PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT FROM … · materials of clay soil and mosaic sludge was high...
64
PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT FROM MOSAIC SLUDGE INDUSTRY INCORPORATED INTO FIRED CLAY BRICKS AHMAD SHAYUTI BIN ABDUL RAHIM A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of Master of Civil Engineering Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia FEBRUARY 2016
Transcript of PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT FROM … · materials of clay soil and mosaic sludge was high...
PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT FROM MOSAIC SLUDGE
INDUSTRY INCORPORATED INTO FIRED CLAY BRICKS
AHMAD SHAYUTI BIN ABDUL RAHIM
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
FEBRUARY 2016
iii
To my loving family and friends
My love to you all will always remain…
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
حيم حمن الر بسم هللا الر
Praised to Allah S.W.T, the Most Gracious and Most Merciful who has created the
mankind with knowledge, wisdom and power. Thank to Allah S.W.T because I finally
accomplish my research for Master Degree in Civil Engineering at University of Tun
Hussein Onn Malaysia.
Special thanks to my supervisor Associate Professor Dr Aeslina Abdul Kadir for
her guidance, support and encouragement during my research study.
I would like to thank and express my greatest appreciation to my parent, Abdul
Rahim Abdullah and Saleha Razali who never give up on giving me support, their
prayers and always understanding my study.
I also acknowledge to Biasiswa Kerajaan Negeri Sabah for the scholarship and
financial support. Not to forget, Hap Seng Consolidated Berhad for the facilities and
assistance to accomplish this research.
Besides, I would like to extend our heartiest thanks to all the lectures, technicians
and friends, who have been supportive and help me to finish my research. At last but not
least gratitude goes to all who directly or indirectly helped me to complete this research.
May all the good deeds that were done will be blessed by Allah. Wassalam
v
ABSTRACT
Brick is one of the most common masonry units used as building material.
Due to the demand recently, different types of waste materials have been investigated
to be incorporated into bricks. The utilization of these waste materials in fired clay
bricks usually has positive effects on the properties such as lightweight bricks with
improved shrinkage, porosity, and strength. The main objective of this study is to
focus on the properties and environmental impact of the mosaic sludge incorporated
into fired clay bricks. The characteristics of raw materials obtained by using the X-
Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer showed that the chemical composition of the raw
materials of clay soil and mosaic sludge was high with silicon dioxide and
aluminium oxide and with the same chemical composition BS and PS are suitable to
replace clay soil as raw materials. The recommended percentage of BS and PS
incorporation was up to 30% with better physical and mechanical properties. The
results showed that the utilization of BS and PS brick obtained higher compressive
strength up to 25 N/mm2 and low initial rate of suction under the limit of 5 g/mm
2.
The leachability tests such as Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP),
Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP) and Static Leachate Procedure
(SLT) were conducted to determine the results which complied with the United State
Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) and Environment Protection Agency
Victoria (EPAV). As for the indoor air quality, BS sludge and PS sludge could be
incorporated up to 30% in the fired clay bricks for good physical and mechanical
properties that complied standard requirements for heavy metals with better indoor
air quality based on the Industry Codes of Practice on Indoor Air Quality (ICOP-
IAQ) standards. Therefore, BS and PS wastes can be an alternative low cost material
that provides an environmentally friendly disposal method.
vi
ABSTRAK
Bata merupakan satu unit masonri yang biasa digunakan sebagai bahan binaan.
Berdasarkan permintaan, beberapa jenis sisa yang berbeza telah dikaji dan
dimasukkan ke dalam batu bata. Penggunaan sisa ini di dalam bata tanah liat
kebiasaannya mempunyai kesan yang positif terhadap sifatnya seperti batu-bata
ringan yang diperbaik dari segi penyusutan, keliangan, dan kekuatan. Objektif utama
kajian ini untuk memfokuskan ciri-ciri dan kesan terhadap alam sekitar dengan
menggunakan sisa Bodymill Sludge (BS) dan Polishing Sludge (PS) ke dalam bata
tanah liat. Ciri-ciri yang telah diperoleh dengan menggunakan Spektrometer
Pendarfluor Sinar-X (XRF) menunjukkan komposisi kimia bahan mentah daripada
tanah liat dan enap cemar mozek mengandungi silikon dioksida dan aluminium
oksida yang tinggi dengan komposisi ciri yang sama BS dan PS sesuai menggantikan
tanah liat sebagai bahan mentah. Peratusan PS dan BS yang disyorkan sehingga 30%
dengan sifat fizikal dan mekanikal yang lebih baik. Penggunaan enap cemar
sepenuhnya daripada bata BS dan PS memperolehi kekuatan mampatan yang paling
tinggi dengan 25 N/mm2 dan kadar awal ujian sedutan dibawah had 5 g/mm
2. Semua
ujian pengurasan untuk Prosedur Pengurasan Ciri Ketoksikan (TCLP), Prosedur
Pengurasan Hujan Tiruan (SPLP) dan Ujian Pengurasan Statik (SLT) ditentukan dan
secara amnya mematuhi Agensi Perlindungan Alam Sekitar Amerika Syarikat
(USEPA) dan Agensi Perlindungan Alam Sekitar Victoria (EPAV). Sementara itu
kualiti udara dalaman, enapcemar BS dan enapcemar PS boleh digunakan sehingga
30% di dalam bata tanah liat kerana sifat fizikal dan mekanikal yang baik yang
mematuhi piawaian bagi logam berat dan dengan kualiti udara dalaman yang lebih
baik berdasarkan piawaian Kod Amalan Industri Kualiti Udara Dalaman (ICOP-
IAQ). Oleh itu, enap cemar BS dan enap cemar PS boleh menjadi alternatif sebagai
bahan berkos rendah dalam menyediakan kaedah pelupusan yang mesra alam sekitar.
vii
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATED iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
iv
v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF SYMBOL AND ABBREVIATIONS xxi
LIST OF APPENDICES xxvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Study 1
1.2 Problem statement 3
1.3 Objective 4
1.4 Scope of work 4
viii
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Mosaic
2.2.1 Mosaic manufacturing
2.2.2 Types of mosaic
2.2.2.1 Ceramic
2.2.2.2 Vitreous glass
2.2.2.3 Smalti glass
2.2.2.4 Organic tiles
5
6
7
7
8
8
8
2.3 Mosaic sludge
2.3.1 Bodymill sludge
2.3.2 Polishing sludge
8
9
9
2.4 Fired clay brick
2.4.1 Raw material
2.4.2 Fired clay brick manufacturing
process
2.4.2.1 Mining, storage and clay
preparation
2.4.2.2 Forming and cutting
2.4.2.3 Drying
2.4.2.4 Firing
10
10
11
12
12
13
13
2.4.3 Types of brick
2.4.3.1 Common brick
2.4.3.2 Face brick
2.4.3.3 Engineering brick
2.4.3.4 Firebricks
2.4.3.5 Sand-lime brick
2.4.3.6 Concrete brick
13
14
14
14
14
15
15
2.4.4 Properties of fired clay brick
2.4.4.1 Density
2.4.4.2 Compressive strength
15
15
15
ix
2.4.4.3 Initial rate of suction
2.4.4.4 Firing shrinkage
16
17
2.4.5 Leachability
2.4.5.1 Impact of heavy metals towards the
environment and human health
2.4.5.1.1 Arsenic (As)
2.4.5.1.2 Barium (Ba)
2.4.5.1.3 Cadmium (Cd)
2.4.5.1.4 Chromium (Cr)
2.4.5.1.5 Lead (Pb)
2.4.5.1.6 Mercury (Hg)
17
18
19
19
19
20
20
20
2.4.6 Indoor Air Quality
2.4.6.1 Impact of gas emissions towards
the environment and human health
2.4.6.1.1 Total volatile organic
compounds (TVOC)
2.4.6.1.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
2.4.6.1.3 Carbon monoxide (CO)
2.4.6.1.4 Ozone (O3)
2.4.6.1.5 Formaldehyde (HCHO)
2.4.6.1.6 Particulate matter (PM10)
21
22
23
23
23
23
24
24
2.4.7 Overview of sludge waste incorporated in
fired clay brick
2.4.7.1 Textile sludge
2.4.7.2 Water treatment sludge
2.4.7.3 Sewage sludge
2.4.7.4 Other sludge waste
2.4.8 Summary and research gap
24
25
25
27
30
37
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Stage I :Raw materials 43
x
3.2.1 Collection
3.2.1.1 Mosaic sludge and clay collection
3.2.2 Preparation
3.2.2.1 Preparation of mosaic and
clay soil
3.2.3 Characterization of raw materials
3.2.3.1 Chemical composition and heavy
metal concentration
3.2.3.2 The procedure of making
pellet and XRF analysis
3.2.4 Classification
3.2.4.1 Compaction test
3.2.4.2 Atterberg limit
3.2.4.3 Specific gravity
43
43
44
44
45
45
46
47
47
50
53
3.3 Stage II : Brick manufacturing
3.3.1 Control brick
3.3.2 Mosaic sludge brick
55
55
55
3.4 Stage III: Physical and mechanical tests
3.4.1 Firing shrinkage
3.4.2 Density
3.4.3 Compressive strength
3.4.4 Initial rate of suction
3.4.5 Microstructure characteristics
3.4.6 Surface area characterization
57
57
58
59
60
61
62
3.5 Stage IV: Leachability
3.5.1 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
(TCLP)
3.5.2 Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure
(SPLP)
3.5.3 Static Leachate Test (SLT)
62
62
64
65
3.6 Stage V: Indoor air quality 66
xi
3.6.1 Indoor air quality
3.6.2 Walk in stability chamber (WiSC)
3.6.3 Experimental procedure
3.6.4 Measurement of instrument
3.6.4.1 Indoor air quality monitor
(IAQ monitor)
3.6.4.2 Toxicity gas test instrument
Graywolf
3.6.4.3 Formaldemeter htV
3.6.4.4 Aeroqual series 500
3.6.4.5 DustTrak aerosol monitor
66
68
68
71
71
72
73
73
74
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction 75
4.2 Stage I : Raw Material
4.2.1 Characteristic of clay soil and mosaic
sludge wastes
4.2.2 Chemical properties of clay soil and mosaic
sludge
4.2.2.1 Chemical composition and
concentration analysis
4.2.3 Soil classification
4.2.3.1 Compaction test
4.2.3.2 Atterberg limit
75
75
76
76
79
79
80
4.3 Stage III : Physical and mechanical properties
4.3.1 Firing shrinkage
4.3.2 Density
4.3.3 Compressive strength
4.3.4 Initial rate of suction
4.3.5 Microstructure analysis
4.3.6 Summary of physical and mechanical
properties
81
81
83
84
86
88
92
xii
4.4 Stage IV : Leachability
4.4.1 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
(TCLP)
4.4.2 Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure
(SPLP)
4.4.3 Static leachate test (SLT)
4.4.4 Summary of TCLP, SPLP and SLT
94
95
98
101
112
4.5 Stage V: Indoor air quality
4.5.1 Total volatile organic compound (TVOC)
4.5.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
4.5.3 Carbon monoxide (CO)
4.5.4 Ozone (O3)
4.5.5 Formaldehyde (HCHO)
4.5.5 Particulate matter (PM10)
4.5.7 Summary of indoor air quality (IAQ)
115
117
119
121
123
125
127
129
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Recommendation for future research
