradestudents is recommended or required. In keepingwith national trends, the Gesell Screening Inventoryis the most commonly used tool. Also employedfor screening and placement purposes are districtdeveloped tests and the Dial-R. Informationgleaned from these processes, in addition to teacherobservation/recommendations are used when makingplacement decisions about children. An interesting

Wyoming's trend that began to emerge from the University ofkindergarten Wyoming researchers' data was the fact thatteachers teachers were beginning to question their applicationare beginning of not only the Gesell, but the entire idea ofto question screening at all. Comments such as "we usedthe idea of to...," or "we are thinking about not conducting ourscreening screening this spring," were recorded. This re-children consideration of present practices may indicate aprior to school shift in the development and implementation ofplacement. more developmentally appropriate practices.

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Retention in kindergarten. Unfortunately inour nation's stampede to restructure education,schools have fallen victim to the phenomenon of"holding back" or retaining for a second yearstudents who have not met "the criteria" forpromotion. Retention rates appear to be on therise, often in the primary grades. As Shepard andSmith report, 60% of kindergartners, may beretained in any given year.2'

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While retention in kindergarten may not bethe term of choice, the University of Wyomingsurvey indicated that at least 47% of the districtsdid, in fact, prctice retention in one form oranother. Special programs that were originallydesigned to prevent children from future failure arefairly common. Called several names, (i.e.

developmental kindergarten, transition rooms,

transition first, or junior first grades), theserograms are in reality simply another form of

i,:rention. An update of the original survey ofWyoming's kindergarten practices shows that 43

percent, 21 districts, have "transitional," specialplacement classes for children who have completedkindergarten but who are not ready for first grade.One district having transitional classes indicated thatthis would probably be the last year they employthis philosophy. A majority of the districts havingtransitional classes stated that teacher assessmentwas a key factor in placement. It was interesting tonote several districts still use the Gesell Scale and

fewer use other formal assessment tools for

placement.

When asked, teachers stated that the majorreasons for retaining kindergartners for a secondyear were immaturity, lack of academicperformance, poor work habits and motivation ornot completing district criteria for promotion to firstgrade.22 What is striking about these programs isthe curriculum that apparently is being implemented

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in them.Opportunitiesfor Reports from school districts state thespontaneous curricula for the extra year programs focus onplay in rich developmentally appropriate practices. Activitiesenvironments include many opportunities for spontaneous play inis becoming a environments which allow for building, listening,standard in painting, dramatic play, blocks, puzzles and otherluny "hands-on" activities. Developmentally appropriatekindergartens. practice means matching what we know about how

young children develop with content. It meansdealing with children as individuals, not just asgroups. It means understanding children's changingand developing capacities and that all children canlearn.

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V. Future Directions.

Based on the University of Wyomingresearchers' data, Wyoming's experiences withearly education in the public schools are not thatdifferent from the trends that we are witnessingaround the nation. The attention that earlychildhood is receiving at a national level is alsobeing observed in our state. Despite the negativetrends just described, there is a great deal ofevidence that districts across the state are carefullyexamining their present practices and movingtowards a different way of teaching the young childtypically in kindergarten through grade three. For

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example, several districts either already have inplace or are beginning to examine the possibility ofimplementing multi-age classroc-ns in the primarygrades.

Variability within groups of kindergartenchildren is normal. In typical groups of 5-yearolds, the developmental range may be as much astwo years. Multi-age groupings may be a

Districts promising alternative to the traditional age-gradeacross the grouping patterns. Thirty percent of Wyoming'sstate are school districts have adopted, or are experimentingcarefully with multi-age grouping configurations. Severalexamining districts include K-1; K-1-2; or K-1-2-3 patterns.their present Of the 34 districts not employing multi-agepractices of groupings, eight stated that they were exploringkindergarten possibilities of piloting multi-age grouping in theeducation. next few years. The major concern about the

physical regrouping of children is that simply bymixing age groups we are not guaranteed that thechild will be receiving an appropriate education.Quite simply, it is not the grouping of the children,but the actual curriculum that is being implementedand, perhaps more importantly, HOW thatcurriculum is being implemented that will ensurequality programs for young children.

