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Programmed Instruction

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IntroductionA variety of personalized instructional techniques and

technologies were developed in 1950s. Programmed learning, teaching machines, cybernetics, personalized system of instruction. Programmed instruction represents an effective strategy in the teaching – learning process. It is a highly individualized strategy which has been found to be quite useful for classroom instruction as well as self – learning or auto instruction. Programmed Learning or Instruction emerged out of experimental research on operant conditioning which was formulated by B.F. Skinner and law of effect which was proposed by E.L. Thorndike. Programmed learning has a long past. Socrates, the great philosopher teacher, is said to be one of the earliest programmers. He developed a programme in geometry which was recorded by him discipline Plato, in the 'Dialogue'. It is said Socrates guided his followers to knowledge through questions from 'fact to fact' and from 'insight to insight'. The tutorial System adopted by British universities is considered the next phase of programmed instruction. In this system there is a continuous exchange of questions and answers between the tutor and his students. Some direct relevance to programming is found in Thorndike’s law of effect. The concept of reinforcement by reward of satisfaction is an important feature of programmed instruction. Programmed instruction, is an advanced form, was initiated, is an advanced form, was initiated by Prof. Sydney L. Pressey, the inventor of a teaching machine. In this device a question was followed by a number of answers. The machine would provide the next item only after the correct response key was pressed.

Content

Programmed learning involves instruction with carefully specified goals and skillfully arranged learning experiences, which are self – instructional and self corrective. Thus programmed instruction is a new path towards automation and individual learning or instruction.

Smith and Moore (1962) describe “programmed instruction is the process of arranging the material to the learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the student from a familiar background into a complex and news set of concepts, principles and understanding”. Harold. W. Bernard's view: "programmed learning refers to the arrangement of instructional material in progressive sequences".

Edgar Dale's view: "programmed instruction in systematic, step by step self – instructional program aimed to ensure the learning of stated behavior".

Characteristics of Programmed Learning

1) The content of broken into small easy steps and each step is presented in several sentences each called a 'Frame'.

2) The frames are arranged sequentially.

3) Most of the frames require that the learner makes some kind of response – an answer to the question, an activity to demonstrate the understanding of the material - that is frequent response is elicited from the students.

4) The student is provided with immediate confirmation of the right answer that is learner is provided immediate reinforcement. In case he is correct his response is reinforced and if he is wrong, he may correct himself by receiving the correct answer.

5) Units are arranged in a careful sequence such that is shapes the behaviour of a learner.

6) It is the interaction between the learner and learning material which is emphasized in programmed learning. Here is the learner is active and is motivated to learn and respond.

7) Programmed Learning provides self – pacing and thus learning may occur at an individual rate rather than general, depending upon nature of the learner learning material and learning situation.

8) It calls for the overt responses of the learner which can be readily observed, measured and effectively controlled.

9) It has provision for continuous evaluation which helps in improving the student’s performance and quality of programmed learning material.

10) The content and sequence of all frames are subject to actual tryout with the pupils and are revised on the data gathered based on the response of the learner.

11) Goals to be achieved are also evaluated and stated specifically.

12) In programmed learning, the suitability and appropriateness of the material depends on the learner. If the learner makes mistakes, the programmed material should be rejected.

Principles of programmed Learning

A good programmed learning material incorporation good principles of learning. The basic idea of programmed learning is that most efficient, pleasant and permanent learning must take place,

The following are the principles

a) Principle of small steps

A programme is made up of a large number of small, easy to take steps. A student can proceed from knowing very little about a topic to mastery of the subject by going through a programme.

b) Principle of Active Responding

The principle rests on the assumption that a learner learns better by being active. Programming provides opportunity for learner to respond frequently. It not only presents material to the learner but also induces a sustained activity.

c) Principle of Immediate confirmation

The psychological phenomenon of reinforcement is the basis of this principle necessity of providing immediate confirmation is

important from two points of view.

