Prof. N K DubeyCentre of Advanced Study in Botany,

Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India -221005

Prospectives of Plant Products in Sustainable Development of Indian Agriculture and

Pharmaceutical Industries

Month 0-1Month 1-50Month2-2500Month3-125,000Month 4-6,250,000Month 5-312,500,000Month6-1,560,000,000

Insects can develop eggs to adults in a month Insect population multiply

at rate of 50 times a month

Aflatoxins Mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus sp. 6th among the 10 most important healthrisks WHO 25-40% of cereals worldwide are contaminated with mycotoxins FAO

Aflatoxin B1

Most toxic among mycotoxins & found widely in greater concentration in food throughout the world

Potent hepatocarcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive

Aflatoxicosis• Liver Damage• Decrease in feed intake• Weight loss• Impaired cell immunity

O

O

OCH3

OO

(Z)

(Z)

O

C17 H12O6

Mycotoxin Elaboration in Stored drug samples

Drugs Mycotoxin Concentration μg/gm

Asparagus racemosus 0.16

Atropa belladonna 0.27

Withania somnifera 0.68

Plumbago zeylanica 1.13

Emblica officinalis 1.51

Terminalia chebula 1.19

Mucuna puriens 1.16

Biodeterioration of stored food commodities

ECONOMIC LOSSIndia and Africa are regarded as “high aflatoxin –risk areas”

Qualitative loss

Quantitative loss

Development of resistant strain

Non biodegradable

Environmentalpollution

Ozone layer depletion by methyl bromide

Some safer chemical

????.........

SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE

Carcinogenicity,teratogenicityresidual toxicity

Effect on non target organisms, predators, fish, birds

DDT – The Fallen Angel

Introduced in India in 1944

NMCP launched indoor spraying in 1952

Hindustan Insecticides Ltd established DDT Production

Proved beneficial in eradication of Kalajar and Plague

Fading Effect in 1960—Anopheles culicifacies resistance emerged

Stockholm Convention ( 2001)-- recommended ban

Common Range of Persistence of Some Pesticides

1-8 weeksCarbamate Insecticide

1-12 weeksOrganophosphate insecticide (Malathion)

1-5 monthsPhenoxy herbicide (2, 4-D)

2-10 monthsUrea herbicides (Monouron, "Diuron)

2-12 monthsBenzoic acid herbicide (Amiber, Diuron)

1-2 yearsTriazine herbicides (Atrazine, Simazine)

insecticides (DDT, Chlordane)

2.5 yearsChlorinated hydrocarbon

InfiniteArsenic

PersistencePesticide

Some Fungicide Resistance Cases

Fungicides Pathogens

Benomyl Cercospora beticola, C.arachidicola C.personatum, Botrytis cineria,

Fusarium udum,

Kitazin-P Pyricularia oryzae

Carboxin Macrophomina phaseolina

Carbendazim Aspergillus flavus, M. phaseolina

Venturia inaequalis

Captan A.flavus, M. phaseolinaCopper oxychloride Colletotrichum capsici,

Helminthosporium maydis

Maneb Rhizoctonia bataticola,

C. capsici, H. maydis

Thiram R. bataticola

Pesticides vis a vis bird toxicity

Pesticide application to eradicate mosquito

Michigan Lake Water (0.22ppm)

Zooplankton and Phytoplankton (77ppm)

Fish (1700 ppm)

Adverse effect on Pelican birds

Thinner outer shell in egg

Breaking of Shell before hatching

Delay in hatching

Decrease in population of pelican birds

Frequently detected pesticides in Fruits and Vegetables

Pesticides Crops affected Potential Hazards

Captan Grapes, peaches, strawberries, apples

Cancer

Carbaryl Corn, banana, grapes, peaches, oranges

Kidney damage

Dimethoate Green beans, grapes, watermelon, cabbage, broccoli

Cancer, birth defects

Endosulphan Spinach, lettuce, celery, strawberries, cauliflower

Tomatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, melons, peppers

Liver, Kidney damage

Methamidophos Tomatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, melons, peppers

Nerve system effects

Everything can wait, but not agriculture

Biodegradable environmental safety

Botanical Pesticideas

Fourth Generation Pesticides

Systemic in nature

Indigenousrenewable

WHAT NEXT ????....

Diverse biological effects less chance of resistance

development

Pesticidal plants and its components for million of years in nature without any adverse effect

High level of safety for humans, animals, fish and other non target organisms

Rotenone

OO

(Z)

(Z)

O

CCH3

O

O

O

CH3

CH3

H2C

Nicotine

N

N CH3

AntifeedantNeem oil

Powdered seed kernel

Neem Products in storage management

OO

MeOOC

O

O

O

O

AcO

MeOOCO

OHH

OH

OH

Azadirachtin

H

Azadirachtin Analogs

Names Substituents X Mol. Formula

Mol. Wt.

