Project report on visit on Unguja island, Zanzibar archipelago€¦ · Unguja Island is part of the...
Transcript of Project report on visit on Unguja island, Zanzibar archipelago€¦ · Unguja Island is part of the...
Project report on visit on Unguja island, Zanzibar
archipelagoIslanddescriptionandfarmobservations
Name:CaroleAliceEpper
Volunteeringperiod:November–December2015
Email:[email protected]
Phone:+41768237003
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TableofcontentsIntroduction......................................................................................................................................1
Differentfarmtypesvisited.........................................................................................................6
Farmerproducingvegetables...................................................................................................................................6Associationofdifferentfamiliesproducingvegetables.................................................................................8Hectaremanagedbydifferentfamilies.................................................................................................................9Farmermanagingabananaplantation...............................................................................................................11Governmentalfruittreeproductionsite............................................................................................................13Farmermanagingabigvegetableplantation..................................................................................................14
Discussionandpersonalconsiderations..............................................................................16
References......................................................................................................................................17
Appendix.........................................................................................................................................18
ListoffurtherliteratureaboutUngujaisland,Zanzibararchipelago....................................................18
ListofFiguresFigure 1: Geology of Unguja Island. Picture taken from Bron Sikat, 2011 (modifications of
Johnsonsreview(1984)).QstandsforquaternaryageandMforMioceneage........................2Figure2: Soil typesonUnguja Island.Figure taken fromBronSikat,2011 (basedonHettige,
(1990)).Ontheleft:distributionoftheeighttypesofsoilspresentontheisland(grayish
mchanga, kinamo, kinongo, maweni, reddishmchanga, sandymchanga, swampywanda
anduwanda).Ontheright:threewaterinfiltrationrates(A:highinfiltration,B:moderate
infiltration,C:veryslowinfiltration).............................................................................................................2Figure3:Landuseandcover.FiguretakenfromBronSikat,2011...........................................................4Figure 4: Main cities on Unguja Island. Figure taken from
http://landenverzamelaars.nl/img/kaarten/zanzibar.gifon28.03.2016....................................6
ListofpicturesPicture1.a:Manureproduction 1.b:Detailoftheirrigationsystem..........................................7Picture2.a:Tomatoproduction 2.b:Soilonthefield.........................................................................8Picture3.a:soilonthefield 3.b:Tomatoesdamagedbyblossomendrot............................10Picture4:Papayaandcassavaproduction................................................................................................10Picture5:FieldusedforriceproductionduringDecember–April,othercropsorlettorest
fortherestoftheyear........................................................................................................................................10Picture6:Soilinthebananaplantation.....................................................................................................12Picture7:Bananaplantation...........................................................................................................................12
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Picture8:Bananaplantationandirrigationsystem.............................................................................13Picture9:Viewoftheseedlingfarm............................................................................................................13Picture10:Graftingofmangotrees.............................................................................................................14Picture11:Citrusseedlingsproductionandcoveragefromthesunradiation........................14Picture12:Tomatoproductionandoverviewofafield.....................................................................15
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Introduction
IspentsevenweeksvolunteeringfortheCAAA(lescollégiensAkadiensetleurs
AmisAfricains)onUngujaisland,Zanzibarislandsarchipelago.ThisSwissorganisation
supportsthepopulationontheislandbylunchingdifferentschoolsinordertogivethem
aneducation,whichintheorganisation’sopinionisthebestweaponagainstpoverty.In
their second project, they are opening a training school for farmers and hotel
management andahostel.Thus, besides the education, the students canalreadyhave
their first training at the hostel and on the farm field next to the school. The island’s
income is mainly ensured by tourism. With the training that this school offers local
peoplehaveabetterchancetoconnecttothejobmarketontheisland.
During my stay, I visited some farms around the school area to get a better
understandingofthelocalfarmpracticesandtofigureoutpossiblesubjectsthatcould
betaughtatschool.
