PROFILING ICT AVAILABILITY AND DETERMINANTS OF TEACHERS’ ICT

ACCEPTANCE IN JEMBER SCHOOLS, EAST JAVA, INDONESIA.

BY

ABDUL HAMID BUSTHAMI NUR

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in

Education (Instructional Technology)

Institute of Education International Islamic University

Malaysia

AUGUST 2012

ii

ABSTRACT

This study on ICT acceptance was conducted with two major purposes: (i) to profile ICT availability in three (3) categories of national standard schools (SMP, SMA and SMK) in the district of Jember, Indonesia, and (ii) to test an extended Technology Acceptance Model that hypothesized the relationships among computer self-efficacy (CSE), organizational support (OS), perceived ease of use (PEU) and perceived usefulness (PU) as determinants of Jember teachers’ intention to use (INT) ICT in teaching and learning. A total of 1,137 teachers from 65 schools participated in the survey. Two types of statistical analysis were employed to analyze the data: (i) descriptive analysis was used to describe ICT availability in the three schools, and (ii) Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to assess the direct and indirect effects of CSE and OS on Jember teachers’ intention to use ICT. The analysis revealed that ICT availability across the three school types varied from one school to another and was not consistent. Basic ICT facilities, especially computer sets, were found to be lacking in each school type. The SEM results revealed that all four hypothesized factors – CSE, OS, PU and PEU – significantly and positively influenced Jember teachers’ intention to use ICT, accounting for approximately 63% of the variance explained. The structural model also produced a statistically significant change in the chi-square value when tested across gender, indicating that gender moderated the structural model. The findings have important implications for stakeholders and policy makers, particularly with respect to their efforts to galvanize greater ICT utilization among teachers in Jember schools.  

iii

البحث ملخص

ف صالاتففيفثلاثف هذرسو اتفوذلارعف كنتاتجيافذلمملىهدفىهذفذالبحف إف معرفف توَفيذاتيفف فهذلمفرذامناصيههدفىهذفذالبحف إفربصفكماففف.يمبربمنطقففجفنمتذجيففحكت يف

فيفعمليففذاتمليمف كنتاتجيافذلمملت اتفوذلا صالاتففيفذستخهذمفذلمملمينفف ؤثعفعلىفقعذر نفنظعيففقلتلف كنتاتجياففذلممهلفجهيهنمتذجفذقترذحفذالاححفبقامففف.علمففيفذلمهرسفوذات

(TAMف)برفيخفف.لمتطللاتفذاتكنتاتجيافودعمفذلمهرسفف، يفذذافاعليففذاهف؛عنصعينبإضارفف كنتاتجيافذلمملت اتفقعذرفذلمملمينفباستخهذمففعلىفه هىف أثيرف معرففذانمتذجفىهذنتعينف نفذاتبليلاتففوقهفذستخهمفذالاححف.ففيفعمليففذاتمليمفوذاتملمف صالاتوذلا

(.SEM)ذلإحصائيففذاتبليلوف،ذاتبليلفذاتصفيف؛التصتلف إفذانتائجفذلإحصائيفةفرس هف65 نففععتذئيافًفىمذريخت ملمافًوتمفذف1137فعلىعينيففىهذفذالبحففذشتملتو

فأنفوسائلفذاتكنتاتجياففيفثلاثف إأشارتففىههفذاهرذسففونتيجففف.بعميبمنطقففجفحكت يفلاسيمافعلىفذلمستتىفذلمعغتب،ففايسفكمافأنو نف هرسفف إفأخعى،فىاف ترع لففيخف هذرس

ف ناسبفذانمتذجفذلمقترحعلىفأنففذاتبليلفذلإحصائيفنتيجففأشارتف اكفف.أجهزةفذاكمليت عذلمقترحينففأنفذامنصعينكمافأظهعفذاتبليلفوف.ذلمتصىفبهافذلمماييرستيفاءفكارففامينيففذالبحفلا