M.P. °C

R1 R2 R3

1. Azadirachtin-A Tg Ac COOMe α-COOMeβ-OH

C35H44O16 720 165°C

2. 3-deacetyal-3- cinnamoyl azadirachtin

Tg Cin COOMe α-COOMeβ-OH

C42H48O16 808 78°C

3. Azadirachtin-B H Tg COOMe α-COOMeβ-OH

C33H42O14 662 204°C

4. Azadirachtin-D Tg Ac Me α-COOMeβ-OH

C33H44O14 676 -

5. Azadirachtin-E H Ac COOMe α-COOMeβ-OH

C30H38O15 636 -

6. Azadirachtin-H Tg Ac COOMe -H, -OH C33H42O14 662 248°C

7. Azadirachtin-I Tg Ac Me -H, -OH C33H42O12 618 200°C

8. Vepol OMe H - - C36H48O17 762 -

9. Isovepol H OMe - - C36H48O17 762 -

10. Azadirachtin-F H Tg H, OH - C33H44O14 664 -

11. Azadirachtin-G - - - - C33H42O14 662 -

12. Azadirachtin-K - - - - C34H40O15 688 260°C

13. Azadirachtin- L Tg Ac COOMe α-H,β-OAc

C35H44O15 704 -

14. 11-ethoxyaza- dirachtin

- - - - C36H46O16 734 Amorphous

Neem Tree in Pest Control

Disruption or inhibiting pupa Blocking the moulting of larvae

Disruption of mating and sexual communications Repelling larvae and adults

Deterring females from laying eggs Sterilizing adults

Deterring feeding Inhibiting metamorphosis of pests Loss of flying ability reduction in guttural motility

1-Cinnamoyl-3-feruoyl-11-hydroxymeliacarpin

Active constituent of a botanical insecticide from Melia species

(R) (S)

(R)(S)

(R)

(S)

(S)

(R)

(S)

O

OH

(R)

OOH

O

O(R)

(R)

O

(Z)

OHCinnO

FerOH

Volkensin

Active constituent of a botanical insecticide from Melia species

(R)(R)

(R)

(S)

(R)

(S)

(S)

OH

OAc OH

(R)

(Z)

O(S)

HO

O

TigO

Toosendanin

Active constituent of a botanical insecticide from Melia species

Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium

H3C

H3C(R)

H

(R)

CH3H3C

H

O

O (S)(Z)

O

CH3

(Z)

CH2

H

H3C

H3C(R)

H

(R)

CH3H3C

H

O

O (S)(Z)

O

CH3

(Z)

CH3

H

(E)

H3C(R)

H

(R)

CH3H3C

H

O

O (S)(Z)

O

CH3

(Z)

CH2

H

O

H3C

(E)

H3C(R)

H

(R)

CH3H3C

H

O

O (S)(Z)

O

CH3

(Z)

CH3

H

O

H3C

Pyrethrin I

Cinerin I

Cinerin II

Pyrethrin II

Chemical Formula: C19H30O5

Oral LD50 for rats is 6150 mg/kg and 3800 mg/kg for mice

Safrole

Sassafras albidum oil

Natural synergist used with pyrethrins and rotenone

Inhibits detoxification Inhances shelf life till application

Sassafras albidumFam: Lauraceae

Piperonyl butoxide

A semisynthetic derivative of safrole

OH O

CH

(E)

OO O

CH3

CH3H3C

HH

H

Strigol-Isolated from root exudates stimulating suicidal germination of Striga asiatica

Carvone

Kaempferol

Melting Point: 271-273 oC

Rf. Value-64 (CHCl3-MeOH 8:1)

Shindola test for flavonoides- Positive

O

(E)

HO

OH

OH

OOH

Antimicrobial Post- inhibitin in Onoin and garlic

C4H5NS Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) Post-inhibition frommustard & horseradish

MW 99.15

Glucosinulates

Myrosinase

NS

Semiochemicals Interaction affecting

Behaviour modifier

(Law and Rognier,1971)

Attractants and

mass trapping

Pheromones

Repellent

Antifeedant

Oviposition

deterrent

Juvabinone

(E)

(S)

(E) Germacrene A

(E)

β- Farnesene

Isolated from Golden rod

O

(Z)

CH3

CH3

O

OH3C

H2CH3C

O

(Z)

CH3

CH3

OH3C

Precocene I

Precocene II

Isolated from Ageratum houstonianum

(S)

(R) (S)

(R)(E)

(S)

(S)

(R)

OH

(R)

OH

OH

HO

HO

HO

OOH

Phytoecdysones : Moulting Hormone

Pteridophytes 6 families

Gymnosperm;6 families, 26 species

Angiosperms: 22 families, 46 species

Muristerone A : from Ipomoea seed

Quassia amaraFam: Simaroubaceae

Quassin (C22H28O6)