131
132
134
REFERENCES 135
APPENDICES 150
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Sizes of bricks (BS 3291:1985)
13
2.2 Compressive strength
(BS 3921:1985)
16
2.3 Water absorption / initial rate of suction
(BS 3921:1985)
17
2.4 Maximum concentration of contaminants for the toxicity
characteristic (Environmental Protection Agency, 2009)
18
2.5 Acceptable range of specific physical parameters (ICOP-
IAQ, 2010)
21
2.6 List of indoor air contaminants and the acceptable limits
(ICOP-IAQ, 2010)
22
2.7 Overview of physical and mechanical of sludge waste
incorporated with clay bricks
33
2.8 Overview of leachability of sludge waste incorporated
with clay bricks
36
3.1 Classification of soil according to plasticity (BS
1377:1990)
53
3.2 Ratio mixture 55
3.3 Specification of WiSC size 68
4.1 Composition of heavy metals 77
xiv
4.2 Concentration of heavy metals 78
4.3 Percentages of water content 80
4.4 Classification of soil 80
4.5 Firing shrinkage for BS and PS brick 81
4.6 Density of BS and PS brick 83
4.7 Compressive strength of BS and PS brick 85
4.8 Initial rate of suction for BS and PS brick 87
4.9 Heavy metals leachability concentration by using TCLP 96
4.10 Heavy metals leachability concentration by using SPLP 99
4.11 Summary of indoor air quality data 116
4.12 Emissions of total volatile organic compound (TVOC) 117
4.13 Emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) 119
4.14 Emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) 121
4.15 Emissions of ozone (O3) 123
4.16 Emissions of formaldehyde (HCHO) 125
4.17 Emissions of particular matter (PM10) 127
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Mosaic manufacturing process (Admeg, 2015) 7
2.2 Bodymill process 9
2.3 Polishing process 10
2.4 Brick manufacturing process (Bender et al, 2011) 11
3.1 Flowchart in this study 41
3.2a Mosaic sludge location 43
3.2b Mosaic sludge main building 43
3.2c Sludge was collected 44
3.3 Clay soil factory 44
3.4 S4- Pioneer Brunker- AXS, Germany 45
3.5a Set of apparatus 46
3.5b Electronic weight scale 46
3.5c Preparation of the samples 47
3.5d Steel pellet 47
3.5e Compactor 47
xvi
3.5f Pellet was put inside the incubator 47
3.6 Compaction test apparatus 49
3.7 Process of compaction test 49
3.8a Sieved soil 51
3.8b Soil mixed with distilled water 51
3.8c Mixed soil in cup 51
3.8d Smooth soil surface 51
3.8e Cone penetration test 51
3.8f Samples on petri dish 51
3.9a Soil sample on glass plate 52
3.9b Divided sample 52
3.9c Threads sample 52
3.9d Samples on petri dish 52
3.10a Pyknometer 54
3.10b Filled with distilled water 54
3.10c Vacuum desiccator 54
3.10d Samples weigh 54
3.11a Sieved clay soil 56
3.11b Clay soil with sludge mixture 56
3.11c Mixed clay soil 56
3.11d Layering clay soil in mould 56
xvii
3.11e Brick compaction 56
3.11f Dried bricks 56
3.12 Length measurement of brick 57
3.13 Brick measurement 58
3.14 Compressive strength test 59
3.15 Initial rate of suction test 61
3.16 SEM machine at Analytical Environment laboratory (ZEISS
EVO LS10, Germany)
61
3.17 Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) Machine (Micrometric ASAP
2020, USA)
62
3.18a Samples were crushed and sifted through 9.5mm sieve 63
3.18b Samples were placed in a rotary extractor at 30rpm 63
3.18c Sample filtration with 0.7µm of glass microfiber filter 63
3.18d Heavy metals analysis 63
3.19 Summary procedure of TCLP test 64
3.20 SLT set-up diagram 65
3.21 Cube form 66
3.22 Wall form 67
3.23 Column form 67
3.24 Walk in stability chamber 68
3.25 Cube form arrangement 69
xviii
3.26 Wall form arrangement 70
3.27 Column form arrangement 70
3.28 Equipments used for IAQ 71
3.29 IAQ detector 72
3.30 Toxic gas detector 72
3.31 Formaldemeter htV device 73
3.32 Aeroqual 74
3.33 DustTrak aerosol 74
4.1 Optimum moisture content 79
4.2 Shrinkage between different percentages of BS brick 81
4.3 Shrinkage between different percentages of PS brick 82
4.4 Density between different percentages of BS brick 84
4.5 Density between different percentages of PS brick 84
4.6 Compressive strength between different percentages of BS
brick
86
4.7 Compressive strength between different percentages of PS
brick
86
4.8 Initial rate of suction between different percentages of BS brick
88
4.9 Initial rate of suction between different percentages of PS brick 88
4.10a Control brick 89
4.10b BS brick (1%) 89
xix
4.10c BS brick (5%) 89
4.10d BS brick (10%) 89
4.10e BS brick (20%) 89
4.10f BS brick (30%) 89
4.10g PS brick (1%) 90
4.10h PS brick (5%) 90
4.10i PS brick (10%) 90
4.10j PS brick (20%) 90
4.10k PS brick (30%) 90
4.11 Heavy metals concentration in BS brick by using TCLP 97
4.12 Heavy metals concentration in PS brick by using TCLP 97
4.13 Heavy metals concentration in BS brick by using SPLP 100
4.14 Heavy metals concentration in PS brick by using SPLP 100
4.15 Heavy metals concentration for control brick 102
4.16 Heavy metals concentration of BS brick (1%) 103
4.17 Heavy metals concentration of BS brick (5%) 104
4.18 Heavy metals concentration of BS brick (10%) 105
4.19 Heavy metals concentration of BS brick (20%) 106
4.20 Heavy metals concentration of BS brick (30%) 107
4.21 Heavy metals concentration of PS brick (1%) 108
4.22 Heavy metals concentration of PS brick (5%) 109
xx
4.23 Heavy metals concentration of PS brick (10%) 110
4.24 Heavy metals concentration of PS brick (20%) 111
4.25 Heavy metals concentration of PS brick (30%) 112
4.26 Total Volatile Organic Compound (TVOC) emissions from
different types of sludge bricks
118
4.27 Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from different types of fired
clay bricks
120
4.28 Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from different types of fired
clay bricks
122
4.29 Ozone (O3) emissions from different types of fired clay bricks 124
4.30 Formaldehyde (HCHO) emissions of different types of fired
clay bricks
126
4.31 Particulate Matter (PM10) emissions from different types of
fired clay bricks
128
xxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
% - Percent
≤ - Less-than or Equal to
≥ - Greater-than or Equal to
°C - Degree Celsius
°C/min - Degree Celsius per minute
μ - micro
μm - Micro meter
A - Area
AAS - Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
Al - Aluminium
Al2O3 - Aluminum oxide
As - Arsenic
Ba - Barium
BS - Bodymill Sludge
C - Ceiling limit
CaO - Calcium oxide
Cd - Cadmium
Ce - Cerium
Cfu/m3 - Colony Forming Unit per Cubic Meter
xxii
cm3 - Cubic centimeter
CO - Carbon Monoxide
Co - Cobalt
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
Cr - Chromium
Cs - Cesium
Cu - Copper
CuO - Copper(II) oxide
D - Diameter
EN - European Standard
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
EPAV - Environmental Protection Agency Victoria
ER - Empty Room
et al - And others
Fe - Ferum
Fe2O3 - Ferric oxide
FKAAS - Fakulti Kejuruteraan awam dan alam sekitar
g - Gram
g/cm3 - Gram per cubic meter
Ga - Gallium
HCHO - Formaldehyde
IAQ - Indoor Air Quality
ICOP-IAQ - Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality
ISO - International Organization for Standardization
K2O - Potassium oxide
kg - Kilogram
kg/m3 - Kilogram per cubic meter
xxiii
kN - Kilo newton
L - Length
L/min - Liter per minute
La - Lanthanum
LL - Liquid Limit
LLD - Lower Level Detection
LOI - Loss on Ignition
Ls - Actual Length – Dry Length
Lwet - Wet Length
Ldry - Dry Length
M - mass
M1 - Dry Mass
m1 - Mass of wet brick
M2 - Wet Mass
m2 - Submerged mass of brick
mg/L - Milligram per litre
mg/m3 - Milligram per cubic meter
MgO - Magnesium oxide
mm - milimeter
MMB - Malaysia Mosaic Berhad
Mn - Mangan
MnO - Manganese(II) oxide
mo - Ambient mass
Mo - Molybderium
MPa - Megapascal
N/mm2 - Newton per millimeter square
NA - Not Available
xxiv
Na2O - Sodium oxide
Nb - Niobium
ND - Not Detectable
Ni - Nickel
O3 - Ozone
OMC - Optimum Moisture Content
P2O5 - Phosphorus pentoxid
Pb - Lead
PI - Plasticity Index
PL - Plastic Limit
PM10 - Particulate Matter
ppm - part per million
PS - Polishing Sludge
psi - Pounds per square inch
Rb - Rubidium
RECESS - Research Centre for Soft Soil
RH - Relative humidity
Sb - Antimony
Sc - Scandium
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope
SiO2 - Silicon dioxide
SLT - Static Leachate Test
Sn - Tin
SO3 - Sulphur trioxide
SPLP - Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure
Sr - Strontium
SrO - Strontium oxide
xxv
TCLP - Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
TEL - Thermal Environmental Laboratory
Th - Thorium
Ti - Thallium
TiO2 - Titanium dioxide
TVOC - Total volatile organic compounds
twa - time-weighted average
U - Uranium
USEPA - Unites States Environmental Protection Agency
UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
V - Vanadium
VOCs - Volatile organic compound
WHO - World Health Organization
WiSC - Walk in Stability Chamber
wt. - Weight
XRF - X-Ray Fluorescence
Y - Yttrium
Zn - Zinc
ZnO - Zinc oxide
Zr - Zirconium
ZrO2 - Zirconium dioxide
ΔT - temperature gradient
ρ - Density
π - Pi
xxvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A STAGE I: RAW MATERIAL
150
B STAGE III: PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
159
C STAGE IV: LEACHABILITY
177
D ACTIVITY GANTT CHART
189
E JOURNAL, CONFERENCE PAPER AND PROCEEDINGS 191
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background study
Sludge is often associated with human waste from residential sludge. However,
sludge can also be produced by industrial waste, hospital waste, wastewater
treatment plant, runoff from the street, farmland and in some cases from landfill
leachate. Generally, sludge from residential areas is in organic form (Henze, 2008).
Thus, this waste causes less harm and impact to the environment compared to
industrial waste. On the other hand, industrial sludge could be in the organic or
inorganic form (Werle & Dudziak, 2014; Labrincha et al., 2013). Inorganic content
is always the main concern of industrial sludge especially heavy metals that require
specific treatment to prevent environmental pollution.
The Malaysian Environmental Quality Report (Malaysia Environmental
Quality, 2014) claimed that Malaysia generated about 2.5 million metric tonnes of
waste in 2014. This value decreased slightly by 14.29% compared to 2.9 million
metric tonnes generated in 2013. The generated waste consists of mineral sludge,
heavy metal sludge, dross, slag, clinical waste, clinker, ash, gypsum, oil and
hydrocarbon. In Malaysia, 1.6 million metric tonnes of industrial sludge are
produced per year and 0.81 million metric tonnes were disposed of at sanitary
landfills (Malaysia Environmental Quality, 2014).