1) The learner will not wildly guess

2) When the learner is not sure of the response he or she needs to be confirmed of the correctness of the response or provided with the right response.

d) Principle of self – pacing

Programmed learning is a technique of individualized learning. It is based on another assumption that learning can take place better if an individual is allowed to learn at his own pace. The pupil is not forced to move with other members of the class. Some students naturally learn more rapidly or more slowly than others. In a normal classroom some students may be left – behind as they are not able to keep pace with the teacher but here the learner in able to learn at his own pace. This principle controls individual difference in the process of learning.

e) Principle of student Testing

Continuous evaluation of the learning process helps in maximizing learning is another assumption on which programmed learning is based. The student leaves behind a record of his response because he is required to write a response for each frame on a response sheet. This detailed record helps in revising the programme and also provided a feedback to the teacher about the student’s progress.

Styles of Programming

In programmed learning the presentation of the instructional materials. Or subject matter to the learner is a suitable form is termed as programming. Some programming styles are

1. Linear of Extrinsic Programming

2. Branching Or Intrinsic Programming

3. Methetics Programming

4. Ruleg/Egrule System of programming.

5. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

6. Learner Controlled Instruction (LCI)

The first three styles that is linear branching and mathetics represent the actual basic formats.

Linear or Extrinsic Programming

Skinner and his associates are the Originators of the linear type of programme. This type of programming is directly related with his theory of Operant Conditioning and in based on the assumption that human behaviour can be shaped or conditioned gradually, step by step with suitable reinforcement for each desired response. In this programming questions are asked directly and the learner is required to think and write down his answer – thus the answers are referred to as 'constructed responses'.

In this type of programme, every learner start from the initial frame and ends at the terminal frame following the same sequence. Every student must go through each and every frame in a straight line fashion – hence it is called a linear programme. But each student has the liberty to complete the programme at his own pace and ability.

Formed of Linear Programming

1. Information2. Question

Frame # 1 3. Response4. Cue (optional)

cue (

1.correct answer to question in frame 1(feedback, Reinforcement)

Frame # 2 2.Stimuli 3.Question

Subject matter is broken down into very small steps and each step is presented in proper sequence. The active responses of the learner are immediately reinforced in the succeeding frame.

Graphical Representation of Linear frame.

Path of Learning

Principles of Linear Programming

1. Principles of small steps.

2. Principle of immediate confirmation.

3. Principle of advice responding.

4. Principle of self-pacing.

5. Principle of student testing.

Important features of linear programming

1. Linear: Every learner follows the same path. The learner starts from the initial frame and goes to terminal frame in the series of short steps following the same sequence.

1.correct answer to question in frame 1(feedback, Reinforcement)

Frame # 2 2.Stimuli 3.Question

1.Correct answer to question in Frame2Frame #3 2.Information

3. Question 4. Response 5. Cue Optional

Frame 1

fr

Frame 2

fr

Frame 3

fr

Frame n

fr

Entry Behaviour Terminal Behaviour

2. Small Steps: Programme is composed of small steps which contain a single idea ,example or rule.

3. Controlled Response : The responses and order are decided by the programmer and in each step only one response is required.

4. Response is Emphasised: Here importance is given to the response and the learner is forced to respond in each frame.

5. Provision of cues and prompts : Provision for cues or prompts to minimise error are made especially in the beginning frames .

6. Feedback is quick: The learner is able to compare his response with the programmers answer immediately. Hence it acts as a motivating factor.

7. Self pace: Each Learner works at his or her own speed and is discouraged from cheating.

8. Active Response: The responses are to be given after a critical observation and comprehension of the frame and learner can proceed further only after responding. Hence no learner can be a silent spectator .

Limitation of Linear programming

1. Lack of motivation: The Linear, fixed nature of learning tends to make it dull, uninspiring, and uninteresting.

2. Time Consumption: Since the steps are small and many it consumes a lot of time to cover the subject matter.

3. Freedom of choice is curtailed: Since the responses are controlled and learner has to answer in a few words, the creativity of the learner is not brought out.

4. Guessing: The blank type of responses and cues generally help the learner to guess the answer.

5. Costly: The large number of steps makes the preparation and presentation costly as it requires lots of paper.

6. Applicability: It can be used in few areas where responses are measurable such as maths and science.

7. Scope for flexibility unless: The same programme may not be optimally effective for all learners. Learners differ both in previous experience and latent inherent abilities. Hence, the same sequence may at times prove counterproductive.

8. Learner Honesty cannot be Assumed at all Times: Since answers are available in the next frame we cannot expect all students to be honest at all times. We also cannot be sure that students don't skip frames.