Neoquassin (C22H30O6)

Triterpenoid Lactone, male reproductive toxic, larvicidal, antifeedant

Juvocimenes: isolated and identified from the oil of sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum L.,

Insect juvenile hormone

Minor component of oil

Ocimum basilicum

Fam: Lamiaceae

(E) (E)

O

Juvocimene I

LimoneneScented plant chemical of Citrus peels (90%)

Toxic to insects

Nontoxic to warm blooded animals

Some Essential oils As Botanical Pesticides

Insecticides, Ovicidal

Attractant/ Repellants

Antifeedant

Juvenile Hormone

Antigonadal agents

Semiochemicals – behaviour modifiers

BOTANICALS AND DERIVATIVES EFFECTIVE AS INSECT CHEMOSTERILANTS

Reserpine Mexican fruit fly, Olive fly, Housefly

Tobacco budworm Tribolium

Sterculia foetida Housefly Face fly

Colchicine Screwworm Fruit fly (Drosophila)

House fly

Heliotrine Fruit fly (Drosophila), Face fly

Cafeine Fruit fly (Drosophila)

Serotonine Housefly

Emetine Screwworm

Pyrethrum Cigarette beetle, house fly

Aristolochia indica House fly

Rotenone House fly

Nicotine House fly

Acorus calamus

Family: Araceae

Vern. Name: Bach

A semi-aquatic, rhizomatous perennial herb, rhizome as thick As middle finger, pinkish brown externally, white spongy within, leaves distichous, flowers densely packed in Sessile cylindric spadix. Propagated through rhizomes

Yields calamus oil containing asarone. Rhizome is carminative,diuretic, Insecticidal.

Used in intermittent fever, skin diseases epilepsy and general debility

Some examples of potent insect antifeedants isolated from terrestrial plants

Chemical Type Compounds Plant source

Monoterpene Thymol Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae)

Sesquiterpene lactone Glaucolide A Vernonia sp. (Asteraceae)

(germacranolide type)

Sesquiterpene (drimane type) Polygodial Polygonum hydropiper (Polygonaceae)

Diterpene (abietane type) Abietic acid Pinus sp. (Pinaceae)

Diterpene (clerodane type) Ajugarin I Ajuga remota (Lamiaceae)

Triterpene (limonoid type) Azadirachtin Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Triterpene (cardenolide type) Digitoxin Digitalis purpurea (Scrophulariaceae)

Triterpene (ergostane type) Withanolide E Withania somnifera (Solanaceae)

Triterpene (spirostane type) Aginosid Allium porrum (Liliaceae)

Alkaloid (indole type) Strychnine Strychnos nuxvomica (Loganiaceae)

Alkaloid (steroidal glycoside)Tomatin Lycopersicon esculentum (Solanaceae)

Phenolic (furnanocoumarin) Xanthotoxin Pastinaca sativa (Apiaceae)

Phenolic (lignan) Podophyllotoxin Podophyllum peltatum (Berberidaceae)

Phenolic (benzoate ester) Methyl salicylate Gaultheria procumbens (Ericaceae)

(R) (R)(S)

(S)(S)

(R)

(S)

(S)

(R)

H

(S)OO

O

OH

(R)

O

(S)

O

O

OCOOH3C

AcOOH

OH

COOCH3

(E)

(Z)

Azadirachtin

(S)

(S)

(R)

(R)

O

O

OO

OAcO

O

OAc(Z)

Glaucolide-A

OH

Thymol(R)

(R)

(S)

(R)(S) O

OAcCH2O

O

OAc

(Z)

Ajugarin I

(S)

(S)(R) CHO

CHO

H

(E)

Polygodial

Structure of some potent and well documented insect antifeedants from plants

Efficacy of higher plant products against aflatoxin B1

Plant Products ReferencesThymus vulgaris (EO) Kumar et al. (2008)

Amomum subulatum (EO) Singh et al. (2008)

Cinnamomum camphora (EO) Srivastava et al. (2008)

Alpinia galanga (EO) Srivastava et al. (2008)

Pelargonium graveolens (EO) Singh et al. (2008)

Satureja hortensis (EO) Abyaneh et al. (2008)

Adenocalymma alliaceum (Aq. Ex.) Shukla et al. (2008)

Syzygium aromaticum (EO) Bluma et al. (2008)

Lippia turbinate (EtOH. Ex.) Bluma et al. (2008)

Hedeoma multiflora (EtOH. Ex.) Bluma et al. (2008)

Ocimum basilicum (EO) Atanda et al. (2007)

Chenopodium ambrosioides (EO) Kumar et al. (2007)

Garcinia pedunculata (Chloroform Ex.) Joseph et al. (2005)

Thymus eriocalyx (EO) Rasooli and Owlia (2005)