UngujaIslandispartoftheZanzibarislandsarchipelagointhesouthwestofthe
IndianOceanandislocatedbetween4°30’and6°30’latitudeand39°and40°longitude
(BronSikat,2011).Ungujaislandisabout35kmfarfromtheAfricaneast-coastandhas
a total area of about 1’554 km2 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2015). The archipelago is
part of the United Republic of Tanzania since 1964 and nowadays it is a semi-
autonomous region of Tanzania (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2015). In 2011 editors of
countrySTATestimatedapopulationof794’000inhabitants(99%ofthemaremuslim)
onUngujaisland(EditorsofcountrySTAT,2011).
ThemasterthesiswrittenbyBronSikat(2011)compilesacomprehensiveview
on physiography, geology, hydrology, soil types, climate and land use. The climate on
Unguja Island is characterised by two rain seasons (long rains duringMarch-Mai and
shorter rain intervals during October-December) and two differentmonsoons (warm
and dry northeast monsoon in January-February, and cooler southwest monsoon in
June-September) (FINNIDIA et al., 1991). In the northern and southern parts of the
islandtheprecipitationamountsarelowerthaninthemiddleoftheisland.Theaverage
temperaturesfluctuatebetween28°CinJanuarydowntoabout24°CinAugust.
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Figure1:GeologyofUnguja Island.Picture taken fromBronSikat, 2011 (modificationsof Johnsons review
(1984)).QstandsforquaternaryageandMforMioceneage.
Thefigureshowingthegeologyoftheisland(Fig.1)presentssixdifferenttypes
of stones. Coralline limestone (Q2) is evidently the most often found stone type,
followed by sandy clay soils (M3),Miocene limestone (M2) and recent deposits (Q1).
Thesetypesofstonesmaydeducethedevelopingofthesoilsduringtime.
Figure2:SoiltypesonUngujaIsland.FiguretakenfromBronSikat,2011(basedonHettige,(1990)).Onthe
left:distributionoftheeighttypesofsoilspresentontheisland(grayishmchanga,kinamo,kinongo,maweni,
reddishmchanga,sandymchanga,swampywandaanduwanda).Ontheright: threewater infiltrationrates
(A:highinfiltration,B:moderateinfiltration,C:veryslowinfiltration).
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Mchanga (“sand” in Swahili) are sandy soils and have high to moderate
infiltration rates. Sandy mchanga is built on recent, non-calcareous sediments and
partially from greyish to white limestone containing hard siliceous bands (Hettige,
1990). Greyish mchanga soils (ferric and gleyic acrisol) are imperfectly drained and
partiallyanoxicinthelowersoillayersandhavepHvaluesaround4.5-5.0.Mostofthe
fruit trees are growing on this soils (bananas, citrus, coconut and durian), aswell as
pineapple, cassava and sweet potato. Reddishmchanga soils (haplic acrisol) are well
leaching,have lowsolublesalt contentsandslightlyacidicpH(about5.5),whichdoes
not decreases with increasing soil depth. There is an evenly distributed calcium
availabilityandabout1%oforganiccarbonpresent.Onthesesoils, thesamecropsas
thegreyishmchangacanbeproduced,andadditionally,alsoclovetreescanbeplanted
well.Sandymchanga(arenosol)arealmostpuresandysoils.Thereare twomainsub-
groupspresent,areni-dystricaresonolsandambicarenosols.Thefirstoneiscomposed
ofa50cmloamysandstratumfollowedbyauniformsandyclayloamlayer,whilethe
secondhasamorepronouncedloamysandstratum(about100cm)(Hettige,1990).
TheKinamogroupderives fromclayeyparentmaterial andhasvery restricted
drainage flow.Theyshowhighcracks in thesoil structure,andclumpsaresometimes
veryhardtobreak.Subgroupsfollowingarepartofthekinamogroup:gleyiccambisols,
cambicarenosols,nitisols,eutricandcalcicvertisols.