9. Variety is not Ensured: Learners do not search out concepts and think of various possibilities. Judgment and integration are not encouraged.

10. Rigid Following: Learners are not allowed to diversify and all are expected to follow a rigid line prescribed by programme.

Branched Programming

Branching Programme was developed by Norman. A .Crowder, hence it is also known as Crowderian Model. Crowder defines this style of programming as: "It is a programme which adapts to the needs of the students without the medium of extrinsic devices as a computer. It is called intrinsic because the learner within himself makes the decision, to adapt the instruction to his or her needs".

In comparison to Linear programming the frame size and amount of information given is more and is followed by multiple choice type of question. Out of the choices, only one answer is correct. If the learner chooses the correct answer he is informed of the correctness of the answer and is motivated to proceed to the next frame along the main path of learning of the programme .If the answer is wrong the learner is told why he or she is wrong and he or she either returns to the main line or is routed back to the original frame to reread along a remedial frame till he chooses the right answer.

Principles of Branching Programming

1. Principles of Exposition: This principle is based on the fact that the learner should perceive globally the matter to which he is exposed. Hence the whole concept is presented to the learner in paragraphs or a page on the home page.

2. Principle of Diagnosis: This principle refers to the need to identify the weakness of the learner. A multiple choice format is used to diagnose the shortcomings of the learner and the extent to which he could learn the concept.

3. Principle of Remediation: The remedial instruction is provided on the wrong page. On the basis of diagnosis, remediation is provided.

Features of Branching Programme

1. The instructional material is divided into frames. In each frame information running into one or two paragraphs or even a page is provided.

2. After going through the frame, the learner has to respond to a multiple choice question. He has to discriminate among the choices provided and choose a correct response.

3. The learner moves forward if he answers correctly but is diverted (branched) to remedial frames if he chooses the wrong answer.

4. This cycle goes on till the learner passes through the entire material at his own pace.

5. Branching programme can be produced in a teaching machine or in a book form. The book will be in the form of a scrambled text as the matter does not follow a normal sequence.

Types of Branching Programme

a. Backward Branching

The learner goes from first frame to second frame only if he chooses the correct response. If he makes an error, he is routed through a remedial frame where he is given some more help in understanding the concept and arriving at the correct solution. He is led back to the original frame. He reads again answer correctly in light of the remedial material received earlier. So the learner goes through the same frame till he arrives at the correct answer. Backward branching is represented as.

MainFrame I

RemedialFrame

2 3

b. Forward Branching

In this type of programming , the learner is always going forward to a new page irrespective of his choosing the right or wrong answer. When he makes a wrong choice, he is directed to a remedial frame where his mistake is explained.

At times the learner is asked another question and then after he gives the correct answer the learner proceeds to a new page. This type of programming can be represented

1 2

3

Remedial Frame

Limitations of a Branching Programme

1. The multiple choice type of questions may encourage guessing. It is probable that the learner can find the correct

RemedialFrame

N

RFRF

answer by the process of elimination or guessing rather than by understanding of subject matter.

2. Branching Programme cannot cater to the needs of all individuals since it is not possible to provide infinite branching.

3. Cost of branching programming in exhorbitant and it would be very difficult to reprogramme and modify programmes periodically.

4. This style of programming is suitable only for older children (high school) since younger children cannot understand the mechanism.

Assumptions of Branching Program

1. Needs of the learner

2. Wholeness of the content

3. Meaningful units

4. Analysis of the task

5. New Material

6. No hindrance by errors

7. Remediation

8. Multiple choice items

9. Sufficient freedom

10. Discrimination

Principles of Branching programme

1. Principle of exposition

2. Principle of diagnosis

3. Principle of remediation

Advantages and Application of programmed Instruction

1. Programmed instruction provides opportunities for the use of self –instructional devices which aid students in task of self-learning.

2. Programming leads to individualization of process of teaching learning.

3. Programming help in revolutionizing, developing and providing techniques of mass education and self-education.

4. Programming assists teachers to cater to individual differences since it basically helps the learner to pace his learning.

5. The students are motivated and hence problems of indiscipline and problems due to group setting are minimised.

6. Programming makes instruction effective since it is based on sound psychological principles.

7. Programmed instruction helps in the development of integrative judgment and creative learning. The power of discrimination and making immediate and effective responses is developed through such instruction.