Synthetic pesticides (LD50) Botanical pesticides (LD50)

Arsenic (763 mg/kg) Azadirachtin (>5000 mg/kg)

DDT (150-300 mg/kg) Pyrethroids (2600 mg/kg)

Chlordane (145-430 mg/kg) Sabadilla (4000-5000 mg/kg)

Atrazine (1750 mg/kg) Carvone (1640 mg/kg)

Carbendazim (>2000 mg/kg) Nicotine (50 mg/kg)

Endosulphan (76-240 mg/kg) Thymol (980-5628 mg/kg)

2,4-D (370 mg/kg) Rotenone (132-1500 mg/kg)

Malathion (400 mg/kg) Citral (6000 mg/kg)

Carbofuran (8 mg/kg) Allyl isothiocyanate (339 mg/kg)

Methomyl (30-34 mg/kg) Geraniol (3600 mg/kg)

Thiodicarb (66 mg/kg) Muristerone (6400 mg/kg)

Veratrine

Schoenocaulon officinale

Fam: Liliaceae

LD50 : 4000-5000 mg/kg

Effective against Caterpillar, Leaf hopper, Stink bugs, Squash bugs, Beetles

Common Name: Sabadilla, Natural Guard

Parameters Control Mentha oil Ocimum oil Zingiber oil

1. TLC 12.25×103 12.28×103±10.96t=0.0846

9.87×103±3.56t=1.6675

11.93×103±1.28t=0.6036

2. DLC

(a) Eosinophil 4 3.66±3.50t=0.3496

2.66±4.71t=0.6891

2.00±4.47t=1.00

(b) Monocytes 0 0 0 0

(c) Lymphocyte 45.83 50.83±51.72t=0.5502

25.33±35.32t=1.4167

59.50±30.81t=1.0824

(d) Neutrophylls 50.50 45.50±52.79t=0.3211

72.00±36.96t=1.4200

39.00±30.48t=0.9207

3. SGOT (µ/ml) 116.66 106.00±30.28t=0.8595

101.66±30.49t=1.20

95.00±41.77t=0.9207

4. SGPT (µ/ml) 45.83 43.33±5.04t=0.2427

49.83±3.6t=2.71

50.00±3.41t=2.99

5. Haemoglobin (gm%)

9.40 10.20±1.27t=1.40237

9.76±1.58t=0.5654

9.86±1.82t=0.6231

6. Albumin (gm%) 3.925 3.51±0.79t=0.2044

4.21±0.24t=3.5

3.70±1.09t=0.49

7. Glucose (mg/dl) 51.28 42.63±42.30t=0.8335

64.70±35.50t=0.5240

63.55±38.86t=0.4066

8. Protein (gm%) 8.16 6.92±1.18t=2.58

8.18±0.94t=0.06578

7.63±1.17t=1.94

9. Cholesterol (mg%)

61.88 82.13±6.16t=5.7042

95.56±8.20t=7.0113

95.55±17.56t=3.31

10. Urea (mg/dl) 44.36 33.00±9.57t=3.63

38.00±12.36t=1.25

50.38±15.55t=0.9455

11. Alkaline phosphatase (IU/Litre)

25.20 23.15±23.79t=0.0967

25.91±16.33t=0.1045

32.94±17.46t=1.08

Safety limits – Animal toxic studies with oils

Cost Benefit Ratio

Synthetic Pesticide

Registration cost 20-30

million dollars

Development period 7-10 years

Needs long term toxicological

testing and animal tests

advantage

Botanical Pesticide

Registration cost 150-200

thousand dollars

Development period 0-1 years

Needs short term testing due

to safety

Carlton, 1988; Woodhead, 1990

Natural Antioxidants Interface formations of free radicals

Delay or prevent rancidity of foods

Prevent human diseases caused by oxidative damages- ageing, cataract, cancer, coronary heart diseases

Tocopherol (Vitamin E)

Source: Sesame seed oil, Cotton seeds, Coconut, Safflower, Soybean, Olive, Wheat germ

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

Source: Citrus, Papaya, Strawberry

Some sources of natural antioxidants

Clove: Gallic acid, Eugenol

Oregano: Carvacrol

Thyme: Thymol

Caraway: Carvone

Ginger: Gingerol

Garlic: Allicin

Nutmeg: Eugenol

Turmeric: Curcumin

Rosemary: Carnosol, Rosmanol, Carnosic acid

Sage: Thujone

Carrot: β-Carotene

Soybean: Rutin

Rosemary

SageLabexTM in food preservation

Expectations

Plant products for plant health

Practical applicability (not only in vitro testing )

Without toxicological problems

Constrains

Mostly in vitro trials

Negligence of practical approach of testing

Need of toxicological and pharmacological testings

Need of phytoequivalence

CarvacrolLinalool

Carvone

Oxygenated Monoterpenoides

1,8 Cineol

Nepthoquinone

Lawsone (C10H6O3 ) Juglone (C10H6O3 )