قعذرفذلمملمينففيفذستخهذمفوسائلفذتخاذفففيفةآثارفكليرفذاووذامناصيرفذلأخعىففيفذانمتذجفاكلف نف لففباانسلففيخذانمتذجفذلمقترحففاكوكهفف.ذاتكنتاتجياففيفعمليففذاتمليمفوذاتملم

نسفيؤثعففيفذتخادفذاقعذرفعلىفبممنىفأنفذلجف.ذلمملمينفوذلمملماتففيفذاتبليلفذلإحصائيعلىفف%63ف يجابيافًبنسلف ؤثعففكلفذامتذ لففيفذانمتذجوفف.ستفادرففبأجهزةفذاتكنتاتجياذلا

ف.ففيفعمليففذاتمليمفوذاتملمف كنتاتجيافذلمملت اتفوذلإ صالاتقعذرفذلمملمينفباستخهذمفذتخاذفذاهينففووذضميفذاسياساتفالقائمينفعلىفذاممليففذاتملميفجهذفًفو فيهف همفنمتذجذلذذفهعمليففذاتمليمفوذاتملمففيففيففبينفذلمملمينف كنتاتجيافذلمملت اتفوذلا صالاتفذستخهذمفرزونيح

ف .ذلمهذرس

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

The dissertation of Abdul Hamid Busthami Nur has been approved by the following:

__________________________

Tunku Badariah binti Tunku Ahmad Supervisor

_____________________________ Mohd Burhan Ibrahim

Internal Examiner

__________________________ Rosseni Din

External Examiner

_____________________________ Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd. Mokhtar

Chairman

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Abdul Hamid Busthami Nur Signature …………………………………… Date ……………………..

vi

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2012 by Abdul Hamid Busthami Nur. All rights reserved.

PROFILING ICT AVAILABILITY AND DETERMINANTS OF TEACHERS’ ICT ACCEPTANCE IN JEMBER SCHOOLS, EAST

JAVA, INDONESIA.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Abdul Hamid Busthami Nur.

……………………………. …………………………….

Signature Date

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah, all praises belong to Allah, the Almighty. I wish to record my sincere gratitude to my major supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Tunku Badariah Tunku Ahmad for her patience, kindness and understanding in supervising this research. Her persistence, thoroughness, and intellectual enthusiasm have enabled me to produce a thesis of this quality. She has generously shared her research knowledge and skills to help me arrive at this product, of which I am very proud. I thank Allah for her and I pray that she continues to guide other students in the way that she has guided me. I am grateful to Professor Dr. Mohamad Sahari Nordin for his precise and constructive advice on this work, particularly on the data analysis part involving SEM. His exemplary knowledge and vast experience in research inspires me tremendously. I am also grateful to Associate Professor Dr. Kamal Basha Madarsha for being in the supervisory committee. His thoughts and advice are much appreciated. A special thank you to both of my thesis examiners, Dr. Mohd Burhan Ibrahim (internal) and Associate Prof. Dr. Rosseni Din (external) for their very constructive comments that helped to further refine my work. I am forever indebted to my beloved wife (Astiti Rahayu) and son (Abdul Hakim Hamid) for their ceaseless patience and unconditional love which truly empowered me to complete this research. I extend my gratitude to my parents-in-law (MZA Djalal and Sri Wahyuni) for their encouragement, understanding and optimism. I would also like to thank all my siblings (Siratjuddin, Fathorrahman, Halimatussa’diyah) and all my friends for their prayers and continued support. And not forgetting all the teachers in Jember who generously participated in this study – to all of them, I extend my utmost appreciation. Without their participation, this research would have just been an idea and a theory. I thank all the staff of Dispendik for their generous assistance, and the authorities of Bakesbang and Dispendik for approving this research to be conducted. Finally, I would like to thank all those who provided the data utilized in this research, and all the individuals who contributed, directly and indirectly, towards the completion of this study. Alhamdullillah, all praises belong to Allah.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ..................................................................................................................... ii Abstract in Arabic ..................................................................................................... iii Approval Page ........................................................................................................... iv Declaration Page ........................................................................................................ v Copyright Page .......................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... vii Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ............................................................................................................ xii List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xv List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................ xvi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 1 Background of the Study ................................................................................ 1 ICT and Schools in the District of Jember, Indonesia .................................... 4 Teachers’ Acceptance of ICT and the Technology Acceptance Model ......... 6 Teachers’ Acceptance of ICT: the Influence of Computer Self-Efficacy and Organizational Support ............................................................................ 7 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 9 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................... 11 Research Questions ........................................................................................ 12 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................... 12 Hypotheses of the Study ................................................................................. 15 Significance of the Study ................................................................................ 16 Delimitations of the Study ............................................................................. 17 Operational Definition of the Terms ............................................................. 17

