PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONI. INTRODUCTIONChronologically the Greek Philosopher, Socrates is said to be the first programmer who developed a programme in geometry which was recorded by his disciple Plato in the dialogue menu. S S Chauhan, an author of TEXT BOOK OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION places Gita as the first programmed text in the world.

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MEANING

The instructions provided by teaching machine or programmed text book is referred to as programmed instruction.

DEFINITIONAccording to J E Espich and Bill Williams, programmed instruction is a planned sequence of experiences, leading to proficiency, in terms of stimulus- response relationship that have proven to be effective.

Acoording to Susan Markle, 1969, programmed instruction is a method of designing reproducible sequence of instructional events to produce a measurable consistent effect on a behaviour of each and every acceptable student.

CHARACTERISTICS1. The subject matter is broken down in to small steps called frames and arranged sequentially. 2. Frequent response is requered of the student. 3. There is immediate conformation of right answer or correction of wrong answers given by the learners i. e. self correcting feature.1

4. The content and sequece of the frames are subjected to actual try out with students and are revised on the basis of data gathered by the programmer i. e diagnostic feature 5. Each student progresses at his own pace with out any threat of being exposed to any humiliation in aheterogenous class. 6. The assumption about the learner is clearly stated in the programmed learning materials. 7. The objectives underlying programming are defined explicitly and in operational terms so that the terminal behavior is made observable and measurable. 8. An interaction is emphasised between the learner and the programme in programmed learning. 9. In a programmed material continuous evaluation is possible by the record of students response. 10.The strategy provides sufficient situation for teaching the student to make discriminations among range of possibilities and to reduce generalizations.

TYPES OF PROGRAMMINGIt can be mainly divided into two:

A) LINEAR PROGRAMMING

In a linear programme, learners responses are controlled externally by the programmer sitting at a distant place. A linear programme is called a straight line programme as the learner starts from his initial behaviour to the terminal behaviour following a2

straight line. The student proceeds from one frame to the next untill he completes the programme.

CHARACTERISTICS1. Linears are exposed to small amount of information and proceed from one frame to one item of information, to the next in an orderly fashion. 2. Linear responds overtly sp that their correct responses can be rewarded and heir incorrect responses can be corrected. 3. Linears are informed immediately about whether or not their response is correct(feed back). 4. Linear proceed at their own pace (self pacing).

SCOPE OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING 1. Elementary educationGenerally there are single teacher schools there a teacher is required to teach all subjects. This strategy will help the teachers.

2. Secondary educationIn secondary education the diversity of interest and curriculam necessitates this method. It may be used as a remedial teaching. The class room teaching may be helpful for non- science teachers to prepare for science, being compulsory subject up to high school.3

3. Correspondence educationFor highn school students: it is necessary to realize that the self instruction could be made possible, if the correspondence lessos are programmed.

For the school teachers : when new course is being introduced, programmed instruction will equip them with content and new mwthod of teaching.

For university education: this will help the students who are under correspondents to learn and can be brought at the part of regular sudents. Thus they can maintain standad of higher education. In case of medical and health education field, there is rapid advancement in medical education and hence in these circumstances, programmed learning will help in health care team.

PRINCIPLES OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING1. PRINCIPLE OF SMALL STEPS

A student can proceed from knowing very little about a subject to mastery of the subject by going through a programme.

2. PRINCIPLE OF ACTIVE RESPONDING

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Another way to say that people learning by doing is that they learn by active responding.

3. CONFORMATION

Is a type of reinforcement to work on the programme or to learn. A student who must wait two weeks for the test results probably will not learn as well as student whose test is scored immediately.

4. PRINCIPLE OF SELF-PACING

The student can work each step as slowly or as quickly as he chooses. If pace of classroom is too fast or too slow for a child, probably he will not learn as well as go with his own pace.

5. STUDENT TESTING OR EVALUATION

This will remind you that detail record which the student leaves provides the basis for revising the programme. This reminds you of the principle of student testing.

TYPES OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING 1. Constuct response:

Skinnerian type in which the learner has to construct response while going through such formats of programme text.5

2. Multiple choice questions:Sydney L Pressy selected a response on each frame and it is presented in discrimination frame sequence type of programme.

3. Conventional chaining:John Barlow in this type of formats each frame it is connected to 2nd frame which becomes a part of the stimulus of the 3rd and so on the down line.

4. Skip linear:It uses the skipping device as it solving problems of review and over review where a bright student may skip the simple programme.

5. Criterion frames:This is used to direct the learner along linear path according to their responses at those critical situations. The creation frames decides whether the student should go through the particular sequence or not.

6. Ruleg system:Here the content is organised in terms of rules first and then the examples. The rule is given a complete form and the examples are in incomplete form. A learner has to construct response to complete the example.

7. Egrule system:6

It is just the opposite to the ruleg system. The content is organised in terms of examples and then the rules. The examples are given in complete form and the rule is in incomplete form.