4-hydroxynaphthalene-1,2-dione 5-Hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone Mol. wt.- 174.155 Mol. wt.- 174.155

Lawsonia inermis Prunus persica

OH

CH3H3C

H3C OH

(E)

O

OH

O

(Z)

O

OOH

Comparison of major component of A. galanga essential oil

extracted from plants of different geographic area Major Compound(s) Locality Investigators

(E)-β-farnesene (18.2%) and β- bisabolene (16.2%)

Malaysia Scheffer et al, 1981; Pooter et al, 1985

Myrcene (94.5%) India Charles et al, 1999

1,8-cineole (39.4%) and β- pinene (11.9%) Lower Himalyan region of India

Raina et al, 2002

1,8-cineole (28.4%), α-fenchyl acetate (18.4%), camphor (7.7%)

Southern India Leopold et al, 2003

1,8-cineole (40.5%), β- bisabolene (8.4%), (Z,E)-farnesol (3.8%) and (E)-[beta]-farnesene (3.2%).

Malaysia Jantan et al, 2004

Carotol (26.7%) Kerala, India Menon et al, 2006

Zerumbone (44.8%) Sri Lanka Arambewala et al, 2007

1, 8-cineole (46.22%), β- pinene (5.21%) and α-pinene (4.34%)

Northern Thailand Tachakittirungrod and Chowwanapoonpohn, 2007

Bicyclo (4.2.0) oct-1-ene, 7-exo ethenyl (58.46 %), α-pinene (14.94 per cent) and trans-carryophyllene (7.05 per cent)

Foot hills of North India

Dubey et al, 2008

Why Herbal Medicine   It is being used by about 80% of world population primarily in

developing Countries for primary health care They have stood the test of time for their safety Efficacy Cultural Acceptability Lesser side effects The chemical constituent present in them are a part of the

physiological function of living flora and hence better compatibility For age related disease – memory loss , diabetic wounds , liver

disorder for which no modern medicine Renewable and Ecofriendly Raw material Will bring economic prosperity of the masses knowing these raw

materials Herbal products are and will remain much more affordable than

synthetic drugs

Origin of Botany in the use of Herbs as MedicineIndian system Ayurveda 5000 years old

RigvedaAtharveda Nakul SamhitaCharak Samhita (900 BC) AswayurvedaSusrut Samhita (500 BC) Hasthiayurveda

Chinese System of Medicine-About 5000 years old

Greec-Arabic System –Tibetan System- 3000 Years

Method of healing practiced by the people of mediterranean region and orient found expression in Europe herbal,De Materia Medica written by Greek Dioscorides in the first Century A.D.

Establishment of Physic GardensChelsia Physic Garden in London

Herbal Medicine Scenario in India

5,000 endemic angiospermic sp

15,000-18,000 Angiosperms

Two of eight hot spots in India

180 Ayurvedic Colleges

400,000 Ayurvedic Practitioners in India

7500 plants used in traditional medicine

800 plant sp used by

industries

India : Centre of Megabiodiversity

7000 medininal Firms

>70% Indians have faith in Herbal Medicine

Top Ten Medicinal Plants of WorldDrug Botanical name Market Rank as per Sale

Echinacea Echinacea sp. 1

Garlic Allium sativum 2

Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis 3

Ginseng Panax sp 4

Gingko Gingko biloba 5

Saw palmetto Serenoa repens 6

Aloe gel Aloe barbadensis 7

Ephedra Ephedra sp 8

Eleuthero Eleutherococcos sp 9

Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon 10

Three –Allium sativum , Aloe barbedensis and Panax sp widely

available in India

Top Ten Traded medicinal Plants In India

S. No. Common Name Botanical Name

1 Amla Emblica officinalis

2 Satawari Asparagus racemosus

3 Ashwagandha Withania somnifera

4 Harar Terminalis chebula

5 Ashoka Saraca asoca

6 Bael Aegel marmelos

7 Senna Cassia angustifolia

8 Vasu Adhatoda vasica

9 Pipallu Piper longum

10 Brahmi Bacopa monneri

Plant-derived drugs widely employed in western medicine (Adapted from Farnsworth, 1984)

Acetyldigoxin Ephedrine* Pseudoephedrine*Aescin Hyoscyamine QuinidineAjmalicine Khellin QuinineAllantoin* Lanatoside C RescinnamineAtropine Leurocristine ReserpineBromelain α-Lobeline Scillarens A&BCaffeine* Morphine ScopolamineCodeine Narcotine Sennosides A&BColchicine Ouabain SparteineDanthron* Papain StrychnineDeserpidine Papaverine* TetrahydrocannabinolDigitoxin Physostigmine Theobromine*Digoxin Picrotoxin Theophylline*L-Dopa* Pilocarpine TubocurarineEmetine Protoveratrines A&B Vincaleukoblastine