2
Furthermore, sludge from industries will also become a critical issue due to
public concern and limited availability of land (Abdul Latif et al., 2012). Moreover,
landfills have also been regarded as one of the major contributors to the negative
impact on the environment in Malaysia (Lau et al., 2008). Huge amounts of
industrial sludge have been accumulated and an alternative disposal method is
essential as landfills are no longer an ideal disposal method for this type of waste.
Until now, Malaysia is still facing difficulties in locating suitable landfill sites
(Masirin et al., 2008), although at present there are more than 165 operating landfills
and 131 ends of life landfills in Malaysia (Perbadanan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan
Pembersihan Awam (PPSPPA), 2014). Landfills are mostly used as open dumping
area (Ngoc, 2009).
Currently, many researchers have successfully incorporated sludge into fired
clay brick for example marble sludge, stone sludge (Rajgor et al., 2013), water
treatment sludge (Victoria et al., 2013; Babu & Ramana, 2013), sewage sludge
(Ingunza et al., 2011; Sidrak, 1996), and textile sludge (Jahagirdar et al., 2013;
Herek et al., 2012). The utilization of waste in clay bricks usually has positive effects
on the properties such as lightweight bricks with higher strength, improved
shrinkage, porosity and thermal properties. The lightweight bricks are preferable and
will reduce transportation and handling cost. Moreover, mixing waste into bricks will
reduce clay content in the fired clay brick and eventually reduce the manufacturing
cost (Abdul Kadir et al, 2011).
Due to high demand, flexibility and the success of sludge waste
incorporated into fired clay brick, more researchers are motivated to investigate
further on the potential of different sludge to be incorporated into bricks.
This study focuses on the utilization of mosaic sludge into fired clay bricks.
Mosaic sludge was obtained in semisolid condition from Malaysia Mosaic Berhad
(MMB). The properties and environmental impact of the incorporation of mosaic
sludge were also investigated.
3
1.2 Problem statement
The mosaic industry is one of the industries that contribute to sludge waste in
Malaysia. There are about 66 mosaic factories registered under the Construction
Industry Development Board Malaysia (CIDB) (2013). According to the Malaysian
Mosaic Berhad (MMB), around 5 to 8 tonnes of mosaic sludge are produced for
every batch of mosaics manufactured per day for each factory. Hashemi (2014) has
demonstrated that mosaic is categorised as a non-metal industry that has been
producing about 250 tonnes of waste including concrete waste, tile waste and stone
body waste. Due to the massive amount of wastes and their toxicity, the mosaic
sludge could give a huge damage to landfill as well as the environment.
The huge amounts of mosaic sludge waste resulted from the cutting,
polishing, processing and grinding activities from producing mosaic. Most of the
mosaic sludge was disposed of in landfills and some of the sludge was flushed away
into the drainage system. Mosaic sludge has also been classified as scheduled waste
(SW 204) containing principally inorganic contamination, one or several metals such
as Cadmium, Copper, Zinc, Lead and Nickel (Department of Environment, 2015).
Furthermore, mosaic sludge from the mosaic industry contains different
concentrations of heavy metals (Kulkarni et al., 2014; Ismail et al., 2010) such as
Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), and Chromium (Cr) that could affect human
health and the environment. High concentrations of heavy metal could be toxic to the
human body and cause multifarious diseases such as anaemia, intestinal irritation,
lung cancer, bone defect (osteoporosis), nerve tissue, liver and kidney damages
(Zaidi et al., 2012).
Recycling and reusing mosaic sludge by incorporating it into fired clay
brick as previously conducted by many researchers with different types of sludge
could give advantages to the brick properties as well as creating an environmentally-
friendly disposal method for the waste. Nevertheless, in previous research most of
the researchers only focused on the physical and mechanical properties. There is a
lack of investigation carried out on the environmental impact of sludge waste
utilization. Therefore, in this study, an investigation was carried out to determine the
suitable percentages of mosaic sludge to be incorporated into fired clay brick. The
study includes the investigation of physical and mechanical properties such as
compressive strength, shrinkage, density and the initial rate of suction as well as the
4
environmental impact towards the environment due to the leachability and indoor air
quality aspect.
1.3 Objectives
This study will be conducted using two different types of sludge from the mosaic
industry which are bodymill and polishing waste. The objectives of this research are:
(i). to determine the chemical composition and concentration of heavy metals in
two types of sludge waste from the mosaic industry (from bodymill (BS) and
polishing (PS) process) .
(ii). to investigate the maximum percentage of mosaic sludge waste that could be
mixed into fired clay bricks due to its physical and mechanical properties.
(iii). to determine the heavy metal leachability from the mosaic sludge waste after
its incorporation into fired clay bricks.
(iv). to measure indoor air quality of the fired clay brick incorporated with sludge
mosaic waste.
1.4 Scope of work
Mosaic sludge waste was collected from the Malaysia Mosaic Berhad (MMB)
located in Kluang, Johor and clay soil was provided the by Hap Seng Company. The
scope of the study includes the determination of chemical composition and heavy
metal concentration from two types of mosaic sludge waste by using X-Ray
Fluorescence Spectrometer. Different percentages of two types of mosaic sludge
waste (0%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 20% and 30%) were incorporated into fired clay brick.
The physical and mechanical properties (compressive strength, density, shrinkage,
the initial rate of suction and morphology) were tested. The heavy metal leachability
of the fired clay brick incorporated with sludge were examined by using the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP), Synthetic Precipitation Leaching
Procedure (SPLP) and Static Leachate Procedure (SLT) methods. Indoor air quality
of the sludge brick samples was conducted in the column, wall and cube form to find
the appropriate parameters. IAQ test was measured by using Air monitor, Toxicity
meter, Formaldemeter htV , Aeroqual Series 500 and Dust Track Monitor.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Mosaic is known as small coloured pieces of hard materials such as stone,
tile or glass. It was made to provide a durable form of decoration for walls
and pavements. Back in 1829, the first mosaic was found in Greece on the
east portico floor of the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The first mosaic
mentioned in the literature is the Heiron II ship that was made of mosaics in
the middle of the third century. It took 300 skilled workmen a whole year to
produce it (Struck, 2009). The production of mosaic contributed a lot of
sludge annually worldwide and most of it ended up in landfills (European
Commission, 2015; Malhotra & Chugh, 2005).
2.2 Mosaic
Mosaics are usually made of clay, sand, feldspar, quartz and water (Varghese, 2015).
These ingredients are mixed and ground up to create body slip. Body slip is used as a
base for topping. After that, the body slip is put into the dryer and heated.
6
The body slip will turn into dry dust or powder and put on dry pressing.
Higher temperature will produce stronger tiles. The maximum temperature
used is 1300ºC (Preez, 2009).
In the mosaic fabrication process, various types of waste including
sludge, dust and solid waste will be produced. Nevertheless, the amount of
the sludge produced is quite high compared to other types of waste.
Furthermore, mosaic sludge contains chemical pollutants from mosaic
colouring substances which will cause pollution towards the environment if
these are not managed in a proper manner. The majority of traditional
ceramic products will produce oxides such as silica (SiO2), aluminium
(Al2O3), lime (CaO) and alkaline oxides (Na2O, K2O) (Segadaes et al.,
2005). On the other hand, heavy metals accumulated in the waste were used
as a pigment for glazing the ceramics (Fadaly & Enany, 2015; Marangoni et
al., 2014).
2.2.1 Mosaic manufacturing
In mosaic manufacturing, raw materials can originate from sand, white clay,
talc, feldspar, illite, kaolinite clay, calcite and dolomite. The raw materials
will be brought to the plant for storage before the manufacturing process.
After that, the raw materials will be mixed with water before turning into
mixed slurry (Figure 2.1a). The slurry will be transferred to a storage tank
fitted with an atomizer. The slurry mix will turn into an atomized powder
after being blown by hot air (Figures 2.1b and 2.1c).
The slurry powder will then be transferred to a tray before being
pressed by a hydraulic press between 340 kg/cm2 to 400 kg/cm
2. That turns
the powder into a solid mass (Figure 2.1d). After the body is formed, further
drying process is conducted to eliminate the remaining moisture (Figure
2.1e). Glaze and screening (Figure 2.1f) applications are important stages
because they will provide aesthetic beauty, water repellency, durability and
hygienic properties to the mosaic. After the glaze is applied, the mosaic is
fired in the kiln with temperatures of 1050ºC (Figure 2.1g) (Boch & Niepce,
2007). The mosaic production process is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
7
Figure 2.1: Mosaic manufacturing process (Advameg, 2015)
2.2.2 Types of mosaic
Mosaics come in different colours, shapes and chemical combinations. They are also
produced as a result of different manufacturing methods. Mosaic tiles consist of
several common types that are often used for buildings, recreational parks and
monument statues. The most common mosaics used are ceramic, vitreous glass,
smalti glass, and organic tiles (Kelley & Trebilcock, 2000).
2.2.2.1 Ceramic
Ceramic is commonly sold as crafts. Ceramic can be found either in a glazed or
unglazed finish. It looks like stone and is easily cut or cracked. Ceramic is the
weakest mosaic material as it is not resistant enough to hold up under heat and
freezing temperatures (Carter & Norton, 2013).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(h)
(e) (f) (g)
8
2.2.2.2 Vitreous glass
Vitreous glass is a stone tile that looks like glass and it is one of the common
inexpensive tiles. These opaque tiles are good for indoor and outdoor projects as well
as for use in wet areas. This tile is typically used for pools, shower floors, walls and
kitchen backsplashes (Cusick & Kirby, 2003).
2.2.2.3 Smalti glass
Smalti glass is one of the most expensive tiles and were used back then by the
Romans. Smalti glass tiles come in a lot of different colours compared to other tiles.
The price of this tile is determined by the colour and weight of the tile. Smalti glass
is also found in different cuttings such as normal, ravenna, pizzas and piastrina cuts
(Jacobsen, 2005).
2.2.2.4 Organic tiles
Organic tiles are also known as earth tone tiles that are made from marble, granite
and limestone. These tiles maintain the original surface pattern and each tile has
different values depending on its raw materials (Carter & Norton, 2013).
2.3 Mosaic sludge
Sludge is defined as solid-liquid or semisolid materials that are produced as waste
from any domestic or industrial activities. Sludge may contain heavy metals based on
the different types of raw materials used in various industries. A lot of sludge has
been used as additives to be incorporated into clay bricks such as marble sludge,
stone sludge (Rajgor et al., 2013), water treatment sludge (Victoria et al., 2013; Babu
& Ramana, 2013), sewage sludge (Ingunza et al., 2011; Sidrak, 1996), and textile
sludge (Jahagirdar et al., 2013; Herek et al., 2012).
9
2.3.1 Bodymill sludge
Bodymill sludge comes from the body milling process in the manufacturing of tiles
at MMB. The bodymill process involves crushing hard materials and dry mill. The
continuous mill will be stored in an underground tank. Colouring of tiles also occurs
during this process. Excessive use of water in this process will be collected in a
recovery tank. Water in the recovery tank will be filtered out in the wastewater
treatment plant. The residue solution from this process will turn out into sludge
waste. This kind of sludge is called body milling sludge. Figure 2.2 shows the
processes which occur during body milling. (Malaysia Mosaic Berhad, 2015).
