‘‘Proper words in proper places, Proper words in proper places, make the true definition of a make the true definition of a style’ style’

Jonathan Swift, Jonathan Swift, Letter to a young Letter to a young clergymanclergyman

End-focusEnd-focus ‘is based on the general fact that ‘is based on the general fact that different parts of utterances have different parts of utterances have different communicative values … and different communicative values … and that normally that normally newnew or important or important information is reserved for the end … information is reserved for the end … e.g. e.g. Good food costs less Good food costs less at at Sainsbury’s’Sainsbury’s’

Katie Wales, Katie Wales, Dictionary of Stylistics, Dictionary of Stylistics, p. p. 144144

OursOurs was was the marsh countrythe marsh country

????The marsh countryThe marsh country was was oursours

End-weight:End-weight:‘…complex or “heavy” ‘…complex or “heavy” constituents will tend to follow constituents will tend to follow simpler or lighter ones.’simpler or lighter ones.’

Katie Wales, Katie Wales, Dictionary of StylisticsDictionary of Stylistics, p. , p. 145145

OursOurs was was the marsh country, the marsh country, down by the river, within, as down by the river, within, as the river wound, twenty miles the river wound, twenty miles of the sea.of the sea.

????The marsh country, down by the The marsh country, down by the river, within, as the river wound, river, within, as the river wound, twenty miles of the seatwenty miles of the sea, was , was oursours..

The small bundle of shivers The small bundle of shivers growing afraid of it all and growing afraid of it all and beginning to cry,beginning to cry, was was PipPip..

????PipPip was was the small bundle of shivers the small bundle of shivers growing afraid of its all and beginning to growing afraid of its all and beginning to cry.cry.

… … that that this bleak place overgrown with this bleak place overgrown with nettlesnettles was was the churchyardthe churchyard;;and that and that Philip Pirrip, late of this parish, and Philip Pirrip, late of this parish, and also Georgiana wife of the above,also Georgiana wife of the above, werewere dead and burieddead and buried;;and that and that Alexander, Bartholomew, Abraham, Alexander, Bartholomew, Abraham, Tobias, and Roger, infant children of the Tobias, and Roger, infant children of the aforesaid,aforesaid, were were dead and burieddead and buried;;and that and that the dark flat wilderness beyond the the dark flat wilderness beyond the churchyard, intersected with dykes and churchyard, intersected with dykes and mounds and gates, with scattered cattle mounds and gates, with scattered cattle feeding on it,feeding on it, was was the marshesthe marshes;;

and thatand that the low leaden line beyond the low leaden line beyond

waswas the riverthe river;;

and that and that the distant savage lair from the distant savage lair from which the wind was rushingwhich the wind was rushing

waswas the seathe sea

and that and that the small bundle of shivers the small bundle of shivers growing afraid of it all and beginning growing afraid of it all and beginning to cry, to cry,

was was PipPip..

thethe seasea thethe marshesmarshes

Ours was Ours was thethe marsh countrymarsh country, down by , down by thethe riverriver

thethe dark flat wildernessdark flat wilderness

tthehe distant savage lair... distant savage lair...

thethe small bundle of shiverssmall bundle of shivers......

NP1 NP1 was was NP2NP2

that dark flat wilderness that dark flat wilderness beyond the churchyard... beyond the churchyard... was was ““the marshesthe marshes””

ViewpointsViewpoints

• The viewpoint of the author (Dickens) The viewpoint of the author (Dickens) addressing the readeraddressing the reader

• The viewpoint of the adult PipThe viewpoint of the adult Pip

• The viewpoint of the young PipThe viewpoint of the young Pip

The end approaches……….The end approaches……….The end is here. The end is here.