Kinongosoilsaremostlybuiltonweatheredlimestonematerialandhaveahigh
infiltration rate. There are five subgroups of kinongo soils: rhodic ferralsol, calcaric
cambisol,chromiccambisol,mollicleptosolandlithicleptosol,Ingeneral,theyhaveapH
around 6.4-7.0, an organic carbon content of 2-20 % and medium cation exchange
capacity. They are used for the production of different fruit trees (coconut, mango,
citrus, banana and sometimes cloves), pineapples, cassava, sweet potatoes, and for
arable crops. They differ in clay particle ratios, which give them different cation
exchange capacity and moisture ability (Hettige, 1990). There are two particular
subgroups that are obvious in higher amounts on Unguja Island. Uwanda (mollic
leptosol) is characterisedbya reddish colour,highhumic contents (organic carbonof
about6.8%),neutralorslightlyalkalinepH(6.5-7.0)andasoildepthofabout30cm
overtheporouslimestoneparentmaterial.Italsohasahighcontentofboehimiteclay
andtherest isresultsofvermiculite,whichisalmosttheonlysourceofwaterholding
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capacity. These soils are mostly used for open grassland, without any type of
intervention. The second soil, Maweni (rendzic and lithic leptosols) encloses black
humicclumps,hasahighorganiccarboncontent(about20.3%),analkalinepH(about
8)andatypicalforestrysoil.Sometimescultivationshiftingtakesplaceaftercuttingand
burning the present vegetation. Cassava, banana, papaya, tomatoes and chilli are
possiblecropsforthisrotation.Swampywandaisalsopartofthekinongosoils,butno
furtherdescriptionwillbegivenhere.
Figure3:Landuseandcover.FiguretakenfromBronSikat,2011.
Thelanduseandcoverareveryimportantfactorstodefinehowmostofthesoils
are used and howhigh the exploitation ratemight be. Forest and bushes covermore
than50%ofUnguja Island followedbyagriculturewithonly15%.OnUnguja island
farmers produce root crops (sweet potato, yams, cassava and taro), vegetables
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(tomatoes,onions,pepper,chilli, squashandpumpkins), leguminous(pigeonpeasand
peanutsandgroundnuts),cereals(paddyrice,wheat,sorghumandmilletandcorn)and
different fruits (papaya, pineapple, mangoes, bananas, passion fruit and coconut)
(EditorsofcountrySTAT,2012).
In agricultural practices some external substances are applied on the soil.
Unfortunatelyonlythefertilizeramountsandnotthetypesoffertilizersaregivenbythe
editorsofcountrySTAT.Itmightnotbeexcludedthatthemostappliedfertilizerisurea
and only a small part of superphosphate is used (2008). There are no data about
pesticidesapplications.
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Differentfarmtypesvisited
ThevisitedfarmswhereinMakunduchiandoneinBungi.UnfortunatelyIcannotspeak
Swahili,whichmade it verydifficult tome to get very technical informationbut I am
very grateful to Apro, who helped me as simultaneous interpreter. The general
information and land estimation presented should though give an idea on the
agriculturalpractices.
Figure4:MaincitiesonUngujaIsland.Figuretakenfrom
http://landenverzamelaars.nl/img/kaarten/zanzibar.gifon28.03.2016
Farmermkulimawambogambogaproducingvegetables
The first field visited is from a farmer, mkulima wa mbogambog, producing
vegetables. The landwas passed on fromhis father.He has no particular educational
background,ismarriedandhastwochildren.Heismanagingabout0.4haoflandonits
own.At themomentthe field issplit intotwomainparts.Hedoesarotation inwhich
onepart is left to rest andon theotherpart of landheproducespepper, tomato and
onions.
Hehasawatertankof5’000Lcapacityandanirrigationsystemforhalfofthecultivated
land. Thewater is supplied by awater pump source, about 50meters away and this
sourceisalsousedbyotherfarmersandinhabitantsofthevillage.
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He has started to mulch part of the soil used for cultivation (particularly under the
pepperplants).Thereisnootherkindofprotectionofthesoilandnoshadow.Thesoil
andthecropsarethusdirectlyunderthestrongradiationsofthesun.