Figure 2.2: Bodymill process
2.3.2 Polishing sludge
Polishing sludge occurs during the polishing process. A few procedures occur during
the polishing process which are glazing and printing. During the polishing process
finished tiles will be glazed in order to provide colour texture on ceramic tiles. At
this stage, a large amount of water will be used. Excessive water from this process
will be transferred into a recovery tank. The process of sludge occurring in the
polishing process is the same as the body milling process. Figure 2.2 shows glazing
and printing that occur during the polishing process (Malaysia Mosaic Berhad,
2015).
10
Figure 2.3: Polishing process
2.4 Fired clay brick
Bricks are manufactured from a variety of materials such as clay, lime,
sand/flint and natural stone. Bricks which build masonry structure are
bonded with mortar or grout. Fired clay bricks are manufactured by shaping
suitable clay to units of standard size (Gonzalez & Islas, 2014; Arya, 1994).
2.4.1 Raw material
Essentially, fired clay brick is produced by mixing ground clay with water,
forming the clay into the desired shape, and these are followed by drying
and firing. Clay owns some specific properties and characteristics. Clays
have plasticity, which is permitted to be shaped or moulded when mixed
with water. Clay must have adequate wetness and air dried strength to
maintain the shape after forming and fusing together under correct
temperature (Kogel et al., 2006). Clay is a complex material and occurs in
three principal forms which are surface clays, shales and fire clays. Surface
clays and fire clays are different compared to shales but similar in chemical
composition. Shales represent more in physical structure than chemical
composition. The clay surfaces are the upthrusts of older deposit and are
more recent in the sedimentary formation that can be found near the surface
of the earth. The fire clays are usually found at deeper levels and have
refractory qualities (Brick Industry, 2006). The main chemical composition
11
in these three types of clays are silica (SiO2) (generally between 55% and
65% by weight) and alumina (Al2O3) (10% to 25%) with varying amounts of
metallic oxides and other impurities. Metallic oxides (particularly iron,
magnesium and calcium) influence the colour of the finished fired brick
(Michael et al., 2006).
The production varies in chemical composition and physical
properties by mixing clays from different sources and different types of
brick design. Fired clay brick from the same manufacturer will have slightly
different properties in subsequent production runs. Moreover, bricks from
different manufacturers that appear similar may be different in terms of
other properties (Campbell et al., 2003).
2.4.2 Fired clay brick manufacturing process
The fundamentals of brick manufacturing have not changed over time.
However, technological advancements have made contemporary brick plants
to improve substantially and become more efficient. In the 19th
century,
brick making was improved by using the brick-making machines (Bender et
al, 2011). The manufacturing process has six general phases as shown in
Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Brick manufacturing process (Bender et al., 2011)
12
2.4.2.1 Mining, storage and clay preparation.
Mining equipment will be used to excavate surface clays, shales and some
fire clays, and then the clay will be transported to a storage area in a factory
compound. Before fired clay bricks are made, the clay is washed thoroughly
in a wash-mill and stored in a large open storage area called clay backs until
the clay is ready to be used. Another method is to stack the clay in bulk in an
open area for the rain to wash out the soluble salt particles, which might
cause white scum on the surface of the wall or brickwork. The raw materials
will also be screened to control the particle size (Kreh, 2015; Ibstock, 2005)
2.4.2.2 Forming and cutting
In terms of forms, the clay will be mixed with water to mould the brick. After that,
the clay is fed into the mould and pressed into the shape required. Nevertheless, there
are three principal processes for forming the brick. Firstly, a stiff mud process with
water in the range of 10% to 15% is mixed into the clay to produce plasticity. The
clay is passed through a de-airing chamber maintained in a vacuum of 15 in to 29 in.
(375 mm to 725 mm) of mercury. De-airing removes air holes and bubbles, giving
the clay increased workability and plasticity. Secondly, there will be a soft–mud
process. The soft mud process is particularly suitable for clays containing too much
water to be extruded by the stiff mud process. Mixed clays with 20% to 30% water
will be formed into moulds. In order to prevent clay from sticking, the moulds are
lubricated with either sand or water to produce “sand struck” or “water struck” brick.
Bricks may be produced in this manner by machine or hand. The third procedure is
the dry-press process. This process is particularly suited for clay with very low
plasticity. Clay mixed with a minimal amount of water (up to 10%), and then pressed
into the steel mould under pressure from 500 psi to 1500 psi (3.4 MPa to 10.3 MPa)
via hydraulics or compressed air arms (Environment Protection Agency, 1997)
13
2.4.2.3 Drying
Clay bricks must be dried before firing, and this can be done in two different
ways. Firstly, the bricks will be stored in open air in long rows called drying
hacks, where the bricks are stacked on edges about seven courses high with
short-term wooden covering over them as defence against wind and rain.
This method is slower and completely depends on the weather conditions.
The second method is by stacking them in a drying chamber with a
temperature of 105ºC and this method is more controlled and only takes a
few days to dry. The drying operation is essential to avoid the bricks from
twisting, warping and cracking (Fernandes et al., 2009).
2.4.2.4 Firing
The firing process requires high temperature. The firing process could be
achieved between 10 to 40 hours depending on the kiln type and function.
The common types of kiln used for this operation are clamp, scotch, down-
drought, and Hoffman. Firing can also be divided into a few stages from
final drying, dehydration, oxidation, vitrification and flashing with
temperatures from 150°C to 1316°C (Reeves et al., 2006).
2.4.3 Types of bricks
Fired clay bricks are shaped using suitable clays to units of standard size
(215 mm x 102.5 mm x 65 mm) as show in Table 2.1. Fired clay bricks can
be classified into three categories: common, facing and engineering.
Table 2.1: Sizes of bricks (BS 3291:1985)
Coordinating size Work size
Length width Height length width height
Mm mm Mm mm mm mm
225 112.2 75 215 102.5 65
Note: The work sizes are derived from the corresponding coordinating sizes by the
subtraction of a nominal thickness of 10 mm for the mortar joint.
14
2.4.3.1 Common bricks
Common bricks have no particular finish on any surface, and are generally
intended for use during internal work or any work which is to cover, or
where appearance is of secondary importance (Pacyga & Shanabruch, 2003;
Nash, 1966).
2.4.3.2 Face bricks
Face bricks are most frequently used for exposed surfaces because they
possess a higher quality than building bricks, with better durability and
better appearance. Face bricks are usually available in a variety of shades of
red, brown, grey, yellow and white with many patterns and textures
(Amrhein, 1998; McKay, 1976).
2.4.3.3 Engineering bricks
Engineering bricks are very dense bricks normally used for walls or piers
which have to carry load retaining walls, bridge abutment and pier lining.
This type of brick may be subjected to exposure, abrasion and acid attack
(Amrhein, 1998; Nash, 1966).
2.4.3.4 Fire bricks
Fire bricks are used for fireplace lining, shafts, boilers, kiln and wood stoves, where
resistance to heat is required. These types of brick are made from deep-mined fire
clay of greater purity than other clays, and are strongly resistant to the effects of
heating and cooling cycles. Fire bricks are commonly larger than standard bricks
(Amrhein, 1998; Charles, 1992).
15
2.4.3.5 Sand-lime bricks
Sand lime bricks consist of lime and sand as the main materials in the
proportion of about 1:8. The mixture will contain a very small amount of
water. Sand lime bricks can be divided into four classes. The first type is
suitable for high strength or continuously being saturated with water. The
second type is built for general external facing work. Thirdly, the brick is
suitable for general external facing work in mortars and fourth, the brick is
suitable for internal work in mortars (Nash, 1966).
2.4.3.6 Concrete bricks
Concrete bricks employ cement and sand as the main raw materials. BS
1180 deals with the minimum requirement for these bricks. Another type of
concrete brick is made of cement and furnace clinker or fly ash (Amrhein,
1998).
2.4.4 Properties of fired clay brick
2.4.4.1 Density
Density is the mass relation of fired clay brick to the total volume. The firing
temperature can affect the particle density of the bricks due to contraction and
expansion. The bricks made with clay normally obtain bulk density averaging 1800
kg/m3 to 2900 kg/m
3. Density of frogging and hollow bricks are normally around
2000 kg/m3. Fired clay brick can still be classified as solid brick if there is less than
25% of perforation by volume (Virdi, 2012).
2.4.4.2 Compressive strength
Compressive strength is the maximum stress that can be handled by the brick under
crush loading. Compressive strength is designed by dividing the maximum load with
the original cross-sectional area of the brick. As it is widely known, bricks can resist
compaction strength higher than tension. Every type of brick has its own strength.
16
Engineering bricks tend to be dense and strong and can be classified into Class A and
Class B (BS 3921:1985) as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Compressive strength (BS 3921:1985)
Class Compressive strength
Engineering A
Engineering B
N/mm2
≥70
≥50
Damp-proof course 1
Damp-proof course 2
≥5
≥5
All others ≥5
Note 1: There is no direct relationship between compressive strength and water absorption as given in
this table and durability
Note 2: Damp-proof course 1 bricks are recommended for use in buildings whilst damp-proof course
2 bricks are recommended for use in external works (see Table 13 of BS 5628-2:1985)
2.4.4.3 Initial rate of suction (IRS)
Initial rate of suction functions to measure the ability of bricks by allowing water to
pass through it. To determine water absorption, there are several methods that can be
used to measure this test.
As a consequence of extensive research on the structural performance of
fired clay masonry, the importance of water absorption as a determinant of its
behaviour in flexure is recognized. There are three related levels of water absorption
towards the characteristics of flexural strengths used in the design which are less than
7%, between 12% and over 12%. Engineering bricks have low water absorption as
well as bricks for damp-proof courses (Table 2.3). The less water infiltrates into
brick, the higher the durability of the brick and resistance to the natural environment
(Lin et al., 2001).
17
Table 2.3: Water absorption/ initial rate of suction (BS 3921:1985)
Class Water absorption
Engineering A
Engineering B
≤4.5
≤7.0
Damp-proof course 1
Damp-proof course 2
≤4.5
≤7.0
All others No limits
Note 1: There is no direct relationship between compressive strength and water absorption as given in
this table and durability
Note 2: Damp-proof course 1 bricks are recommended for use in buildings whilst damp-proof course
2 bricks are recommended for use in external works (see Table 13 of BS 5628-2:1985)
2.4.4.4 Firing Shrinkage
The quality of bricks can be further assured according to the degree of firing
shrinkage. Specimens will be measured after being fired in the furnace. Normally a
good quality brick exhibits shrinkage below than 8%. Shrinkage is a measurement to
determine any changes of variation occurring in the brick within firing (Lin et al.,
2001).
2.4.5 Leachability
Leachability is a process of extracting minerals or heavy metals from a solid by
dissolving it to a liquid either naturally or human-made. In this study research, a
solid waste and samples exhibit the characteristics of toxicity according to the
Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test method 1311, Synthetic
Precipitation Leachate Procedure (SPLP) test method 1312 and Static Leachate Test
American Nuclear society (ANS- ANSi/ANS 16.1. 2003) . Material extraction from
the representative sample toxicity will be checked based on the Environment
Protection Agency (EPA) hazardous waste number in Table 2.4 which corresponds
to the toxic contaminant causing it to be dangerous and hazardous.