Xanthotoxin

*Produced industrially by synthesis

Medicinal plant diversity

Biogeographic Estimated medicinal Region species

Trans Himalaya 700

Himalayan 2500

Desert 500

Semi-Arid 1000

Western Ghat 2000

Deccan Peninsula 3000

Gangetic Plain 1000

North-East India 2000

Islands 1000

Coasts 500

Neutraceuticals

Garlic –Allicin rich capsule –antibacterial

Soya health drink, Soya capsule –anticarcinogenic

Ginger capsule-antioxidants

Lycopene capsule from Tomato-antioxidant

Green Tea –Flavanoids- antioxidants, prostrate cancer

Capsicum extract –Capacin- Antifungal

Trichopus zealanica ( Arogyapacha) – Intake relieves Fatique

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers.

Family: Menispermaceae

Vern. Name: Giloy,Gurch, Amrita

Twiner, succulent stem, cordate, leaves, Fruits, reniform, red when ripe.

Bioinhancer plant.

Stem used in fever, jaundice,antipyretic and cardiotonic

Fam.: Scrophulariaceae

Vern. Name: Brahmi, Sarsvati

Prostrate succulent herb. Leaves simple , decussate, sessile, spathulate or obovate. Flowers whitish.

The plant is intellect promoting, cardiotonic, bronchodilater.

Bacopa monneiri

Adhatoda vasica

Family: Acanthaceae

Vern. Name: Vasak, Adusa

Small , evergreen shrub. Leaves entire, lanceolate, Flowers bracreate, in Terminal spike, Corolla white.

Leaves contain alkaloid vasine. Used in Asthama, bronchitis for many centuries, also used in peptic ulcer.

Family: Liliaceae

Vern. Name: Ghikumari

Stem short. Roots shallow.

Leaves fleshy, in rosettes, Sessile, horny prickles on margins, blunt point, surface pale green with irregular white blotches.

The juice is used in burns, skin diseases and sciatica.

Aloe vera

Family: Apocynaceae

Vern. Name: Sadabahar

Perennial herb. Stem pinkish –red. Leaves obovate

Flowers pink or white. Follicle cylindrical.

Leaves contain vinblastine, vincristine and catharanthine.

Leaves used in treating diabetics, mental disorders and

Hypertension. The plant is regarded as anticancerous plant.

Catharanthus roseus

Fam.: Apocynaceae

Vern. name: Satparna, Chitwan, Saittan ka jat

A large tree, milky latex,leaves in whorl, flowers greenish –white.

Bark useful in malarial fever, dysentery and in ulcer.

Alstonia scholaris

Fam.: Zingiberaceae

Vern. Name: Kulnjan

Perennial herbaceous plant.

Rhizome cylindrical, stout, covered with scales.

Leaves lanceolate. Inflorescence terminal dense raceme. Flowers White

Rhizome yields essential oil containing methyl cinnamate.

Used in treatment of malaria fever, diarrhoea and toothache.Given to ladies after child birthAlpinia galanga

Fam. : AcanthaceaeVern. name: Kalmegh

Erect herb. Stem much branched, leaves opposite, short – petioled, Inflorescence axillary and terminal raceme or panicle. Flowers white.

Main glucoside is andrographolide.

Leaves used in treating dysentry, diarrhoea, Enteritis fever and tonsillitis.

Andrographis paniculata

Family: Asteraceae

Vern. Name: Sweet Wormwood, qingaho

Annual herb. Fragrant floral leaves sessile. Inflorescence terminal panicle. Floral heads heterogamous.

Used in malarial fever.

Artemisia annua

Family: SolanaceaeVern. Name: Belladona

An erect plant , 1m height,. The aerial parts die every year in Autumn and the new ones appear in the following year.The plant has a large tap root with many lateral rootlets. Flowers yellow. Fruit a black berry.

It grows in forest shade between 2500-3000m.

The roots contain choline and many flavanoids.

Used for manufacture of plaster and Ticture.Also used in treatment of intestinal pain, asthama and whooping cough. Atropa belladonna

Family: Meliaceae

Vern. Name: Neem, Margosa tree

Medium sized tree, Leaves compound, imparipinnate, leaflets oblique .

Flowers cream or yellow coloured. Fruit one seeded drupes .

Main constituent azadirachtin having many analogues.

Insecticidal plant, anthelmintic.

Effective in skin diseases and leucoderma.Azadirachta indica

Family: Vitaceae

Vern. Name: Hadjod, bone–setter

A climber with stout fleshly jointed quadrangular Stem. Tendrils simple,leaf opposed. Some aerial roots arise from nodes and strike the soil. Leaves reniform. Flowers small, greenish.

The tetracyclic triterpenoidsare medicinally important.