Hehasabout10cows,10goatsand20chickens.Allofthemarefreetowalkaroundthe
natureduring theday, andare then collectedbeforedawn.The excrementsproduced
duringthenightarecollectedfromthestableandputintoabarrelandletrestingwith
waterforaboutthreedaysandthenspreadoverthecultivatedland.Themanureofthe
cowsistheonlyfertilizingsourceheappliestothefield.
Heonlysellsthevegetablesinthevillagemarket,heisnotconnectedtothecitymarket
ofZanzibartown.
Waterscarcityiswhathethinksisthemainproblemofhiscultivation.Eventhoughhe
has a 5’000 L tank, he cannot fill it up because thewater pump pressure is too low.
Furthermore,everydistrictof thevillage isonlysuppliedwithwaterabout twohours
perday.Heusuallydirectlyusesthewatertoirrigatethecrops(eventhoughthewater
arrivesduringtheafternoon,whenthesunradiationsarestillveryhigh).
The ideaaboutmulching the soilwas itsown.Henoticed thatwithmulching, the soil
getslesswarmandthereisalittlelesswaterevaporation.
Picture1.a:Manureproduction 1.b:Detailoftheirrigationsystem
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Picture2.a:Tomatoproduction 2.b:Soilonthefield
Associationofdifferentfamiliesproducingvegetables
Thereisanassociationbetweenneighboursof15people(6womenand9men)
aremanagingapartofland.Theyaggregatedthedifferentpiecesoflandtohaveabigger
productionareaandtohelpeachotherintheagriculturalmanagement.Thelandused
foragricultureisabout1/5ofthelandtheywouldactuallyhaveavailableforfarming.
Theyalsohavea5’000Lcapacitywatertank.Theyproducethesametypeofvegetables
as their neighbour, pepper, tomatoes and onions. In November they harvested about
7’000kgoftomatoesonaparcelofabout0.03haandsoldtheirproductinMakunduchi
andsomeothervillagesnearby.Atthepointofvisit,therewerestillalotoftomatoeson
the plants. If still edible they are eaten by the families cultivating the land or sold to
producetomatosauceconcentrate(quantitiesarethoughquitelow).
Sameasfortheneighbourfarmer,waterscarcityandnosafeconnectiontoelectricityto
use thewaterpumpto fillup thewater tankareconsidered themainproblems.They
cannotfillupthewatertankbecausethepressureofthepumpistooweak.Theyfillup
another water tank that has been excavated (no pressure pump needed) that
unfortunately has a small capacity. Then the used parcel is watered with cans. In
contrasttotheirneighbour,eventhoughtheyareanassociationoffamilies,theydonot
havethefinancestoinvestinanirrigationsystem.
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They do not use pesticides, but prepare own solutions to fight some insects (mix of
onion leafsandchilli fermented inwaterandthenappliedontheplants).Theydonot
believeincommercialpesticidesanddonothavethemoneytobuythem.
The farmerswould like toproduceother typesofvegetables,getvariation in thecrop
rotation,butthelocalpopulationisnotreallyinterestedinothercropsandtheyarenot
abletoproduceenoughvegetablestosell themtothenearbyhotels.Anotherproblem
that could then probably appear is the lack of storage. They are not able to store big
quantitiesoffood.
The money they earn from the harvests is split into the families and spent for the
children’seducationandtoinvestintotheagriculturalmanagement.
Hectaremanagedbydifferentfamilies
InthevillagenexttoMakunduchi,Sokoni,thereisanareathatiscultivatedbydifferent
farmers.Therearesomeparcelsmanagedbythewholefamiliesandotherscultivatedby
women.Every familyhas itsownparcel (area less than0.1ha),but theyallplantrice
beforetherainseason(wellfloodedarea).Mostofthefamiliesonlypracticesubsistence
farming,butafewalsoselltheirproductsinthebiggermarketsinZanzibartown.