18
Table 2.4: Maximum concentration of contaminants for the toxicity characteristic
(Environmental Protection Agency, 2009)
EPA HW No.1 Contaminant CAS No.
2 Regulatory level (mg/L)
D004 Arsenic 7440-38-2 5.0
D005 Barium 7440-39-3 100.0
D006 Cadmium 7440-43-9 1.0
D007 Chromium 7440-47-3 5.0
D008 Lead 7439-92-1 5.0
D009 Mercury 7439-97-6 0.2
Notes:
1Hazardous waste number.
2Chemical abstracts service number.
3Quantitation limit is greater than the calculated regulatory level. The quantitation limit therefore
becomes the regulatory level.
4If o-,m-,and p- Cresol concentration cannot be differentiated, the total cresol (D026) concentration is
used. The regulatory level of total cresol is 200 mg/L.
2.4.5.1 Impact of heavy metals towards the environment and human health
Heavy metal refers to any metallic element which has a relatively high density and is
toxic or poisonous at lower concentrations (Morais et al., 2012; Duruibe et al., 2007;
Garbarino et al., 1995). Heavy metals are present in the environment due to human
activities like mining, fuel production, sludge dumping, chemical painting, galvanic
process, metallurgic, melting operation and ceramics (Nouri et al., 2009; Ziemacki et
al., 1989). Heavy metals in sludge are also a main concern in most investigation
researches and heavy metals such as Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb),
Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cu), Mercury, Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe) And Aluminium (Al)
(Kudakwashe et al., 2014; Majid et al., 2012; Oliveira et al., 2007) were studied.
Heavy metals are a natural element of the earth’s crust and easy to find.
According to Reena et al. (2011), exposure to heavy metals can cause deleterious
health effects in humans. Heavy metals that have contaminated the environment
could potentially harm animal and humans.
In developing countries, there is an enormous contribution of human
activities to the release of toxic chemicals, metals and metalloids into the
atmosphere. The problem of environmental pollution due to toxic metals has begun
to cause concern now in most major metropolitan cities (Reena et al., 2011). Food
19
chain contamination by heavy metals has become a burning issue in the recent years
because of their potential accumulation in the biosystems through contaminated
water, soil and air (Reena et al., 2011). Heavy metals are metal compounds that can
impact human health. There are several common heavy metals which are definitely
toxic such as Manganese (Mn), Arsenic (As), Barium (Ba), Nickel (Ni), Cadmium
(Cd), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Selenium (Se), and Silver (Ag) (Hariprasad et al.,
2013). Generally, these heavy metals occur naturally in the environment at low
levels. However, higher concentrations of heavy metals can be harmful.
2.4.5.1.1 Arsenic (As)
Aside from occurring in the environment, arsenic can be released in large quantities
through volcanic activity, erosion of rocks, forest fire and human activities
(Sieckhaus, 2009). Apart from that, arsenic is also found in paints, dyes, metals,
drugs, soaps and semiconductors. Arsenic is odourless and tasteless. Inorganic
arsenic is a known carcinogen and can cause cancer of the skin, lungs, liver and
bladder (Dikshith, 2009).
2.4.5.1.2 Barium (Ba)
Barium is a very abundant, naturally occurring metal and used for a variety of
industrial purposes. Barium compounds are used in drilling muds, paint, brick,
ceramics, glass and rubber. However, barium is not known to cause cancer. Exposure
to high concentrations of Barium can cause vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea,
difficulties in breathing, increased or decreased blood pressure, numbness around the
face and muscle weakness (Dikshith, 2011). Besides that, large amounts of barium
intake can cause high blood pressure, changes in heart rhythm and possibly death.
2.4.5.1.3 Cadmium (Cd)
Cadmium is a very toxic metal. All soils and rocks, including coal and mineral
fertilizers contain some amounts of Cadmium. It is used extensively in electroplating.
Long term exposure to Cadmium can lead to kidney disease, lung damage, and
fragile bones (Darwish, 2013).
20
2.4.5.1.4 Chromium (Cr)
Chromium is found in rocks, animals, plants and soil. Chromium compounds bind to
soil and are not likely to migrate to ground water. However, they are very persistent
in the water sediments. Chromium has been used in metal alloys such as stainless
steel, pigments for paints, cement, paper, rubber, composition floor covering and
other materials. Chromium can cause breathing problems, such as asthma and cough.
Skin contact with Chromium can cause skin ulcers and also allergic reaction
(Dikshith, 2011).
2.4.5.1.5 Lead (Pb)
As a result of human activities such as fossil fuel burning, mining and
manufacturing, lead and lead compounds can be found in all parts of our
environment. This includes air, soil and water. Lead is used in many different ways.
Lead can affect every organ and system in the body such as weakness in the fingers,
wrists or ankle; small increase in blood pressure and anemia. Exposure to high lead
levels can severely damage the brain and kidneys and possibly cause death
(Seneviratne, 2007). In pregnant women, high levels of exposure of lead may cause
miscarriage. Meanwhile, high level of lead exposure in men can damage the organs
responsible for sperm production (Anjum et al., 2012).
2.4.5.1.6 Mercury (Hg)
Mercury is an element that occurs during human activity or in the environment
naturally. Mercury can be found as a silver liquid form at room temperature. Mercury
is considered a heavy metal that can evaporate to form an odourless, colourless
vapour. The inhalation of mercury vapour affects the human nervous system,
digestive system and immune system (Wang et al., 2009).
21
2.4.6 Indoor Air Quality
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is a term that refers to the air quality within and around
buildings, structures and working places. IAQ is related to health and the comfort
level of closed areas where humans work. The Department of Occupational Safety
and Health (DOSH) has been following the Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air
Quality (ICOP-IAQ, 2010) and that has been stated as a standard requirement. These
standards give protection of health to employees and other occupants in an enclosed
environment.
Based on ICOP-IAQ, there are several assessments to be considered when
conducting the test. For example, the sources of indoor air contaminants, occupants’
exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and occupants’ exposure to air
contaminations, either from indoor or outdoor sources. The prescribed activities in
the building should also be considered. This test was conducted to ensure the
adequacy of mechanical ventilation at the place of work. It could also show the
necessary actions to be taken to improve the indoor air quality of the workplace.
Inspection provides basic information on the factors which affect indoor air
quality. The common measurements of the specific physical parameters and indoor
air contaminants are presented in Table 2.5 and Table 2.6 based on ICOP-IAQ.
Table 2.5: Acceptable range of specific physical parameters (ICOP-IAQ, 2010)
Parameter Acceptable range
(a) Air temperature 23-26 °C
(b) Relative humidity 40-70%
(c) Air movement 0.15-0.50 m/s
22
Table 2.6: List of indoor air contaminants and the acceptable limits (ICOP-IAQ,
2010)
Indoor air contaminants Acceptable limits
ppm mg/m3 Cfu/m
3
Chemical contaminants
a) Carbon monoxide
b) Formaldehyde
c) Ozone
d) Respirable particulates
e) Total volatile organic compounds (TVOC)
10
0.1
0.05
-
3
-
-
-
0.15
-
-
-
-
-
-
Biological contaminants
a) Total bacterial counts
b) Total fungal counts
-
-
-
-
500*
1000*
Ventilation performance indicator
a) Carbon dioxide
C1000
-
-
Notes :
For chemical contaminants, the limits are eight-hour time-weighted average airborne
concentrations.
mg/m3 is milligrams per cubic meter of air at 25° Celsius and one atmosphere pressure.
ppm is parts of vapour or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume.
cfu/m3 is colony forming units per cubic meter.
C is the ceiling limit that shall not be exceeded at any time. Readings above 1000ppm are
indication of inadequate ventilation.
*excess of bacterial counts does not necessarily imply health risk but serve as an indicator for
further investigation.
2.4.6.1 Impact of gas emissions towards the environment and human
health
Morani et al. (1995) and Godish (1995) had listed the main pollutants of indoor air
including inorganic, organic, and physical pollutants, environmental tobacco smoke,
combustion generated, microbial and biological contaminants and radioactive
pollutants.
23
2.4.6.1.1 Total volatile organic compounds (TVOC)
Total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) have received great attention due to its
high quantity and associated impact on health especially in indoor environments.
Guo and Murray (2001) defined TVOC as one single parameter that is simpler and
faster for the calculation of the concentrations (or emission rates) rather than
evaluating several dozens of individual VOCs. Sources of VOCs include carpets,
building materials, wood panels, paint, occupants, pets and other sources (Posudin,
2008).
2.4.6.1.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an odourless, colourless gas that is formed from burned
carbon containing substances. It is also produced by human metabolism and exhaled
through lungs. CO2 is a normal constituent of the earth atmosphere. The presence of
a high concentration of CO2 gases in indoor air may cause headaches, loss of
judgment, dizziness, drowsiness and rapid breathing (Hesskosa, 2011; Bearg, 1993).
2.4.6.1.3 Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odourless, tasteless and colourless gas. It is an
unreactive gas and readily penetrates from outdoors without undergoing significant
depletion by physical and chemical processes other than dilution through air
exchange. According to Jantunen (2006), CO may be generated from incomplete
combustion due to low quality fuel, poor mixing or low combustion. Once CO is
present in indoor air or outdoor air, it can be removed only by exchange with fresh
air. CO can cause irreversible brain damage, coma and even death in high
concentrations (Hesskosa, 2011).
2.4.6.1.4 Ozone (O3)
Ozone (O3) reactions that occur on material surfaces can lead to elevated
concentrations of oxidized products in the occupied space of buildings. It is very
reactive and easily reacts with unsaturated compounds that are commonly found in
24
typical buildings (Levin, 2008). A study by Morrison and Nazaroff (2002) found that
O3 also react with oils found in linseed oil which is composed primarily of esters of
linolenic, linoleic and oleic acids. Exposure to O3 emission may pose a greater health
hazard than the chemicals from which they are formed (Sakr et al., 2006).
2.4.6.1.5 Formaldehyde (HCHO)
Over the years, the release of HCHO in ambient air especially from building
products has been continuously decreasing. At room temperature, HCHO is a
colourless gas that is flammable and highly reactive. Sources of HCHO include
building materials such as wood products (plywood wall paneling, particleboard, and
fiberboard), combustion sources, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), durable press
drapes, textiles and glues (Salthammer et al., 2010).
2.4.6.1.6 Particulate matter (PM10)
Particulate matter (PM10) has been analysed for several years. According to Vitez
and Travnicek (2010), particle size is an important physical property of solids which
are used in many fields of human activity. A study by Branis et al. (2005) found that
sources of particulate matter are not only from indoor activities, but also from
outdoor activities. PM10 will negatively affect health such as effects on the breathing
and respiratory systems, aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases, damage to lung tissues and premature mortality (Jimoda, 2012).
2.4.7 Overview of sludge waste incorporated into fired clay brick
Sludge can be produced from many different sources and processes; waste settlement
to the drying process. Bricks are one of the flexible products that gained attention
from researchers to be incorporated into fired clay brick. Different types of sludge
materials such as wastewater sludge, water treatment sludge, marble sludge, effluent
treatment plants (textile industry) sludge and arsenic contaminated sludge have been
incorporated successfully into fired clay brick by previous researchers. Sludge will
be categorized into the textile sludge, water treatment sludge, sewage sludge and
other types of sludge.