The Plant is aphrodisiac and digestive.

Powdered roots and stem paste are union promoting and recommended In bone fractures.Cissus quadrangularis

Fam.: Combretaceae

Vern. Name: Arjun

A large tree, drooping branches, bark grey outside. Two glands at base of the petiole. Fruit ovoid.

Bark is recommended as cardiotonic. Useful in liver cirrhosis and hypertension.

Terminalia arjuna

Family: Solanaceae

Vern. Name: Asgandh

Erect branching undershrub. Clothed with minutely Stellate hairs, leaves ovate, flowers greenish or reddish-green. Berries orange Coloured enclosed in persistent calyx. Withasomnine is main alkaloid of roots.

Roots are stimulant, aphrodisiac and tonic.

Leaves are recommended in fever.

A paste of roots and leaves are

applied in relief in ulcer and painful

swelling. Recommended for Balya

RasayanaWithania somnifera

Fam.: Capparidaceae

Ver. Name : Varun

Moderate sized tree. Bark grey, leaves trifoliate.

Triterpenoids lupeol and Varunol isolated from roots.

Used in urinary track Infection And kidney stone, in rolithiasis and Cryatalluria. Bark more medicinally Important. Crataeva nurvala

Family: Fabaceae

Vern. Name: Kavanchh

A climbing annual with hairy

branches. Leaves trifoliate,

leaflets ovate or rhomboid–

ovate, densely Clothed with

silvery grey hairs. Flowers

purple. Pods curved.

The leaves are aphrodisiac,

useful in ulcer and are

diuretic. Useful for

Parkinsonia disease.

Mucuna pruriens

3-(3,4 dimethyl)-L-alanine from Mucuna pruriens

Phyllanthus niruri

Fam.: Euphorbiaceae

Ver. Name: Bhooamla

The annual herb. Leaves numerous, distichous, Flower yellowish, capsule globose.

Used in Viral Hepatitis. Also used as Diuretic.

Family: Apocynaceae

Vern. Name: Sarpgandha

Rootstock thick and woody. Leaves in whorl or opposite, elliptic or oblanceolate. Flowers in umbellate cymes.

Many alkaloids isolated—Reserpine ,Isoreserpine, serpentine, Rawwolfine.

Used in reducing blood pressure. Also in mental disorders. Root considered As antidote to snake bite.

Decoctions of root given during labour pain to increase Uterine contraction.Rauwolfia serpentina

Fam.: Convolvulaceae

Vern. Name: Nisodh, Tribrit

A stout twiner , milky juice, triangular stem leaf baseCordate, flowers white, campanulate. Fruit globose, enclosed

In large imbricate sepals.

Roots useful in colic, dropsy ascites, intermittent fever and Jaundice.

Operculina turpethum

Family: Lythraceae

Vern. Name: Dhatki

Branched shrub, height 3-7 m,bark reddish –brown,black glandulardots on under surface of leaves, FlowersRed, in panicles.

Flowers are stimulant, highly valued as stimulant in pregnancy.

Woodfordia fruticosa

Family: Verbenaceae

Vern. Name: Bhates

A large gregarious shrub, branches quadrangular,leaves large ovate, Flowers white, tinged with pink,in terminal panicles.

Leaves used as anti-inflammatory, antipyretic,leprosy andSkin diseases.

Clerodendrum viscosum

Acorus calamus

Family: Araceae

Vern. Name: Bach

A semi-aquatic, rhizomatous perennial herb, rhizome as thick As middle finger, pinkish brown externally, white spongy within, leaves distichous, flowers densely packed in Sessile cylindric spadix. Propagated through rhizomes

Yields calamus oil containing asarone. Rhizome is carminative,diuretic, Insecticidal.

Used in intermittent fever, skin diseases epilepsy and general debility

Family: Fabaceae

Vern. Name: Gunja, Lalmunga, Ratti

A deciduous climber, leaves pinnate, rachis ending in a Spine, leaflets rounded at both ends, flowers pink, arranged Along rachis of one –sided pedunculate raceme.

Fruit pod,seeds scarlet with a black spot.

Seed paste used in cure of skin diseases. Along with Plumbago zealanica used in leucoderma. Seeds are aphrodisiac and used in nervous disorders.

Abrus precatorius

Family: Apiaceae

Vern. Name: Mandukparni, Brahm manduki, Brahmi

Small trailing herb.Stem prostrate, rooting at nodes,leaves orbicular, kidney shaped, inflorescence umbel bearing 1-5 small flowers.

Used as antiinflamatory, diuretic,, measles. Also as brain tonic.

Centella asiatica

Family: Apocynaceae

Vern. Name: Kutaja

A tree reaching about 10m. Bark pale brown, young tips tomentose.Leaves oval , subsessile. Flowers white, in terminal cymes. Follicles long, incurved.