Besidesthericeproduction,everyfamilyhasadifferentagriculturalmanagement.Some
donotproduceanythingduringtherestoftheyear,whileothersplanttomatoes,green
beans,peanutsorothercrops.
Somefarmersgetsomeinformationaboutnewagriculturalpracticesbytheconsultants
workingfortheministryofagriculture.Theycometothevillageonedayperyearand
inform the farmers about how to bemore efficient in planting a certain crop, which
mineralfertilizerstoapplyandsoon.Mostofthefarmersapplymineralfertilizersthat
the ministry of agriculture suggests to use, but they would like to have better
informationabouttheproductstheyareapplyingontheirownfields.Thereisalackof
communicationbetweenconsultantsandfarmers.
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Picture3.a:soilonthefield 3.b:Tomatoesdamagedbyblossomendrot
Picture4:Papayaandcassavaproduction
Picture5:FieldusedforriceproductionduringDecember–April,othercropsorlettorestfortherestofthe
year
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Farmermanagingabananaplantation
InthenorthernpartofMakunduchiafarmer,mkulimawamigomba,ismanaging
a banana plantation on its own. He has no agricultural educational background and
boughtthislandabout4yearsago.Thelandwasusedformangofruitproduction,but
becausethepricesofmangosonthemarketwerecontinuallydecreasing,hedecidedto
switchtobananaproduction.Ahighconcretefencesurroundstheplantationinorderto
preventthelivestocktodamagethetrees.Heappliesmanure,whichhebuysfromother
farmers.
The farmer bought an irrigation system about one year ago and has its own water
pumping system inside the plantation. Part of the water is also distributed to the
surroundingprivatehouses.
The farmer gets consultancy by the government regarding crop management. Its
production is sold mostly in Zanzibar Town. He is also planning to expand his
productionbybuyingsomemoreland.
The irrigation system enables amore precise application of water and it is less time
consuming.
The farmerwasworking in the food industrybeforeas fruit traderbetweenthesmall
villagesandZanzibarTownandhewasabletosetenoughmoneyasidetobuiltavery
sophisticatedbananaplantation.Hisknowledgeaboutthefruitmarketsituationhelped
himtohaveasecureoutletmarket.
In my opinion, this farmer has a good connection to the islands market and has a
successfulbananaproductionwithenoughwateravailability.
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Picture6:Soilinthebananaplantation
Picture7:Bananaplantation
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Picture8:Bananaplantationandirrigationsystem
Governmentalfruittreeproductionsite
In Makunduchi there is a governmental fruit tree production area. They grow
fruittreesandthensellthemtofarmersforlowprices.Atthemomentofvisittheywere
growingcitrusandmangotrees.Thesoilisfromtheinnerpartsoftheisland,fromthe
forest. There the soil is nutrient and humus richer and enables a stronger and faster
growth.Inthesoiltheyusetheyalsoaddsomemanure.
Theproductionofthesetreesisbasedonthelatestknowledgeoftheministryof
agriculture. The workers told me that they collaborate with the state university of
Zanzibar. Unfortunately I could not find any department or program in agricultural
research.
Picture9:Viewoftheseedlingfarm
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Picture10:Graftingofmangotrees
Picture11:Citrusseedlingsproductionandcoveragefromthesunradiation
Farmermanagingabigvegetableplantation
ThiswasjustaninformalvisittotheuncleofmyfriendSiaji,whomImetduringmystay
on the island. He has a big vegetable production farm in Bungi, close to Zanzibar
University. It is a very advanced agricultural management system. He has several
employees from the mainland of Tanzania who are doing all the field works, so my
friends’uncleismostlyjustmanagingthearea.
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Picture12:Tomatoproductionandoverviewofafield
HeappliesdifferentNPK fertilizersandhassomeproblemswitha larvaeharming the
tomatofruit.Heisproducingdifferenttypesoftomatospeciesinordertodecreasethe
chanceofcompleteharvestloss.Thisisthemainissuehementioned.