REFERENCES
Abdul Kadir, A. & Abbas Mohajerani. Bricks: An excellent building material for
recycling wastes. Proceedings of the Lasted International Conference
Environmental Management and Engineering (EME 2011), July 4-6,
Calgary, AB, Canada. 2011: pp. 108-115.
Abdul Kadir, A. & Noor Amira Sarani. An overview of wastes recycling in fired clay
bricks. International Journal of Integrated Engineering. 2012. 4(2):53-69.
Abdul Latif, A. A. B. Ahmad Tarmizi Abd.Karim, Ahmad Shukri Ahmad, Mohd
Baharudin Ridzuan and Yung-Tse Hung. Phytoremediation of Metals in
Industrial Sludge by Cyperus Kyllingia-Rasiga, Asystassia Intrusa and
Scindapsus Pictus Var Argyaeus Plant Species. International Journal of
Integrated Engineering. 2012. 4(2) : 1-8.
Advameg (2015). How Produccts are Made Ceramic Tile. Retrieved on May 27,
2015, from: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Ceramic-Tile.html.
Aeroqual (2014). Gas Sensor Specification. Retrieved on May 26, 2015. from:
http://www.aeroqual.com/wp-content/uploads/Aeroqual-Gas-Sensor-
Specifications-V4.pdf
Agrawal, A., Loya, M. I. M., Rawani, A. M. An Empirical Study on Influence of
Quality on Adoption of Fly Ash Bricks. International proceedings of
Economics Development and Research (IPEDR). 2014. vol. 75(8) : pp 33-
35.
Alleman, J. E. Beneficial use of sludge in building components, 1. Concept review
and technical background. Interbrick 3. 1987. Vol. 2: 14-18.
Alleman, J. E. Beneficial use of sludge in building components. 2. Full-scale
production of sludge-amended bricks. Interbrick 5. 1989. Vol. 1: 28-32.
136
Alonso, S. R., Coz, A., Viguri, J. R., Andres, A. Recycling of foundry by-product in
the ceramic industry: Green and core sand in clay bricks. Construction and
building materials. 2012. 27: 97-106.
American National Standards Institution. Measurement Of The Leachability Of
Solidified Low-Level Radioactive Wastes By A Short-Term Test Procedure.
United State of America (USA). ANSi/ANS 16.1. 2003.
Amrhein, J. E. Reinforced Masonry Engineering Handbook: Clay and Concrete
masonry. 5th
Edition. United states of America: CRC Press LLC. 1998.
Anjum, N. A., Ahmad, I., Pereira, M. E., Duarte, A. C., Umar, S., Khan, N. A. The
Plant family Brassicaceae: Contribution Towards Phytoremediation:
Volume 21. New York, London: Springer. 2012.
Arya, C. Design of Structural Elements. 2nd
edition, Great Britain by Alden Press,
Oxford. 1994.
Asokan, P., Saxena, M., Asolekar, S. R. Hazardous Jarosite used in developing non-
Hazadours for engineering application. Journal of Hazardous Materials.
2006. Vol 137 (3): 1589-1599.
ASTM (American Society of Testing Materials), ASTM C67 Standard Test Method
for Sampling and Test Brick and Structural Clay Tile, Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Section 4, Construction, 04. 08, 04. 09, Soil and rock (I)
and (II), ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pa, USA, 1998.
Azeez, O., Ogundare, O., Oshodin, T. E., Olasupo, O. A., Olunlade, B. A..
Evaluation of the Compressive Strength of Hybrid Clay Bricks. Journal of
Minerals & Materials Characterization & Engineering. 2011. Vol 10 (7):
609-615.
Azo Material. Brick Walls and Brickwork – Vanadium Staining. 2013. Retrieved on
May 21, 2015. from : http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1399.
Babu R. G. & Ramana V. N. Durability of Bricks Cast with Industrial Sludge. IOSR
Journal of Machanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE. 2013. 6(4): 43-
46.
Baskar, R., Meera, S. B. K. M., Sundaram, S. Characterization and Reuse of Textile
Effluent Treatment Plant Waste Sludge In Clay Bricks. Journal of the
University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy. 2006. vol. 41(4): 473-
478.
137
Bearg, D. W. Indoor Air Quality and HVAC Systems. United States of America:
Lewis Publishers. 1993.
Bender, Joel, Hadley, John, G., Hellerstein, Jon, P., Hohman, Charles, M. Glass,
(2011). Ceramics and Related Materials. In Encyclopedia of Occupational
Health and Safety. Retrieved on May 27, 2015. from :
http://www.iloencyclopaedia.org/part-xiii-12343/glass-pottery-and-related-
materials/138-84-glass-pottery-and-related-materials/glass-ceramics-and-
related-materials.
Bettelheim, F., Brown, W., Campbell, M., Farrell, S. Introduction to General,
Organic and Biochemistry. 9th
Edition . United State of America:
Brooks/Cole Cangage Learning. 2000.
Blythe, L. J. and Arniella, E. F. Leachate Tests for Solidified Hazardous Wastes.
Proceeding of the 1991 Georgia Water Conference. The University Of
Georgia, Athens, Gerogia. 1991. pp. 341-343.
Boch, P. and Niepce, J. C. Ceramic Materials Processes, Properties and
Applications. London: ISTE LTD. 2007
Boesmans, B., Colon, F. J,. Velden, V. D. J. H. Laterizi prodotti con argilla e rifiuti
urbani. Proc. 5th CERP Conference. 1983. pp. 26-29.
Brosnan, D. A. & Hochlretner, W. Additions of oxidized sewage sludge in brick
manufacture as a means of revenue generation. Journal of the Canadian
Ceramic Society. 1992. vol. 61(2), pp. 128-134.
Branis, M., Hovorka, J., Smolik, J. & Lazaridis, M. The Effect of Outdoor Air and
Indoor Human Activity on Particulate Matter Concentrations in a
Experimental Flat. Proceeding of Healthy Building. Lisboa, 2005. vol 2, pp.
451-454.
British Standard Institution. Specification for Clay Bricks. London, BS3921. 1985.
British Standard Institution. Proctor Test. London, BS1377: Part 4. 1990.
British Standard Institution. Soil or Civil Engineering Purposes. London, BS 1377:
Part 2. 1990
Brick Industry Association. Manufacturing of brick . Reston Virginia: Technical
Notes. 2006. Retrieved on May 10, 2013. from:
http://www.gobrick.com/portals/25/docs/technical%20notes/tn9.pdf
Campbell, J. W. P. and Pryce. Brick A World History. Thames and Hudson: New
York, NY. 2003.
138
Carson (2014). Brick houses- Solid Masonry VS. Brick Veneer. Retrieved on May 27,
2015. from: http://www.carsondunlop.com/resources/articles/brick-houses-
solid-masonry-vs-brick-veneer/
Carter, C. B. and Norton, M. G. Ceramic materials: Science and Engineering.
London: Springer Science business Media. 2013.
Charles, R. S. Bricklaying: A homeowner’s illustrated Guide, 1st edition, United
States of America: McGraw-Hill Inc.1992.
Churchill, M. Aspects of sewage sludge utilization and its impact on brick making.
Global Ceramic, Review. 1994. Vol.1:18-21.
Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia (CIDB), (2013). List of
Construction Materials Manufacturers 2013. Retrieved on April 1, 2015.
from: https://www.cidb.gov.my/cidbv4/images/pdf/material/senarai
kilang_1.pdf
Consumer Product Safety Commission. (2015). United States Consumer Product
Safety Commission-carbon Monoxide Information Centre. Retrieved on
May 20, 2015. from: http://www.cpsc.gov/en/Safety-Education/Safety-
Education-Centers/Carbon-Monoxide-Information-Center 20/5
Critical Environment. (2012). Portable Indoor Air Quality Smart Sensor
Specifications. Retrieved on May 26, 2015. from: http://www.critical-
environment.com/media/Miscellaneous/1210-IAQ-Sensor-
Specification_web.pdf
Cusick, D. and Kirby, M. The Michaels Book of Arts & Crafts. New York: Sterling
Publishing Co. Inc. 2003.
Cultrone, G., Sebastian, E., Elert, K., Torre, M. J. D. L., Cazalla, O., Navarro, C. R.
Influence of Mineralogy and Firing Temperature on Porosity of Bricks.
Journal of The European Ceramic Society. 2004. Vol 24: 547-564.
Darwish, L. Earth repair: A grassroots guide to healing toxic and damaged
landscapes. Canada: New Society publishers. 2013.
Department of Environment, Malaysia (2015). Environmental Quality Act 1974.
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005. Retrived on
May 25 2015. from:
http://www.env.go.jp/en/recycle/asian_net/Country_Information/Law_N_Re
gulation/Malaysia/Malaysia%20EQA%20Scheduled%20Waste%202005.pd
f
139
Department of Environment, Malaysia (2014), Malaysia Environmental Quality
Report 2012, Selangor Darul Ehsan: OMR Press Sdn. Bhd.
Dikshith, T. S. S. Safe Use of Chemicals: A Practical Guide. United States of
America: Taylor & francis group, LLC. 2009.
Dikshith, T. S. S. Handbook of Chemicals and Safety. United States of America:
Taylor & francis group, LLC. 2011.
Dixon, C. J. Atlas of Economic Mineral Deposits. 7th
Edition. London: Chapman and
Hall. 2012.
Dondi, M., Marsigli, M. & Fabbri, B.. Recycling of industrial and urban wastes in
brik production- A review (Part 1). Tile & Brick International. 1997a. 13(3):
218-225.
Duruibe, J. O., Ogwuegbu, M. O. C. and Egwurugwu, J. N. Heavy metal pollution
and human biotoxic effects. International Journal of Physical Sciences.
2007. 2(5): 112-118.
Environment Protection Agency (EPA). Toxicity Concentration Leaching Procedure
(TCLP). Method 1311. 1992. Retrieved on April 1 2014 from:
http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/1311.pdf
Environment Protection Agency (EPA). Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure
(SPLP). Method 1312. 1994. Retrieved on April 1 2014 from:
http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/1312.pdf
Environment Protection Agency (EPA). 1997. Retrieved on May 23 2015 from:
http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch11/final/c11s03.pdf 23/5
Environment Protection Agency (EPA). Hazardous Waste Characteristics. 2009.
European Commission. (2015). Cut and Polished Tiles don’t have mean Waste Water
Sludge. Retrieved on April 3 2015 from:
https://ec.europa.eu/easme/en/news/cut-and-polished-tiles-don-t-have-mean-
wasted-water-and-sludge.
Fadaly, E. A. E. and Enany, A. E. Lead free Ceramic Cooking ware from Egyptian
Raw Materials. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied
Sciences. 2015. vol 4(4). pp. 474-487.
Ferraz, E., Coroado, J., Silva, J., Gomes, C. and Rocha, F.. Manufacture of Ceramic
Bricks using Recycled Brewing Spent Kieslguhr. Material and
Manufacturing Processes. 2011. 26.:1319-1329.
140
Fernandes, F. M., Lourenco P. B., Castro, Fernando. Ancient Clay bricks:
Manufacture and Properties. In Bostenaru, D., Maria, Poikrl, Richad, Torok,
Akos. (2010) Materials, Technologies and Practice in Historic Heritage
Structures. Romania: Springer Science Business Media. 2009.: 1-20.