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................... 20 Introduction .................................................................................................... 20 Barriers to ICT Utilization by Teachers ......................................................... 21

Internal Barriers ...................................................................................... 21 External Barriers ..................................................................................... 23

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) ......................................................... 26 Extending the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) .................................. 28 Review of Proposed Factors Influencing Teachers’ Adoption of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) ..................................... 31

Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) ............................................................... 31 Sources of Computer Self-Efficacy ........................................................ 32 Previous Researches on Computer Self-Efficacy ................................... 35 Organizational Support (OS) .................................................................. 37 Previous Researches on Organizational Support .................................... 40

Islamization of Knowledge ............................................................................. 42 ICT and Islamization ...................................................................................... 44 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 47

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 48 Introduction .................................................................................................... 48 Research Design ............................................................................................. 48 Populations of the Study ................................................................................. 48 Respondents of the Study ............................................................................... 49 Selection of Respondent Teachers .................................................................. 50 Instrument Development ................................................................................ 52

Checklist for Profiling ICT Facilities in the Schools .............................. 52 Questionnaire for Measuring the Constructs Under Study ..................... 54

(i) Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) ................................................... 55 (ii) Organizational Support (OS) ..................................................... 56 (iii) Perceived Usefulness (PU) ....................................................... 57 (iv) Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) ................................................... 57 (v) Intention to Use (INT) ............................................................... 58

Translation Procedures ................................................................................... 59 Pilot Study ...................................................................................................... 60

Pilot Study Procedures ............................................................................ 60 Analysis of Pilot Data ............................................................................. 60 Test of the Assumptions .......................................................................... 61 The Final Results of Principal Component Analysis .............................. 62 Internal Consistency Reliability Test ...................................................... 67 The Five Factors and Their Finalized Indicators .................................... 68 Summary of the Analysis Procedures of the Pilot Data .......................... 71

Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................ 72 Obtaining Permission Letters .................................................................. 72 Distribution of Checklists to Profile Jember Schools’ ICT Facilities ..... 73 Distribution of Questionnaires to Measure Jember Teachers’ ICT Acceptance .............................................................................................. 73

Data Analysis Procedures ............................................................................... 74 Evaluation of the Structural Model’s Goodness of Fit ........................... 75 The Invariance Analysis Procedures for Testing the Effect of Gender .. 76

Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 77

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ....................... 78 Part One: Demographic Information of the Respondent Schools and Teachers .......................................................................................................... 78

The Respondent Schools ......................................................................... 78 The Respondent Teachers ....................................................................... 79

Part Two: Availability of ICT Facilities in Jember Schools .......................... 80 Availability of ICT in General ................................................................ 80

ICT Facilities in Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) ..................... 82 ICT Facilities in Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) .......................... 82 ICT Facilities in Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) ................... 83

The Ratios of Teachers and Students to Computers in Jember ............... 84 Teachers-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) ................................................................................ 85 Students-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) ................................................................................ 86

x

Teachers-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) ..................................................................................... 87 Students-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) ..................................................................................... 89 Teachers-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) .............................................................................. 91 Students-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) .............................................................................. 92

Part Three: The Results of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) Applied on the Data ...................................................................................................... 93