B) BRANCHING OR INTRINSIC STYLE PROGRAMMINGNorman Crowder, a contemporary of Skinner, was working independently for the armed services on programmed instruction. He felt that a program was a form of communication between a programmer and a user. Like any communication, the program must be directed to the individual. Unlike Skinner, Crowder was not working from a psychological perspective, but from a communications point of view. In an intrinsic or branching program, each frame presents more text than the average linear frame. After reading, the user responds to an adjunct question, usually in a multiple-option format.

PRINCIPLES

1. Principle of exposition: Here the whole concept is presented to the student so that he can learn better the complete information which is provided in the home page. It serves two purposes. i . e teaching and diagnosis. 2. Principle of diagnosis: Here the weakness of learner is identified after exposition and hence we can assess whether the learner could learn what the causes are for it, then it can be modified. 3. Principles of remediation : if a learner chooses wrong alternately, then the learner has to move to a wrong page where remedial instruction is7

provided and directed to return to the home page and he/ she is asked to choose the right answer.

STRUCTURE OF BRANCHING PROGRAMMEThe programmed text is called Scrampled text which consist of two types of pages one home page and another wrong page.

HOME PAGE

This page consists of content or concept and flowed by multiple choice questions which imvolve four aspects:

1.

Teaching :

the learner goes through the instruction to comprehend the concept or information.

2.

Response: at the end of the instruction multiple choice is given tothe learner to choose the correct response, which the learner has to discriminate and rsponse is intrinsic.

3.

Diagnosis

: if the learner chooses the wrong response, he has to

move to the wrong page. If he chooses the right response he move to the next home page,where the until is presented.4.

Reinforcement : in the beginning of the home page the responseis reinforced by confirming it and hence the learner is encouraged through verbal approval or praise.

WRONG PAGEWrong page or remedial frame 1. Repeating the student response8

2. Negative confirmation 3. Reason to why he/she is wrong 4. Further explanation in single language 5. Direction as to why the learner should go next.

TECHNIQUE OF BRANCHING PROGRAMMEBACKWARD PROGRAMME: If the learner makes an error he has to taken to the remedial frame where he has given some more help understanding the concept and solving the problem then he will be directed to the original frame number one. So the learner goes through the same frame twice i. e once before the remedial material. FORWARD BRANCHING: here whether the leaner is making correct response or wrong response he will be going to the next or new page. If he makes wrong choice he is directed to remedial frame where his mistakes ar fully explained, followed by another parallel question from which he goes to the next frame in the main stream.

C) COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTIONIt consists of individual learning booths, each with a console. It has a television screen for displaying information. A complete package of information is stored in the system and is presented sequentially. The student may question computer and feed answer in to it. It helps determined subsequent activities in the learning situations.

DEVELOPMENT OF A PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONThe certain steps to be followed are Preparatory phase9

Writing phase Validation phase PREPARATORY PHASE It involves Viewing the programme on any topic. Deciding to prepare a programme Selecting a topic Prepare a content outline Specification of objective in behavioural terms. Specifications (assumptions about learner) Entering behaviour. Pre-requisite skills. Preparation of pre test Terminal behavior. Expected performance of the learner at the end of a course. Preparatoin of post- test. i. e preferably criterion test.

WRITIING PHASE The writing of a programme involves five steps.

1) Present the material in framesa) A frame is a small segment of informations which calls forth particular student response. b) The task of a programmer is to provide those stimuli necessary to evoke the student response.10

c) The aquisition of these responses is a step towards the terminal behaviour. d) You should also note that each frame presents a relatively small nsegment of material. e) Programmer should present only enough material to elicit a single response.

2) Require active student response

a) An essential part of the frame is the response, the student is asked to make. b) Whether the responses in programmed material should be overt or covert. c) Students who made overt responses wrote down their answers on sheets of paper. d) Student who made covert responses mentally composed a responses to each blank in the frame before turning the page to the correct answers.

3) Provide answers for confirmation or correction responses

of student

a) Providing the correct response, with which the student compare his own responses, has been a standard characteristics of programmed instruction. b) When the student discovers that his response is correct, he obtains confirmation when it is incorrect.

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4) Use prompts to guide student response

a) Prompts are case provided in the programme frame to guide the student to the correct response.

b) Prompts are supplimentary stimuli in that they are added to a frame to make the frame easier but are not sufficient in themselves to produce the responses.

5) Provide careful sequencing of the frames

A) The sequence, or order, in which your frames appear depends upon two factors. a) The description and analysis of the behaviours, your programme intends to teach. b) The conditions necessary for the learning required by the various tasks.

B) It is even possible to develop frames which engage the student in problem solving and discovery learning.

a) All the basic learning conditions- discrimination, generalization, contiguity, practice, and reinforcement can be embodied in the frame sequence. b) Frame sequence, of course, can also provide for review and testing whenever these are necessary.