Quality early childhood programs, those thattruly reflect the spirit and intent of developmentallyappropriate practices, are not achieved overnight.They require careful planning and time; time for

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faculty and administrators to become familiar witha new philosophy, time for parents and communitiesto understand and appreciate a new way of teachingchildren, time for philosophical and physicalchanges to occur so as to create the best possiblelearning environments for young children.

Just what are developmentally appropriatepractices? How can an observer tell if they arebeing implemented in the school? How canteachers and administrators "verify" that they aretruly developing programs that are designed to meetthe unique needs of young children?

Much has been written since 1986 when theNational Association for the Education of YoungChildren first proposed its position statement ondevelopmentally appropriate practices for theeducation of young children from birth through ageseven. Numerous professional organizations,National Association of State Boards of Education(NASBE) and Association for Supervision and

Develop- Curriculum Development (ASCD) have endorsedmentally the original paper or developed similar statementsappropriate of their own.23'24 A common thread that holds thepractices are various positions together is the development andbased on implementation of curricula that are designed tohistorical meet the individual and age appropriateand empirical characteristics of the child. Issues related to

research. adult/child ratio, parent/school relationships,evaluation procedures, and integrated curriculum

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development are common to all documents.Viewed by skeptics as simply another "educationalbandwagon," the recommendations are actually,based on historical and empirical researchsupporting teaching strategies unique for childrenfrom birth through age seven. These proposals arecoming at the same time that schools areexperiencing a surge of reform under the umbrellasof such things as site based management, outcomebased education, and school restructuring.Ironically, all of these moves may complement eachother and support the creation of qualityenvironments for children.

Developmentally appropriate practices reflecta philosophy that is process based, not productoriented. They require a thorough knowledge andunderstanding of not only the growth anddevelopment of the individual child, but also of thecurriculum that is being endorsed by the district.There is no one right way to implement thephilosophy. Unique characteristics of the district,the teachers, and the children will all lendthemselves to the development of the programs.There are, however, common threads that should bewoven throughout any and all of the programs.These include a focus on the individual child thattakes into account the chronological anddevelopmental age of the child. Hands on,integrated learning is essential. Adult/childinteractions should be of high quality, with close

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continued home/school contacts. Evaluations ofyoung children should be sensitive to the learningstyles of the child and authentic and meaningful toboth the adults and the children involved in the

2process. 5,26,27

Piaget's seminal work in our understandingof how children learn has fostered and enhanced theeducation of young children. Since children fromabout 3 through 7 years of age are thinking in whatPiaget describes as the preoperational period, they

Piaget's tend to acquire knowledge in ways that are quiteseminal work different from those of older children. Many andhas enhanced varied direct sensory experiences with theirour under- environment are essential, since they have notstanding of developed the abilities to abstract yet. Their worldhow young is "here and now" oriented and should include manychildren learn. "hands on" experiences with a variety of materials

exploring similarities, differences and uses in manycontexts.

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The curriculum should emphasize activeparticipation rather than passive approaches.Curriculum which is dominated by worksheets,workbooks, and drill should be minimized. Thecurriculum and overriding philosophy must reflecta design to help children learn and grow. The"readiness" myth has little place in developmentallyappropriate practices. Five-year old minds can dealwith rich and complex surroundings when thecurriculum is built around their abilities to use and

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apply ideas from the immediate environments. Theregurgitation of facts is not inherent in a soundkindergarten program. A developmentallyappropriate curriculum for the kindergarten doeslimit itself to being only academic or onlysocialization in orientation. On the contrary,empirical research suggests that a developmentallyappropriate practices approach should include anintellectually stimulating orientation which allowschildren to interact in both small and large groupsas they address a variety of projects which will helpthem increase their understanding of their ownworld and strengthen their abilities to observe,experiment and construct and restructure theirenvironment.

There must be opportunities for spontaneousplay, listening, communicating, enjoying books, andemploying children's natural curiosity in storytelling and expanding their knowledge base.