Data Screening ........................................................................................ 93 Model Analysis ....................................................................................... 93 The Factorial Validity of Constructs of the Research Model ................. 95

Factorial Validity of Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) ...................... 95 Factorial Validity of Organizational Support (OS) ......................... 99 Factorial Validity of Perceived Usefulness (PU) ............................ 102 Factorial Validity of Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) ........................ 104 Factorial Validity of Intention to Use (INT) ................................... 106

Model Specification ................................................................................ 110 The Structural Model of Teachers’ Acceptance of ICT in the Schools .. 112

Hypothesis 1: Computer self-efficacy directly influences teachers’ perception of ICT’s ease of use. ....................................... 115 Hypothesis 2: Computer self-efficacy directly influences teachers’ perception of the usefulness of using ICT ....................... 115 Hypothesis 3: Organizational support directly influences teachers’ perception of ICT’s ease of use ........................................ 115 Hypothesis 4: Organizational support directly influences teachers’ perception of the usefulness of using ICT ....................... 116 Hypothesis 5: Perceived usefulness directly influences teachers’ intention to use ICT ......................................................................... 116 Hypothesis 6: Perceived ease of use directly influences teachers’ intention to use ICT ......................................................................... 116 Hypothesis 7: Computer self-efficacy indirectly influences teachers’ intention to use ICT via perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use ....................................................................... 117 Hypothesis 8: Organizational support indirectly influences teachers’ intention to use ICT via perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use ....................................................................... 117

The Proportion of Variance Explained in the Model .............................. 118 Estimating the Structural Model Invariance Across Gender .................. 119

Summary ......................................................................................................... 121

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ..................................... 122 Introduction .................................................................................................... 122 The Profile of ICT Availability at the SMP, SMA and SMK Schools in Jember, East Java, Indonesia .......................................................................... 123 Determinants of Teachers’ Intention to Use ICT in Jember Schools ............. 127 The Influence of Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) and Organizational Support (OS) on Teachers’ Perception of the Usefulness of ICT .................. 129

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The Influence of Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) and Organizational Support (OS) on Teachers’ Perception of ICT’s Ease of Use ........................ 130 The Influence of Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) and Organizational Support (OS) on Teachers’ Intention to Use ICT ........................................... 132 Invariance Analysis Across Gender ............................................................... 133 Implications and Conclusion .......................................................................... 134 Recommendations ......................................................................................... 137

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................... 140

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

1.1 Eight Criteria for National Standard Schools Set by the Ministry 5 of National Education

2.1 CSE Used by Previous Cross Sectional Surveys on Teachers’ 36 Technology Acceptance

2.2 OS Used by Previous Cross Sectional Surveys on Teachers’ 41 Technology Acceptance

3.1 Breakdown of Schools Involved in the Study According to Category 50

3.2 Number and Percentage of Teachers in Each School Category 51

3.3 Number and Percentage of Teachers in Each School Category 51 Finally Sampled in the Study Based on the Proportion of Each Stratum