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VALIDATION PHASE Try-out and revision Individual try-out Small group try-out Master validation

Editing, reviewing, revising, and modifying the program for final preparation based on fruits of try-out.

ADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION1) Programmed instruction is more successful in critical sagacity(discernment) of the logic of various subjects and inspiring the students to creative thinking and judgement. 2) Good teachers are freed from the humdrum of routine class- room activity and they are in a position to devote their time to more creative activities. 3) Some educationist fear that the programmed instruction will deteriorate the quality of instruction. On the other hand the use of it has improved the quality of education in general. 4) The use of programmed instruction has bought a revolutionin the social setting of the class-room. Many emotional and social problems have been eliminated and problems of discipline have been automatically solved. 5) Programmed instruction is a great thrust in the direction of individualized instruction. A well organized programmed instructional device is tailored to cater to the needs of individual students of the class. 6) It helps the teacher to diagnose the problems of the individual learner.

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7) By presenting the material in small segments of information i. e frame it makes the learning as an interesting game in which the learner is challenged by his own capabilities.

DISADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION1) Programmed instruction does not eliminate competition or grades as often claimed. 2) Mere manipulation of machine is not rewarding to children as Skinner seems to think. Once the novelty wears and if, at the start, too many errors appear the pupils loses interest and motivation. Later reinforcements often do not accelerate learning. 3) Programmed instruction restricts the learners freedom of choice resulting in cramping of his imagination and initiative. 4) Operant conditioning is found successful only with some pupils, in some cases and not in all. Programmed instruction ignores or ignores or makes inadequate provisions for variables like cognitive variables, personality variables and motivational variables. 5) The teacher- pupil contact which is so vital for development of human personality and relationship is completely lost. 6) In language learning, speech is equally important as development of reading and comprehension skills. But there is no scope for providing this experience.

CONCLUSIONProgrammed instruction is hardely new or revolutionary. It is a process of constructing sequences of instructional material emphasizing interaction between learner and programme.

EXAMPLE FOR A RESEARCH STUDY ON PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION14

Programmed instruction revisited: a study on teaching stereochemistryAtaturk University, Kazim Karabekir Education Faculty, Department of Secondary Science and Mathematics Education, 25240-Erzurum, TurkeyAbstract: This study is aimed at comparing the success of programmed instruction with the conventional teaching approach on teaching stereochemistry, and whether gender has any effect on student success. Forty chemistry teacher trainees attending the same class in the Department of Chemistry Education in a large state university in eastern Turkey were the subjects of the study. Of the forty trainees twenty were selected as the experimental group and the other twenty as the control group. The study was implemented in a total of sixteen lecture hours (each 50 min) in four weeks (four lecture hours per week). The subject, stereochemistry in organic chemistry, was taught to the experimental group by the researcher through programmed instruction and the control group was taught by the course lecturer through traditional teaching. The data collection tools were: Stereochemistry Achievement Test (SAT), programmed stages (frames), and the views of the students. An ANCOVA (Analysis of CoVariance) showed that there was a statistically significant difference between programmed instruction and conventional teaching approach on the success level of students learning in stereochemistry. In addition, it was found that female students were more successful than their male counterparts in the experimental group. The findings suggest that programmed learning could be considered as a better alternative to conventional lecturing in teaching stereochemistry. [Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2006, 7 (1), 13-21]

BIBLIOGRAPHYK P Neeraja; TEXT BOOK OF NURSING EDUCATION ; 1st edition; Jaypee publications; Pg no: 267 270. Elsa Sanatombi Devi; NURSING EDUCATION; 1st Edition; C B S Publishers; Pg no: 155 170. K L Kumar; EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY; New Age publications; 2nd edition; Pg no: 186 - 204. Loretta E Heidgerken; TEACHING AND LEARNING IN SCHOOLS OF NURSING; 3rd edition; Konark publishers; Pg no: 502 514. Anju Soni; ESSENTIAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY; 1st Edition; Tandon publications; Pg no: 146 147.15

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J C Aggarwal; EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY; 2ND Edition; Vikas publishing house; Pg no: 143 180. S Kanakalakshmi; COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY; 1st Edition; Florence publishers; Pg no:6.4- 6.10. S Sankaranarayan, B Sindhu; LEARNING AND TEACHING; 1st Edition; Brain fill Publishers; Pg no; 150 -152. B T Basavanthappa; NURSING EDUCATION; Jaypee Publications; 1st edition; Pg no: 481 483. S K Mangal; EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY; 1st Edition; Tandon publications; Pg no: 129 161.

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JOURNALS

1) The American Journal of Nursing; volume no: 10; Pg no: 693 695.2)

Journal of Instructional Psychology; Volume 35; Pg no: 240 245.

INTERNET REFERENCES1. http:// www.eric.ed.gov/eric web portal/Home.Portal?_ nfpb

2. http:// www.jestor.org/ pss/3457242.

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