Bark possess amoebicidalandantidysentric properties, effective against amoebiosis.

A bath containing decoctions of leaves and bark cures scabies.

Holarrhena antidysenterica

Family: Fabaceae

Vern. Name: Briksh Karanj

Medium sized tree. Leaves glabrous, leaflets 5-7, ovate.

Acuminate Flowers pinkish white.

The oil is anthelmintic, recommended for scabies, leprosy, herps.

Leaves useful in chronic fever.

Pongamia pinnata

Basic Questions

Are Pharmaceutical Firms Responsible for

Low Market?

Are the Indian Herbal Drugs free From

Mycotoxins?

What are the responsibilities of Research Organizations

and Universities?

What are the Measures of Quality Control and

Safety Limit Assessment?

Association of fungi with Crude Herbal drug Samples

Sample Uses No. of Fungi

Abrus precatorius Expectorant 12StimulantIn jaundice

Holarrhena antidysentrica Antiamoebic 7Antidysentric

Hibiscus abelmoschus Carminative 7Stomachic

Piper nigrum Dyspesia 17ColdAsthama

Strychnos nux-vomica Antipyretic 15Astringent

Syzygium cumini Astringent 10Eye diseases

Mycotoxin Elaboration in Stored drug samples

Drugs Mycotoxin Concentration(μg/gm)

Asparagus racemosus 0.16

Atropa belladonna 0.27

Withania somnifera 0.68

Plumbago zeylanica 1.13

Emblica officinalis 1.51

Terminalia chebula 1.19

Mucuna puriens 1.16 

Endangered Medicinal Plants

Aquilaria malaccensis

Aconitum spp.

Atropa acuminata

Coleus forskohlii

Dioscorea deltoidea

Picrorhiza kurroa

Podophyllum hexandrum

Pterocarpus santalinus

Rauvolfia serpentina

Saussurea lappa

Taxus wallichiana

Valeriana wallichii

Zanthoxylum alatum

Side Effects of Certain Medicinal Plants

Reproductive toxicity

cancer and diabetes

Vinca rosea (Vincristine, Vinblastine)

Hypertension, raised B.P.

Bronchitis, Peptic, ulcer

Glycyrrhiza glabra(Glycyrrhizin)

Vision problemHeart diseasesDigitalis purpurea(digitalin)

Symptoms of poisoning, irregular pulse

Used in cardiac failure

Aconitum nepellus(Aconite)

High doses causes liver histological changes

Treatment of chronic asthma

Allium sativum (Diallyl disulphide)

High doses of nasal discharge

Treatment of asthma

Tylophora asthamatica (Tylophorine)

PHARMACOGNOSY

Herbal raw material evaluation and standardization

Authentication of crude drugs by analytical techniques

Toxicological screening

Multidimensional approach of pharmacognosy towards quality control of herbal medicines

Development of phytochemical markers for identification

India should occupy a significant position in the world trade of herbal drugs

The time has come to compile and document traditional knowledge on herbal medicine

Efforts should be made to cultivate medicinal plants as field crops.

Conservation should be in appropriate ecological situations.

Standardization as per WHO guide lines

We can certainly be world leader in this field

Bioprospecting of Indian Flora

Biopiracy

Gene robbing

Indigenous plants: No ethical or quarantine

problem

India Mega biodiversity: 33 % dicot endemic

Total area about 3029 million hectares

18000 Angiospermic plant species

Two Hot Spots

World’s half of aquatic flowering plants belonging to 23 families

45 000 Plant species (11 percent of known plant species of world)

The Indian Flora is more varied than that of any other country of equal area in the

eastern hemisphere, if not on the globe” J. D. Hooker (1904).

A significant feature of Indian flora is the confluence of floras from the surrounding

countries like Malaya Tibet, china, Japan , Europe and even from widely separate

continents like America, Canada and Australia Rao (2006), Subramani et. Al. ( 2005).

40 per cent of flowering plants in India are foreign and naturalized in various parts

of the country. Maheshwari (1962)

30 percent of Indian flora ( 5000 species ) endemic.

75 per cent Indian dicots polyploidy , in China diploids.

Convention on Biodiversity: 1992

a. Sovereign Right of countries over biodiversity.

b. Bioprospecting of biodiversity ---documentation, identification of plants of

potential economic value

• Higher plants are untapped reservoir of various valuable chemicals awaiting their intensive exploitation for their biological properties for health of plants and animals.

• The perusal of literature shows that a large number of bioactive agents have been overlooked or rejected by the pharmaceutical and agrochemical firms which have commercialized only a few strongly active ones for a quick cure , rapid action , heavy financial return in spite of their considerable damage out side the intended targets.

• The situation may now be reversed and that natural products in natural combinations and methods such as used in the past in Ayurveda , Unani and other such systems may again be adopted than artificial ones in medicine and particularly in agriculture.