3.4 List of Computer Self-Efficacy Items Included in the Questionnaire 55

3.5 List of Organizational Support Items Included in the Questionnaire 56

3.6 List of Perceived Usefulness Items Included in the Questionnaire 57

3.7 List of Perceived Ease of Use Items Included in the Questionnaire 58

3.8 List of Intention to Use Items Included in the Questionnaire 58

3.9 The Normality of Variables, KMO and Bartlett’s Test 62

3.10 Mean, Standard Deviation and MSA Values of CSE, OS, PU, 64 PEU and INT Items

3.11 The Communalities of Variables 65

3.12 The Rotated Component Matrix 66

3.13 The Total Variance Explained 67

3.14 Factor 1: Finalized Computer Self-Efficacy Items 68

3.15 Factor 2: Finalized Organizational Support Items 69

3.16 Factor 3: Finalized Perceived Usefulness Items 70

xiii

3.17 Factor 4: Finalized Intention to Use Items 70

3.18 Factor 5: Finalized Perceived Ease of Use Items 71

3.19 The Recommended Values 76

4.1 Characteristics of the Respondent Schools 79

4.2 Demographic Information of the Respondent Teachers 81

4.3 Current Availability of the ICT Facilities in SMPs 82

4.4 Current Availability of the ICT Facilities in SMAs 83

4.5 Current Availability of the ICT Facilities in SMKs 84

4.6 Teachers-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) 85

4.7 Students-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) 88

4.8 Teachers-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) 89

4.9 Students-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) 90

4.10 Teachers-to-Computer Ratios in Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) 91

4.11 Students-to-Computer ratios in Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) 92

4.12 Items Distribution of Computer Self-Efficacy, Organizational 94 Support, Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use and Intention to Use

4.13 The Convergent Validity of Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) 98

4.14 Maximum Likelihood Parameter Estimates of the Standardized 98 Factor Loadings, Standard Error, Critical Ratio and Squared Multiple Correlations for a One-Factor Model of Computer Self-Efficacy

4.15 The Convergent Validity of Organizational Support (OS) 101

4.16 Maximum Likelihood Parameter Estimates of the Standardized 101 Factor Loadings, Standard Error, Critical Ratio and Squared Multiple Correlations for a One-Factor Model of Organizational Support

4.17 The Convergent Validity of Perceived Usefulness (PU) 103

4.18 Maximum Likelihood Parameter Estimates of the Standardized 104 Factor Loadings, Standard Error, Critical Ratio and Squared Multiple Correlations for a One-Factor Model of Perceived Usefulness

4.19 The Convergent Validity of Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) 106

xiv

4.20 Maximum Likelihood Parameter Estimates of the Standardized 107 Factor Loadings, Standard Error, Critical Ratio and Squared Multiple Correlations for a One-Factor Model of Perceived Ease of Use

4.21 The Convergent Validity of Intention to Use (INT) 109

4.22 Maximum Likelihood Parameter Estimates of the Standardized 109 Factor Loadings, Standard Error, Critical Ratio and Squared Multiple Correlations for a One-Factor Model of Intention to Use

4.23 Direct and Indirect Effects, Correlations and Residuals for the 114 Structural Model of Teachers’ Acceptance of ICT

4.24 The Result of Analysis for the Revised Model and the Final Model 119

4.25 The Results of Invariance Analysis of Gender 120

xv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

1.1 The Thirteen Subdistricts of Jember 4

1.2 The Final Version of the Technology Acceptance Model 13

1.3 The Hypothesized Model of Teachers’ Intention to Use ICT in Jember 14 Schools

2.1 The Initial Technology Acceptance Model 26

2.2 The Final Version of Technology Acceptance Model 27

3.1 Procedures of Proportional Stratified Random Sampling Used 53 in the Study

4.1 The Measurement Model of Computer Self-Efficacy 96

4.2 The Measurement Model of Organizational Support 100

4.3 The Measurement Model of Perceived Usefulness 102

4.4 The Measurement Model of Perceived Ease of Use 105

4.5 The Measurement Model of Intention to Use 108

4.6 The Proposed Structural Model of Teachers’ Intention to Use ICT 110 in the Schools

4.7 The Revised Structural Model of Teachers’ Intention to Use ICT 113 in the Schools

4.8 The Final Structural Model of Teachers’ Intention to Use ICT 118 in the Schools

xvi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ICT Information and communication technology

MONE The ministry of national education SD Sekolah dasar

SMP Sekolah menengah pertama SMU Sekolah menengah umum

SMA Sekolah menengah atas SMK Sekolah menengah kejuruan

JARDIKNAS Jejaring pendidikan national SSN Sekolah standard national

Dispendik Dinas pendidikan Restra Rencana strategi

Bakesbang Badan kesatuan bangsa dan perlindungan masyarakat Pustekkom Pusat teknologi informasi dan telekomunikasi