Making Making connections with previous learning requiresconnections new and unique approaches in teaching, allowingwith previous individual children to learn their own way and atlearning is a their own rate. Reform in kindergarten educationkey in should begin with a comprehensive definition ofdesigning what children should be able to do, what theycurriculum for should learn and then a system must be designed toyoung achieve those ends. There must be a willingness onchildren. the part of educators to reorganize the traditional

early childhood curriculum to include moreflexibility to effectively meet the varied needs of

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students who develop at different rates and havedifferent learning styles and varied backgrounds ofexperiences. Moving from lock-step-grades infavor of multi-age groupings, developing alternativeassessment packages which focus on what childrenknow and employing cooperative learning modelsshould be the centerpiece of child-centered earlychildhood reform.

Notes

1 Wyoming State Department of Education,Biennial Report of the Superintendent ofPublic Instmction, 1891 to 1982, Cheyenne,Wyoming: SA Bristol Company 1892.

2 Lydia 0. Strouf, The Development ofKindergarten Programs in Wyoming PublicSchools: 1892-1977, Unpublished MastersThesis of Wyoming, 1978, pp.12,13,16,17.

3 Ibid.

4 Ibid.

5 Ibid.

6 Wyoming Education Association, Minutes of theWyoming Meetings, March 19, 1892 toMarch 31, 1892, pp.25-47.

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)

7 State of Wyoming, Session Laws of the State ofWyoming, Enacted by the Third StateLegislation, Convened at Cheyenne onJanuary 8, 1895, Cheyenne, Wyoming,(Daily Sun Publishing House, 1895) pp.100-101.

8 Wyoming State Department of Education,Biennial Report of Superintendent of PubicInstruction 1912-1918.

9 Ibid.

10 University of Wyoming Bulletin 1946-47.

1:. Anonymous, Six Districts Initiate ModelKindergarten, The Wyoming Educator, p.1,September, 1976.

12 S. Goffin and D. Steglin 1992. Ed. ChangingKindergartens, National Association for theEducation of Young Children: Washington,D.C.

13 Walsh, D. 1989. Changes in Kindergarten:Why here? Why now? Early ChildhoodResearch Quarterly, 4, 377-391.

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14 R. Hitz and D. Wright 1988, KindergartenIssues: A Practitioner's Survey. Principal,1988.

15 U.S. Department of Education Office ofEducational Research and Improvement.February 1993. Profile of PreschoolChildren's Child Care and Early EducationProgram Participation.

16 S.J. Meisels. 1987. Uses and Abuses ofDevelopmental Screening and SchoolReadiness Testing. Young Children, 42 (2),4-9.

17 L.A. Shepard and M.L. Smith, FlunkingKindergarten Escalating Curriculum LeavesMany Behind, 1988.

18 E.M. Tomchin and J.C. Impara, UnravelingTeachers Beliefs About Grade Retention.American Educational Research Journal,29(1), 199-223, 1992.

19 P. Mantzicopoulos and D. Morrison,Kindergarten Retention: Academic andBehavioral Outcomes Through the End ofSecond Grade. American EducationalResearch Journal, 29, 182-198, 1992.

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20 L.A. Shepard and M.L. Smith, Synthesis ofResearch on School Readiness andKindergarten Retention. EducationalLeadership, 77-85, 1986.

21 L.A. Shepard and M.L. Smith, FlunkingKindergarten Escalating Curriculum LeavesMany Behind, 1988.

22 T. Schultz Right from the Start: The Report ofthe NASBE Task Force on Early ChildhoodEducation, Alexandria, Va: NationalAssociation of State Boards of Education,1988.

23 In C. Warger Ed. ASCD Early ChildhoodEducation Policy Panel, Analysis of IssuesConcerning Public School Involvement inEarly Childhood Education, A ResourceGuide to Public School Early ChildhoodProgram, Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development,1988.

24 S. Bredekamp Ed. Developmentally AppropriatePractice in Early Childhood ProgramsServing Children From Birth Through Age8, National Association for the Educationof Young Children: Washington, D.C.1987.

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25 B. Spodek, Ed. Educationally AppropriateKindergarten Practices, National EducationAssociation of the United States, 1991.

26 S. Goffin and D. Stegelin Ed. ChangingKindergartens, National Association for theEducation of Young Children: Washington,D.C. 1992.

27 M. Kostelnik, A. Soderman, and A. Whiven,Developmentally Appropriate Programs inEarly Childhood Education, Merrill: NewYork, 1993.

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