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Discussionandpersonalconsiderations
Duringmy stay I only had the chance to visit a few farmers. Iwas able to get an
overview of some of the agricultural practices, but it also made me realise how
heterogeneousthelevelofthesefarmsare.Somearestillbasicsubsistencefarms,others
alreadyhaveagoodconnectiontothelocalmarket.Thisisconnectedtotheliquidityof
thesinglefarmers.Somecaninvestintechnology,whileothershighlystrugglewiththeir
production.
Furthermore,Ifocusedmyvisitonthesouthernpartoftheisland,wherethereisonlya
smallareausedforagriculture,comparedtothemoreexpandedareainthenorthwest
ofUngujaisland.
The high interest of the farmers in producing a more extended variety of
vegetablesandtheirwillingnesstoconnecttothehotelsisafieldthatshouldbefurther
explored.Thevarietyintherotationcouldbebeneficialforthesoilqualityandavoidthe
possible development of cropdiseases. Production contracts could thusbe a solution.
ThehotelswouldnothavetogotoZanzibartowntobuyalltheirproducts,couldsustain
the local development and possibly store the products and avoid quality loss. But to
enableaproductionsecurity,thewaterunavailabilityhasfirsttobesolved.
I spent seven weeks on Unguja island to get a first overview of the farms in
MakunduchibecauseIwantedtogivesomesuggestionsintheplanningoftheteaching
subjects in the farmer training school that CAAA is launching in Makunduchi. In my
opinion,thestudentsshouldgetaneducationonseveralsubjects:cropproductionthat
theyregularlyeatintheirownhomes,butalsoaboutnewvarieties,thatareconsumed
in the hotels; the importance ofwatermanagement (how to usewater in an efficient
way); soil management (the importance of soil quality and tools to avoid soil
degradation); economical and financial introduction to ensure a good communication
betweenfarmersandhotels/tourism.
IreallyenjoyedworkingforCAAAandtobepartofthisproject.Itgavemeafirst
insightonagricultureinadevelopingcountryandthepossibilitytomeetanewculture.I
amgratefultohavehadthischanceandwouldbeveryinterestedincontinuinginthis
project.
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ReferencesEditors of countrySTAT. (2008). Fertilizert consumption quantity by year. From
http://countrystat.org/home.aspx?c=TZA&ta=215S2FE017&tr=66, last visited
20.03.2016
Editors of countrySTAT. (2011). Zanzibar regional population. From
http://countrystat.org/home.aspx?c=TZA&ta=215S2PO012&tr=64, last visited
20.03.2016
Editors of countrySTAT. (2012). Zanzibar agricultural production production. From
http://countrystat.org/home.aspx?c=TZA&tr=59,lastvisited20.03.2016
Encyclopedia Britannica (2015). Zanzibar Island, Tanzania.
http://global.britannica.com/place/Zanzibar-island-Tanzania,lastvisitedon03.02.2016
FINNIDIA – Helsinki, Ministry of water, energy, construction, land and environment,
Zanzibar,Tanzania(1991).Zanzibarurbanwatersupplydevelopmentplan:institutional
arrangementsandhumanresourcesdevelopment.Helsinki,Finland:FINNIDA;Ministryof
ForeignAffairs.
BronSikatL.(2011).Assessingthespatialandtemporalcharacteristicsofgroundwaterrecharge
in Zanzibar: towards the optimal management of groundwater resources. Twente
University,TheNeatherlandsTheNeatherlands.
Hettige ML (1990). Land evaluation and land sustainability classification - Unguja and Pemba
Islands.UNFoodandAgriculturalOrganisation
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Appendix
ListoffurtherliteratureaboutUngujaisland,Zanzibararchipelago
BiwiKM.(1993).DevelopmentofSmallholderDairyinginZanzibar.FutureofLivestockIndustries
in East and Southern Africa. http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/ilri/x5485e/x5485e0r.htm,
lastvisitedon20.02.2016
Calton WE, al. e. (1955). A study of the more important soils of Zanzibar Protectorate. East
AfricanAgriculturalJournal21:53-60.