TAM Technology acceptance model CSE Computer self-efficacy

OS Organizational support PU Perceived usefulness

PEU Perceived ease of use INT Behavioral intention to use

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In the context of modern day education, the use of information and communication

technology (ICT) is a common feature in the classroom. The various forms of

instructional ICT, such as the interactive whiteboard, IPADs, 3D models, the Internet,

Second Life, video conferencing, software applications, educational software,

multimedia, video clips, CD-ROMS, e-books and the like, are common tools used by

contemporary teachers. Used appropriately with innovative teaching techniques, these

tools affect learning in positive ways and have a huge potential in bringing about

desirable student outcomes. For example, the interactive whiteboard has been shown

to increase students’ enthusiasm and motivation (Solvie, 2001, 2004; Serow &

Callingham, 2008), while multimedia and 3D models have facilitated students’

understanding of difficult concepts in science (Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin &

Means, 2000; Kiboss, 2002; Tao, 2004; Barton, 2005). The use of the Internet, for

instance, extends knowledge acquisition beyond the four walls of the classroom,

promotes lifelong learning, and provides greater opportunities for students to engage

with knowledge in an active, independent, self-directed and constructive way

(Volman & Van Eck, 2001). These findings are consistent with the results of a meta-

analysis of 42 studies conducted by Waxman, Lin and Michko (2003), in which it was

concluded that the teaching and learning process with ICT had positive and significant

effects on students’ cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes.

2

Needless to say, the use of ICT enables educators to transform traditional ways

of obtaining and presenting information to new methods of accessing, gathering,

analyzing, spreading and reproducing the information (See, 1994). Balanskat, Blamire

and Kefala (2006) found that integrating ICT into teaching and learning increased

students’ performance significantly in different courses taught as compared to

traditional methods. Therefore, it is not surprising to note the increasing interest and

intention from many researchers to study the effects of ICT in education, and the

efforts of governments across the globe to computerize their schools and education

systems.

Recognizing the importance and benefits of ICT in education, the Indonesian

government has formulated special projects and plans to enhance the usage of ICT in

schools. Over the last ten years, its Ministry of National Education (MONE) has set

up various plans and projects on the use of ICT in education. As an example, in the

year 2000 the Ministry launched a program called “Sekolah Menengah Umum 2000”

or SMU 2000, aimed at connecting 2,000 high schools to the Internet through the

development of an e-learning portal. Sekolah Menengah Umum (which is another

name for Sekolah Menengah Atas; abbreviated as SMA) or senior high schools were

the target schools for the piloting of this project in the first stage. The project was later

extended to other school levels such as sekolah dasar (SD) or primary schools and

sekolah menengah pertama (SMP) or junior high schools. The programme specifically

aimed to improve the quality of human resources particularly related to decreasing

ICT illiteracy among senior high school teachers and students. Another project in the

year 2002 initiated by the Center of ICT for Education (Pustekkom) in collaboration

with the directorate of senior high and vocational schools was to develop an e-learning

programme called “e-edukasi”. This network platform provided various electronic

3

learning resources that could be accessed by teachers and students to enrich their

teaching and learning materials. Essentially, e-edukasi was developed to improve the

quality of education at the high school and vocational school levels through the use of

the Internet (Yuhetty, 2002). Today, this programme has been upgraded and extended

to provide learning resources and other materials for all school levels in Indonesia,

including primary and secondary schools, where these schools can now access

relevant materials from their respective premises via Internet services.

Furthermore, as an effort to ease the accessibility and connectivity of the

schools, the Ministry also set up a network programme called “JARDIKNAS”

(Jejaring Pendidikan National) or in English, The Indonesia National Education ICT-

Network. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, the current President of Indonesia, officially

launched this programme during the 42nd SEAMEO council conference in Bali 2007

(Dodi, Gatot & Soekartawi, 2007). JARDIKNAS electronically connected

Indonesia’s higher education institutions, secondary schools, district schools and all

units of the Ministry. It was set up to increase collaboration, problem solving,

resource sharing, and technical support in order to generate greater output. In terms of

ICT facilities, JARDIKNAS is one of the most salient programmes in the

government’s efforts to modernize and enhance education in Indonesia (Soekartawi,

2007).