Fonseca, B. S. D., Simao, J. A. R., Galhano, C.. Effect of coastal environment in clay
facing bricks and roof tiles. 1st Annual International Interdisciplinary
Conference. AIIC. 2013. : 432-440.
Fu, F. and Wang, Q.. Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewaster: A review.
Journal of Environmental Management. 2011. Vol 92 : 407-418.
Garbarino J. R., Hayes, H., Roth, D., Antweider, R., Brinton T. I., Taylor, H. 1995.
Contaminants in the Mississippi River, U.S. Geological Survey Circular
1133. Retrieved on May 12, 2015 from: www.pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1133
Geric M., Gajski, G., Orescanin, V., Kollar, R. Chemical and Toxicological
Characterization of The Bricks Produced from Clay/Sewage sludge Mixture.
Journal of Environmental Science and Health, part A. 2012. Vol 47: 1521-
1527.
Godish, T. Sick Building: Definition, Diagnosis and Mitigation. Lewis Publishers,
Boca Raton, Fl. 1995.
Gonzalez, G. M. M, and Islas, H. J. Experimental study of the firing of red clay
bricks using liquefied petroleum gas. Journal of Scientific & Industrial
Research. 2014. Vol 73: 661-666.
Graywolf. (2014). Graywolf Sensing Solution. Retrieved on May 26, 2015. from:
http://www.wolfsense.com/directsense-iaq-indoor-air-quality-monitor.html
Guo, H., & Murray, F. Determination of Total Volatile Organic Compound Emission
from Furniture Polishes. Clean Products and Processes. 2001. 3(1): 42-48.
Hariprasad N. V. and Dayananda H. S. Environmental Impact due to Agricultural
runoff containing Heavy Metals- A Review. International Journal of
Scientific and Research Publication. 2013. 3(5):1-6
Harwell, S. Overview of current approaches – Public Meeting on waste leaching
Session III-leaching Science, Proceedings of the Environment Protection
Agency. 1999.
Hashemi, H., Pourzamani, H., Samani, B. R. Comprehensive Planning for
Classification and Disposal of Solid Waste at the Industrial Parks regarding
141
Health and Environmental Impacts. Journal of Environmental and Public
Health. 2014 from Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/230163.
Hegazy, B. E., Hanan, A. F., and Ahmed, M. H. Brick Manufacturing from Water
Treatment Sludge and Rise Husk Ash. Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences. 2012. 6(3): 453-461.
Hegazy, B. E., Hanan, A. F., and Ahmed, M. H. Incorporation of Water Sludge,
Silica Fume and Rice Husk Ash in Brick Making. Advances in
Environmental Research. 2012. 1(1): 83-96.
Henze, M., Amy, G.,Brdjanovic, D., Comeau, Y., Ekama, G. A., Garcia, J. H. O.,
Gerba, C. P., Hooijmans, C. M., Judd, S., Kim, B., Lier, J. B. V., Mahmoud,
N., Martins, A. M., Morgenroth, E. F., Olsson, G., Rosso, D., Stenstrom, M.
K., Takacs, I., Loosdrecht, M. C. M. V., Wentzel, M. C., Zeeman, G.
Biological wastewater treatment. London: Cambridge University Press.
2008.
Herek, L. C. S., Hori, C. E., Reis, M. H. M., Mora, N. D., Tavares C. R. G.,
Bergamasco R. Characterization of ceramic bricks incorporated with textile
laundry sludge. Ceramics International. 2012. 38: 951-959.
Hesskosa, K.. Indoor Air quality: The Latest Sampling and Analytical Methods. 2nd
Edition. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis group, LLC. 2011.
Hii, Kevin., Mohajerani, A., Slatter, P. and Eshtiaghi, N. Reuse of Desalination
Sludge for Brick Making. Chemeca 2013:Challenging Tomorrow.Borton ,
ACT: Engineers Australia,.2013. 485-490.
Horstmeyer, S. L. (2013). Cape Cod Coaching. Retrieved on August 25, 2014. from:
http://www.capecodcoaching.com/blog/training-9213.
ICOP-IAQ. Industrial Code of practice on Indoor Air Quality. Department of
Occupational Safety and Health, Ministry of human Resources Malaysia.
2010.
Ingunza, D. M. P., Anazsandra C. L. Duarte and Nascimento R. M. Use of Sewage
Sludge as Raw Material in the Manufacture of Soft-Mud Bricks. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering. 2011. 852-856.
Ismail, M., Ismail, M. A., Lau, S. K., Muhammad, B. and Majid, Z. Fabrication of
Bricks from Paper Sludge and Palm Oil Fuel Ash. Concrete Research
Letters. 2010. 1(2):60-66.
142
Jacobsen, R. A. Mosaics For The First Time. New York: Sterling publishing Co. Inc.
2005.
Jahagirdar, S., Shrihari, S., Manu, B. Reuse of Textile Mill Sludge in Burnt Clay
Bricks. International Journal of Advanced Technology in Civil Engineering.
2013. 2(1): 96-99.
Jantunen, M. J. Indoor Air Exposure. Proceeding of the 10th International
Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Beijing, China .2005. pp.
23-30.
Jimoda, L. A. Effects of Particulate Matter on Human Health, the Ecosystem,
Climate and Materials: A Review. Working and Living Environmental
Protection. 2012. 9(1): 27-44.
Johari, I., Said, S., Hisham, B., Bakar, A., Ahmad, Z. A. Effect of the Change of
Firing Temperature on Microstructure and Physical Properties of Clay
Bricks from Beruas (Malaysia). Science of Sintering, 2010. vol 42: 245-254.
John, V. M. & Zordan, S. E. Research and development methodology for recycling
residues as building materials - a proposal. Waste Management, (2001)
vol.21: 213-219.
Karaman, S., Ersahin. S. and Gunal. H. Firing temperature and firing time influence
on mechanical and physical properties of clay bricks. Journal of Scientific &
Industrial Research. 2006. 65:153-159.
Kayali, O.. High Performance Bricks from Fly Ash. World of Coal Ash (WOCA).
2005. 1-13.
Kelly, N. and Trebilcock, M. J. The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian
Immigration Policy. 2nd
edition. Canada: University of Toronto Press
Incorporated. 2000.
Kerkez, V., Tomin, M. R. B., Dalmacija, M. B., Tomasevic, D. D., Roncevic, S. D.,
Pucar, G. V., Dalmacija, B. D. Leachability and physical stability of
solidified and stabilized pyrite cinder sludge from dye effluent treatment.
Hem. Ind. 2015. Vol 69(3): 231-239.
Khezri, S. M., Poshtegal, M. K., Khoramipour, S. and Ghafori, P. Use of Aluminium
Anodizing Sludge Cake In manufacture of Bricks. Journal of Food,
Agriculture & Environment. 2010. 8(3&4):1158-1161.
Kim, H.B.(Ed.),. Handbook of Stability Testing in Pharmaceutical Development.
New York, USA: Springer. 2009.
143
Kogel, J. E., Trivedi, N. C., Barker, J. M., Krukowski, S. T. Industrial Minerals &
Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses. 7th
edition. Society for mining,
Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. (SME). United States of America.
Koratich, D. (2009). Dry shrinkage. Retrieved on 20 November, 2013 from :
http://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/cracking/dryshri
nkage/dryingshrinkage.html
Kosson, D. S., Sloot, H. A. V. D., Scanhez, F., Garrabrants, A. C. An Integrated
Framework for Evaluating Leaching In Waste Management and Utilization
of Secondary Materials. Environmental Engineering Science. 2002. Vol.
19(3): 154-204.
Kreh, R. T. Masonry Skills, 7th
edition. United States of America: Cencage learning.
2015.
Kudakwashe, K. S. and Gumbo J. R. Assessment of Heavy Metals in Manucipal
Sewage Sludge: A Case Study of Limpopo Province, South Africa.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014.
11:2569-2579.
Kulkarni, A., Raje, S., Peerzada, S., and Rajgor, M.. A Miniscule Endeavour for
Accomplishing Hypo Sludge Fly Ash Brick in Indian Context. International
Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT). 2014. 10(7):361-
365.
Kuo, Y. M., Lin, T. C., Tsai, P. J.. Effect of SiO2 on Immobilization of Metals and
Encapsulation of a Glass Network in Slag. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 53
(2003). 1412-1416.
Kuokkanen, T., Poykio, R., Nurmesniemi, H., and Ramo, J. Sequential leaching of
heavy metals and sulfur in bottom ash and fly ash from the co-combustion
of wood and peat at a municipal district heating plant. Chem. Speciat.
Bioavail., (2006) 18: 131 – 141.
Labrincha, J. A., Hajjaji, W., Sneff, L., Zanelli, C., Dondi, M., Rocha, F. Novel
inorganic products based on industrial wastes. 3rd
International Slag
Valorisation Symposium. 2013. 279-288.
Lateef, E. M., Hall, J. E., Smith, S. R., Bakry, B. A., Elewa, T. A. A Survey of
Heavy Metals content of Soil and plants As Affected by Long-Term
Applcation of Sewage Water. A Case Study. E3S Web of conferences 1.
2013.
144
Lau, H. H., Whyte, A., Law, P. L., Composition and Characteristic of Construction
Waste Generated By Residential Housing Project. International journal of
Environmental Research. 2008. 2(3): 61-268.
Levin, H. The Big Indoor Air Emissions Threat – Secondary Emission, World
Sustainable Building Conference. Melbourne. 2008.
Liew, A. G., Idris, A., Samad, A. A., Calvin., Wong, H. K., Jaafar, M. S., &
Aminuddin, M. B. Incorporating of Sewage in Clay Brick and its
Characterization. Waste Management & Research. 2004. Vol. 24: 226-233.
Lin, D. F. and Weng, C. H.. Use of Sewage Sludge Ash as Brick Material. Journal of
Environmental Engineering. 2001. 127(10).
Lin, K. L., Huang, L. S., Shie, J. L., Cheng, C. J., Lee, C. H., Chang T. C.
Elucidating the effects of solar panel waste glass substitution on the physical
and mechanical characteristic of clay bricks. Environment Technologies.
2013. Vol 34(1-4): 15-24.
Liu, B., Ray, A. and Thomas, P. S. Drying Shrinkage of Hydrothermally Cured
Cements With Reactive Magnesia and Clay Brick Waste. International
Inorganic Banded Fiber Composities Conference. 2010.: 90-95.
Majid, N. M., Islam, M. M. and Mathew, L. Heavy metal uptake and translocation by
mangium (Acacia Mangium) from sewage sludge contaminated soil.
Australian Journal of Crop Science. 2012. 6(8): 1228-1235.
Malaysia Mosaic Berhad (MMB). Welcome to Malaysia Mosaic Berhad: Enhancing
Human Spaces Ecologically. Johor, Malaysia. 2015.
Malhotra, V. M. and Chugh Y. P. Tile, Countertops and Strutural Materials from
Sulfate-Rich FGD Scrubber Sludge. Combustion Byproduct Recycling
Consortium. 2005. 6(1): 1-8.
Marangoni, M., Ponsot, I., Kuusik, R., Bernardo, E. Strong and Chemically inert
sinter crystallised glass ceramics based on Estonian oil shale ash. Institute of
Materials, Minerals and Mining. 2014. Vol 113(2): 120-128.