Dean E. (2013). Contested ecologies: gender, genies, and agricultural knowledge in Zanzibar.
Culture,Agriculture,FoodandEnvironment35:102-111.
EilolaS,FagerholmN,MakiS,KhamisM,KayhkoN.(2015).Realizationofparticipationand
spatiality in participatory forestmanagement - a policy-practice analysis fromZanzibar,
Tanzania.JournalofEnvironmentalPlanningandManagement58:1242-1269.
Eilola S, Kayhko N, FagerholmN, Kombo YH. (2014).LinkingFarmers'Knowledge,Farming
Strategies, and Consequent Cultivation Patterns into the Identification of Healthy
AgroecosystemCharacteristicsatLocalScales.AgroecologyandSustainableFoodSystems
38:1047-1077.
JohnsonJ.(1984).AreviewofthehydrogeologyofZanzibar(Tanzania).
KayhkoN,FagerholmN,AsseidBS,MzeeAJ.(2011).Dynamiclanduseandlandcoverchanges
and their effect on forest resources ina coastal villageofMatemwe, Zanzibar,Tanzania.
LandUsePolicy28:26-37.
KukkonenM,KayhkoN. (2014).Spatio-temporalanalysisofforestchangesincontrastingland
useregimesofZanzibar,Tanzania.AppliedGeography55:193-202.
LaurenseAA. (2000).Developmentofintegratedcropmanagementwithsmallholdervegetable
producers in Zanzibar (Tanzania). Proceedings of the XXV International Horticultural
Congress,Pt14:287-290.
MarshedkharusyMN. (1994).PlantProtectionintheDevelopingWorld-ProblemsandNeeds-
LessonsfromZanzibar.CropProtectionintheDevelopingWorld:3-10.
Martin PJ, PoultneyR. (1992).SurvivalandGrowthofCloveSeedlingsinZanzibar.1.Effectsof
MulchingandShadeCrops.TropicalAgriculture69:365-373.
Martin PJ, Rashid AA, Cribb J, Poultney R. (1992).SurvivalandGrowthofCloveSeedlingsin
Zanzibar.2.EffectsofNurseryPracticesandMulching.TropicalAgriculture69:374-380.
MohamedAAJ,RahmanIA,LimLH.(2014).Groundwaterqualityassessmentintheurban-west
regionofZanzibarIsland.EnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessment186:6287-6300.
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SalehHH,Mohamed SO,Khamis FH, al. e. (2004).On-farmtestingofselectedcassavaclones.
AfricanCropScienceJournal12:283-288.
SalehHH, Thabit ZO, Ali AH. (2004).On-farmevaluationofsweetpotatovarietiesinZanzibar.
AfricanCropScienceJournal12:253-258.
Sheikh MA. (2015).Municipal solidwastemanagement in tourist island ecosystems, Zanzibar:
Status,characteristics,challengesandprospects.WasteManagement41:Iii-Iii.
Stadlinger N, Mmochi AJ, Kumblad L. (2013).Weak Governmental Institutions Impair the
ManagementofPesticideImportandSalesinZanzibar.Ambio42:72-82.
SuckallN,TompkinsE,StringerL.(2014).Identifyingtrade-offsbetweenadaptation,mitigation
anddevelopmentincommunityresponsestoclimateandsocio-economicstresses:Evidence
fromZanzibar,Tanzania.AppliedGeography46:111-121.
SulaimanM,MirzaA, JumaS, al. e. (2002).Managingthelandunderclovesandcoconuts:the
Zanzibarexperience.TransactionsinInternationalLandManagement4:107-124.
TidburyGE(1954).CropresponsestofertilisersandmanuresinZanzibar.In.Inter-AfricanSoils
Conference.Tanzania.761-774.
YasminS,BakarMAR,MalikKA,HafeezFY.(2004).Isolation,characterizationandbeneficial
effectsofriceassociatedplantgrowthpromotingbacteriafromZanzibarsoils. Journal of
BasicMicrobiology44:241-252.