Acknowledging that ICT infrastructure is crucial to enable schools to access

and utilize the ICT resources provided, the government subsequently initiated a

system of ICT block grants, in which a grant of about US$ 4,179 (RM 13,038) was

allocated per school to purchase ICT facilities. This programme took place from 2002

to 2003 during which 174 schools throughout the country were targeted. In addition,

along with the various projects and programmes initiated which emphasized on

4

optimizing the usage of ICT to improve the quantity and quality of education, the

government of Indonesia has also increased the budget allocation for the education

sector from 9.5% in the year 2005 to 20% in the year 2010 from the total national

budget. Compared to that of other sectors, the budgetary allocation for the education

sector was considered to be the highest (Soekartawi, 2007).

ICT AND SCHOOLS IN THE DISTRICT OF JEMBER, INDONESIA

Jember was one of the districts that benefited from the Indonesian government’s ICT

block grants scheme. A district located in East Java, Indonesia, it has a total

population of 2,417,525 people consisting of mostly Javanese and Maduranese ethnic

groups with small percentages of Chinese, Balinese, Arabic and Indian people.

Although the official language is Bahasa Indonesia, most residents in Jember speak

either the Javanese or Maduranese language. Covering a total area of 3,293.34 km²,

Jember is made up of 13 sub-districts (shown in Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1: The Thirteen Subdistricts of Jember

5

In terms of education, a total of 2041 schools of different types, levels and

categories currently operate in the district of Jember. Of this number, 67.9% (n =

1385) are primary schools, while 21.4% (n = 437) are lower secondary. Only 10.7%

(n = 219) are upper secondary and vocational schools. These schools are sorted into 3

categories: (i) potential schools, (ii) national standard schools, and (iii) pilot schools

for international standard. Out of the total number of schools in Jember, only 3.2% (n

= 65) are accredited as national standard schools (NSS), where a national standard

school is a school that fulfilled eight standard criteria set by the Ministry of Education

(Dispendik, 2009). The eight criteria are:

Table 1.1 Eight Criteria for National Standard Schools Set by the Ministry of National

Education

No. Criteria 1. Standard level of competency 2. Standard level of contents across curriculum 3. Standard level of school process 4. Standard level of teachers 5. Standard level of school facilities and resources 6. Standard level of school managements 7. Standard level of school finance 8. Standard level of assessment and evaluation

The Ministry of Education’s target is to make all schools in Indonesia reach

national standard of education, which later will earn them accreditation as national

standard schools. Hence, national standard schools in the district are an example and

reference for the rest of the schools to achieve the required standards (Dispendik,

2009), especially in terms of teachers’ adoption of ICT for teaching and learning.

Subsequently in this study, the focus was placed on the national standard schools and

the teachers teaching at these schools. As far as research documentation is concerned,

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following the government’s efforts to provide ICT facilities in schools, no study has

been done to profile the ICT facilities in Jember schools, or to examine Jember

teachers’ acceptance of ICT tools, the latter being a critical success factor to the

Indonesian government’s effort to promote ICT integration in the schools.

TEACHERS’ ACCEPTANCE OF ICT AND THE TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL

Indisputably, the role of teachers is crucial in maximizing the potential impact of ICT

in learning. Teachers’ acceptance of ICT is pre-requisite and entirely essential to

make ICT provided in the schools be used effectively (Carlson & Gadio, 2003;

Naresh, Raduan & D’Silva, 2008). Available ICT facilities in the schools become

waste resources and may not have any effect on student learning and achievement if

efforts do not take into consideration teachers’ comfort and motivation to utilize them.

Indeed, teachers’ use of ICT and the accompanying pedagogy are the key determining

factors to improve student performance, skill development and knowledge acquisition

enabled by ICT utilization (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 2002).