Masirin, M. I. Ridzuan, M.B. Mustapha, S. Don, R. An Overview of Landfill
Management and Technologies: A Malaysian Case Study At Ampar
Tenang, Proceedings 1st National Seminar on Environment, Development &
Sustainability: Ecological, Economical and Social Aspects. (2008)
Mckay, W. B., Brickwork. 3rd
edition. United States of America: Longman Inc. New
York. 1976.
145
Mesaros, R. Use of sludge from the manucipal sewage system for brick making. New
life for an obsolescent brickworks, Ziegel industries International 5. 1989.
251-254.
Michael, S. M. and John, P. Z. Material For Civil and Construction Engineers. 2nd
Edition. New Jersey: Pearson, Prentice Hall. 2006.
Min, X., Qianwen S., Xiaobo, L., Yumei, D. Experimental Study On Production Of
Common Sintered Bricks Containing High Volume Of Waterworks Sludge.
International Conference on Computer Distributed and Intelligent
Environmental Monitoring. 2011.794-796.
Montanaro, L., Bianchini, N., Rincon, J. Ma., Romero, M. Sintering Behaviour of
Pressed Red Mud Wastes from Zinc Hydromettalurgy. Ceramics
International. 2001. vol 27 (1): 29-37.
Morais, S., Costa, F. G. and Pereira, M. L. Heavy Metals and Human Health. In
Jacques Oosthuizen. Environmental Health- Emerging Issues and Practice.
Crotia. InTech Europe. 2012.
Morani, M., Seifert, T., & Lindvall. Indoor Air Quality. A Comprehensive Reference
Book. Amsterdam-Laussane-New York-Oxford-Shannon-Tokyo, pp. 1049.
1995.
Morrison, G. C. & Nazaroff, W. W. Ozone Interaction with Carpets: Secondary
Emissions of Aldehydes, Environment Science & Technolgy. 2002. 36 (10):
2185-2192.
Nash, W. G. Brickwork 1. 3rd
edition. Great Britain: Anchor Brendon Ltd, Tiptree ,
Essex. 1966.
Nouri, J., Khorasani, N., Lorestani, B., Karami, M., Hassani, A.H. and Yousefi, N.
Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Soil and Uptake by Plant Species with
Phytoremediation Potential. Environment. Earth Science. 2009. 59: 315–
323.
Ngoc, UN., Schintzer, H. Sustainable solution for solid waste management in south
East Asian Countries. Waste Management and Research 2009, 2(9):1982-
95.
Nwoye, C. I., Obidiegwu, E. O. and Mbah, C. N. Production of Bricks for Building
Construction and Predictability of its Post-Fired Volume Shrinkage Based
on Apparent Porosity and Water Absoption Capacity. Research and Reviews
Journal of Material Sciences. 2014. vol 2 (3):17-26.
146
Oliveira, A. S., Bocio, A., Trevilato, T. M., Takayanagui, A. M., Domingo, J. L.,
Segura-Munoz, S. L. Heavy metals in untreated/treated urban effluent and
sludge from a biological wastewater treatment plant. Environment Science
Pollution Research International. 2007. 14(7): 483-489.
Pacyga, D. A. and Shanabruch, C. The Chicago Bungalow. Great Britain: Arcadia
Publishing. 2003.
Pavia, S. and Hanley, R. Flexural bond strength of natural hydraulic lime mortar and
clay brick. Material and Structures. 2010. Vol 43: 913-922.
Perbadanan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam (PPSPPA). Buku Poket
:Maklumat Asas Pengurusan dan Pengoperasian Sisa Pepejal &
Pembersihan Awam di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 2014.
Petrucci, E. G. R. Construction materials, 11th
Edition. Globo: Porto Alegre. 1998.
Posudin, Y. Volatile Organic Compounds in Indoor Air: Scientific, Medical and
Instrumental Aspects. National University of Life and Environmental
Sciences of Ukraine. 2008.
Preez, A. FCS Civil & Constuction Technology L4. 1st Edition. South Africa: Pearson
Education South Africa (Pty) Ltd. 2009.
Punmia, B. C., Jain, A. K,. Jain. A. K. Basic Civil Engineering. 5th
edition. New
Delhi: Laxmi Publications (p) LTD. 2003.
Qiang, X. Nanoporous Materials: Synthesis and Applications. United States of
America: CRC Press, Taylor & Francais Group. 2013.
Qio , L. and Ho, G. The Effects of Clay Amendment and Composting On Metal
Speciation in Digested Sludge. Water Research. 1997. Vol 31(5): 951-964.
Rajgor, M., Pitroda. J. Stone Sludge: Economical Solution for Manufacturing of
Bricks. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring
Engineering (IJITEE). 2013. 2(5): 16-20.
Ramadan, M. O., Hanan, A. F. and Ahmed, M. H. Reuse of Water Treatment Plant
Sludge in Brick Manufacturing. Journal of Applied Sciences Research.
2008. 4(10):1223-1229.
Reena, S., Gautam, N., Mishra, A. and Gupta, R. Heavy metals and living systems:
An overview. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 2011. 43(3): 246-253.
Reeves, G. M., Sims, I., Cripps, J.C.. Clay Materials Used in Construction. London:
The Geological Society. 2006.
147
Riza, F. V., Rahman, I. A. Zaidi, A. M. A. A Brief Review of Compressed Stabilized
Earth Brick (CSEB). International Conference on Science and Social
Research (CSSR 2010), 2010. 1011- 1016.
Rouf, M. A. & Hossain, M. D. Effects of using arsenic iron sludge in brick making.
Fate of Arsenic in the Environment, Proceedings of the BUET-UNU
International Symposium, 5–6 February, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2003, 193-
208.
Saijun Z. Experiment on Making Autoclaved Sludge Bricks with Water-Treatment
Plant Sludge. Scientific Research Fund of Human Provincial Education
Department. IEEE. 2011. 6568-6571.
Salthammer, T., Mentese, S., & Marutzky, R.. Formaldehyde in the Indoor
Environment. Chemical. Review. 2010. 110(4): 2536-2572.
Segadaes, A. M., Carvalho, M. A., Acchar, W. Using Marble and granite rejects to
enhance the processing of clay product. Applied Clay Science. 2005. 30(1):
42-52.
Seneviratne, M.. A Practical Approach to Water Conservation for Commercial and
Industrial Facilities. Great Britain: Elsevier Ltd. 2007.
Sengupta, P., Saikia, N. Borthakur, P. C. Bricks from Petroleum Effluent treatmant
plant Sludge: Properties and Environmental Characteristics. Journal of
Environmental Engineering. 2002. 28(11): 1090-1094.
Sengupta, P., Dutta, D. K., Goswamee, R. L., Saikia, N., Borthakur, P. C. Combating
hazardous Sludge Disposal Problem at Lakwa (India) Oil Field Effluent.
SPE No. 39533, Proc, SPE Oil and Natural Gas Conf. And Exhibiton,
Society of Petroluem Engineers. 1998. pp. 279-284.
Sidrak F. G., Biofly Engineering Reuse of Fly Ash and Sewage Sludge Brick. Ph.D.
Thesis. University of Wolonggong (Australia), 1996.
Sieckhaus, J. F. Chemicals, Human Health, and the Environment: A Guide to the
Development and Control of Chemical and Energy Technology. United
states of America : Xlibris corporation. 2009.
Siefers, A. M.. A novel and cost-effective hydrogen sulfide removal technology using
tire derived rubbe particles. Master Thesis. Iowa State University: 2010.
Silva M. D. M., Araujo, A. S. F., Nunes, L. A. P. L., Melo, W. J. D., Singh, R. P.
Heavy metals in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) after tannery sludge
148
compost amendment. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research. 2013 vol.
73(3).
Slim, J. A., Wakefield, R. W. The utilization of sewage sludge in manufacture of
clay bricks. Water SA. 1991. vol. 17(3).
Stringfellow, A., Banks, C. J., Hillman, P. F. (2001). The Influence of Conposing on
Heavy metal Extractability from Two Sewage Sludges. In Dhir R. K.,
Limbachiya M. C., McCarthy M. J. Recycling and Reuse of sewage sludge.
London: Thomas Telford Publishing. pp 118-124.
Struck, T. P.. (2009). Mosaic. Retrieved on 14 April, 2013 from:
http://www.classics.upenn.edu/myth/php/tools/dictionary.php.
Tay, J. H. Bricks manufactured from sludge. Journal Environment Engineering.
1987. Vol. 113(2): 278.
Tay, J. H. Show, K. Y. and Hong, S. Y. The Application of Industrial Sludge and
Marine Clay in Brick-Making. Journal of the Chinese Institute of
Environmental Engineering. 2001. 11(3): 203-208.
Varghese, P. C., Building materials. 2nd
edition. Delhi: PHI Learning Private
Limited. 2015.
Victoria A. N. Characterisation and Performance Evaluation of Water Works Sludge
As Brick Material. International Journal of Engineering and Applied
Science. 2013. 3(3): 69-79.
Violante, A., Cozzzolino, V., Perelomov, L., Caporale, A. G. and Pigna, M. Mobilitu
and BioVailability of Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Soil Environment.
Journal of Soil Science and plant Nutrition. 2010. vol 10(30): 268-292.
Virdi, S. Construction Science and Materials.1st Edition. United States of America:
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2012.
Vitez, T. & Travnicek, P. Particle Size Distribution of Sawdust and Wood Shavings
Mixture. Research Agriculture Engineering. 2010. 56(4): 154-158.
Sakr, W., Weschler, C. J., & Fanger, P. O. (2005). The impact of Sorption on
perceived air quality. International Journal of Indoor Environment and
Health. 2006. 6(2): 98-110.
Wang, L. K., Chen, J. P., Hung, Y., Shammas, N. K. Heavy Metals in the
Environment. United States of America: Taylor & Francis Group.LLC.
2009.
149
Weldemarian, M. M.. Heavy Metal (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Cr and Fe) Content in Almeda
Textile Industry Sludge, Northern Tigrai, Ethiopia. International Journal of
scientific and Research Publications. 2014. vol 4(1). pp. 1-3.
Weng, C.H., Lin, D. F., Chiang, P. C. Utilization of Sludge as brick materials.
Advance in environment research. 2003. 7(1): 679-685.
Werle, S. and Dudziak, M. Analysis of organic and Inorganic Contaminants in Dried
Sewage Sludge and By Products of Dried Sewage Sludge Gasification.
Journal Energies. 2014. 462-476.
Xu, G., Liu, M., Li G. Stabilization of heavy metals in lightweight aggregate made
from sewage sludge and river sediment. Journal of Hazardous Materials.
2013. Vol 260: 74-81.
Zaidi, A., Wani, P. A., Khan, M. S. Toxicity of Heavy Metals to Legumes and
Bioremediation. India: Springer Verlag Wien. 2012.
Ziemacki, G. Viviano, G. and Merli, F. Heavy metals: Sources and Environment
Presence. Ann. 1st Super Sanita. 1989. 25(3): 531-536.
Zorpas, A. Heavy Metals Removal from Sewage Sludge Compost Using Natural
Zeolite- A Function of Temperature and Contact Time. In Dhir, R. K.,
Limbachiya, M. C., McCarthy, M. J. Recycling and Reuse of sewage sludge.
London. Thomas Telford Publishing. pp. 112-117. 2001.
Zumdahl, S. and Zumdahl, S. Chemistry. 8th
Edition. United State of America:
Nelson Education Ltd. 2010.