8. Programmed instruction material helps teachers to devote more time for creative work since they can be fed from jobs like drill and practice routines.

9. A programme is not a human being and hence can be used at any time of the day. Hence these materials can be used in the field of non-formal education and distance education.

10. Each programme has to be validated in this process it may be rewritten and revised a number of times .If proper learning donot result the programme is revised and the learner is not blamed. This positive attitude is not observed in classroom teaching where there is a tendency to blame the students than teacher when students fails to learn.

Comparison between Linear programming and Branching programming

Aspect under comparison

Linear Programming Branching Programming

1. propagator B.F. Skinner . Norman. A. Crowder.

2.Background

Psychology laboratoryexperiments learning theories.

Industrial efficiency theories human training techniques.

3.Theories based

Operant conditioning – based on response centered approach

Configuration theories – based on learning that is problem solving approach – stimulus centered approach

4.Principles

Five fundamental principles -small steps, active responding, immediate confirmation, self-pacing and student testing

Three principles -Exposition, diagnosis and Remediation.

5.Assumption Its assumptions area) Students in better if

content is presented in small units.

b) Student’s response should be immediately reinforced for learning.

c) Student’s errors hinder learning.

Its assumptions are

a) Students learn better if he is exposed to whole content.

b) Student’s error helps in diagnosis and does not

d) Student learns better if he gets the freedom to learn.

necessarily hide learning.

c) Students learn better if remediation is provided simultaneously along with the error committed.

6.Frame Size Small steps – 15-25 words in 1 or 2 sentences.

Large steps – one or two paragraphs or even one page.

7. Number of steps.

Large Small

8. Frame Structure.

Stimulus – Response – Reinforcement

Stimulus – Response – Remedy – Reinforcement

9. Types of Frame.

Four types – Introductory, Teaching, Practice and Testing frames.

Two types – Home page – Teaching and Diagnosis. wrong page – Remediation is given.

10.Response. Constructed Response – controlled by programmer -Fill up the blanks type.

Multiple choice – choosing – controlled by learner.

11.Purpose of Response.

Fixing of learning Measurement or Diagnosis of learning

12.Reinforcement.

Confirmation of correctness of response – wrong response is ignored.

Correct response is confirmed and approved and wrong response is remedied.

13.Presentation.a)Type of Textb)Machine

Usual textbook style - pages are in normal sequence Teaching machine Cheap model

Scrambled book – The sequence of pages is not followed. Complex – computer – costly type .

14.Error Rate

Less about 5% 20% in general

15.Utility and appropriateness.

1) Lower class.2) Knowledge and

understanding objectives.

3) More useful in concept formation.

4) Normal and less intelligent pupils.

1) Higher classes.

2) Higher order teaching, Objectives – analysis, problem solving etc

3) More useful in concept comparison

4) Talented and creative pupils

In programmed Instruction students have compulsorily respond to move forward and feedbacks given to him immediately. In traditional teaching all students need not respond and all teachers donot practice continuous evaluation. In programmed Instruction. care is taken to see that students interest is sustained by praise and immediate feedback. The programmed style itself has its roots in Psychological Theories. The subject matter is broken into small frames and presented keeping in mind principles like single to complex in programmed Instruction. A Programme is developed empirically through a series of tryouts . Programmes are repeatedly refined with effective frames being retained and ineffective ones discarded or modified based on Evaluation.

ConclusionProgrammed learning represents one of the effective

innovations in teaching learning process. Our classroom are

over-crowded and providing individual attention is an impossible

task for single Teacher.. Inorder to cater to individual

differences, books in programmed learning need to be written

and they serve the purpose of individualization. Besides its use

for instructional process, programmed learning can be used as a

feedback device for the modification of teacher behavior and

improving his teaching efficiency. It is different from traditional

teaching in case of valuation, Organization of subject,

Psychological basis, Motivation, Feedback and Group versus

Individual Instruction.

Reference1. Dr. Vanaja. M, 'Educational Technology', Neelkamal

Publications, First edition 2004, New Delhi

2. Dr. P.S. Chandra Kumar, Dr. A. Joycilin Shermila ' Pedagogy of Teaching English, AV Parvathy Publications, 2012

3. www.wikipedia.com

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