Although teachers generally recognize and acknowledge the values of using

ICT for teaching and learning, they nevertheless experience difficulties in utilizing

these ICT technologies, as indicated by the small number of teachers using ICT in the

classroom (Balanskat et al., 2006). According to research, teachers are hampered by

two categories of barriers, namely (i) internal barriers such as lack of ICT confidence

and self-efficacy in using ICT, and (ii) external barriers such as lack of educational

software and limited access to ICT facilities. From a theoretical viewpoint, the

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) developed by Davis (1989) proposes that two

core constructs influence teachers’ willingness to accept and use new technology; the

constructs are the technology’s perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. In

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other words, teachers are more likely to adopt a new technology if the new

technology, in their perception, has many benefits and is relatively easy to use. While

TAM is useful in fundamentally explaining new technology acceptance, teachers’

acceptance of ICT is however a phenomenon much more complex than the constructs

of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use can explain. And while there is a

plethora of factors impeding teachers’ use of ICT in the classroom, recent research

indicates that computer self-efficacy (Paraskeva, Bouta & Papagianna, 2008; Teo,

2009) and organizational support (Groves & Zemel, 2000; Hofmann, 2002; Williams,

2002) may be crucial determinants of teachers’ ICT acceptance and utilization.

TEACHERS’ ACCEPTANCE OF ICT: THE INFLUENCE OF COMPUTER SELF-EFFICACY AND ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT

Adapted and modified from the general concept of self-efficacy proposed by Bandura

(1986), computer self-efficacy refers to a person’s beliefs about how good he or she is

with the use of myriad computer applications and tools. The construct has been found

to influence various computer-related behaviors and outcomes (Bassam, 2007). Quite

a number of empirical studies have revealed the significant influence of computer

self-efficacy on users’ perceptions of computers’ usefulness (PU) and ease of use

(PEU), which later determined their intention to use computers (Paraskeva et al.,

2008; Teo, 2009).

In the school context, having computer self-efficacy is crucial for teachers

since it affects their willingness to use ICT for their instructional purposes (Teo,

2009). Teachers with a high sense of computer self-efficacy can adopt ICT and

maximize its potential impact to transform teacher-centered traditional methods to

more student-centered methods of teaching. Teachers with a high degree of computer

self-efficacy would also appreciate the usefulness of ICT since it can enhance their

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performance in many ways. Teo (2009) found that computer self-efficacy has a direct

effect on perceived usefulness of technology. In addition, efficacious teachers would

likely perceive that using ICT is easy and would not take much effort and time.

Empirical studies have revealed that computer self-efficacy had significant effects on

the computer’s ease of use and later, on intention to use (Paraskeva et al., 2008).

Hence, including the computer self-efficacy factor into the original TAM is crucial to

predict teachers’ intention to use ICT in a broader context.

Organizational support (OS) is another factor that potentially influences

teachers’ ICT acceptance. Organizational support refers to conditions provided by the

school management that facilitate teachers’ acceptance of ICT. OS comes in the

forms of technical ICT support, ICT training, incentives for ICT use, access to

computers, ample preparation time, reduced workload and adequate resources.

Previous studies found that lack of access to computers, inadequate technical support

(Groves & Zemel, 2000; Williams, 2002; Ngai, Poon, & Chan, 2007; Teo, Lee &

Chai, 2008), and poor facilitating conditions were cited by teachers as barriers to ICT

integration in the classroom (Lim & Khine, 2006), while lack of management support

was reported in other studies as a barrier to effective information systems usage

(Sharma & Yetton, 2003; Bassam, 2007). Therefore, school managements should

provide multiple ways to help and encourage teachers to use ICT. Providing

necessary ICT facilities and technical support is part of school support that can

eliminate teachers’ ICT utilization barriers and enable them to use ICT tools

accordingly in their teaching and learning activities. Teachers who have support from

the school management with necessary ICT resources would reduce the time required

to accomplish ICT-based tasks, enabling them to enhance their work from its usage

(Ngai et al., 2007). This kind of support further motivates teachers to adopt ICT