Professional English and Formal Structures
-
Upload
jaime-cabrera -
Category
Career
-
view
1.066 -
download
0
description
Transcript of Professional English and Formal Structures
CONTEXT AND COMMUNICATION
HIGH CONTEXT
LOW CONTEXT
Professional English and Formal Structures
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
1 . W h a t c u l t u r e s r e q u i r e d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n ?2 . W h a t c u l t u r e s r e q u i r e i n d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n ?3 . H o w c a n h i g h - c o n t e x t c o m m u n i c a t o r s s e e m t o b e
d i s h o n e s t ? 4 . H o w c a n l o w - c o n t e x t c u l t u r e s s e e m t o b e r u d e o r
u n e d u c a t e d ?
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Communication can be affected by contexts such as:
The codes around a code
The formats used in a message
The sender‟s intention or motive
The receiver‟s background
The structure of an organization where a message is received
Context and Communication
NON- PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION
PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION
HIGH CONTEXT = MORE FOCUS ON SUBTEXTUAL MEANING (sub = under, below, hidden)
LOW CONTEXT = MORE FOCUS ON TEXTUAL MEANING (text = words, written or spoken)
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
• How does context affect communication?
• How does structure affect communication?
Structural Context
Hierarchy and Communication
HIERARCHIC COMMUNICATION
STRUCTURE IN A FORMAL MESSAGE
STRUCTURE& COMMUNICATION FLOW
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
1 . W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n g o e s f r o m b o s s t o e m p l o y e e ?2 . W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n g o e s f r o m e m p l o y e e t o b o s s ?3 . W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n g o e s b e t w e e n e m p l o y e e s ?4 . W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d c o m e f i r s t i n a l e t t e r ?5 . W h y d o b o s s e s s o u n d b o s s y ? 6 . W h y d o c o m m a n d e r s s o u n d v e r y c o m m a n d i n g ?
Hierarchical Communication
In a hierarchical structure, upper-level management is on top and lower-level employees are at the bottom.
Formal communication can move upward, downward or horizontally within a company.
However, a great deal of communication can occur informally.
The "grapevine" refers to the informal communication network where unofficial information travels.
From: http://www.ehow.com/about_5449867_structure-communication-organization.html
Structure in a Formal Message
MOST IMPORTANT
LEAST IMPORTANT
MEDIUM IMPORTANCE
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Structure and Communication Flow Vertical flow (red arrows)
Lateral flow (green arrows)
Finance Marketing Production
Board of Directors
Finance Officers
MarketingAssistants
FactoryOperatives
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Formal Communication
President
Vice
President
Vice
President
Manager Manager Manager Manager
Efforts at coordination
Info
rmati
on
Instru
ctio
ns a
nd
dire
ctiv
es
Formal communication is the process of sharing official information with others who need to know it, according to the prescribed patterns depicted in an organization chart
Formal Communication
Company Structure: Pyramid Type
Decisions pass downward via formal channels from managers to staff
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Emperors were higher than kings.
There were no presidents or prime ministers then.
When an emperor spoke, even kings trembled.
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Statements can use the imperative tone. (from emperor) which is a commanding tone).
Do this: Write this.
Do that: Read that.
Should: You should use APA.
Must: You must have a smile.
Have to: You have to read that.
Tone for Lateral Downward FlowTHE STRONG TONE
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
A time element increases the strength of the imperative tone.
Do this: Write this now.
Do that: Read that immediately.
Should: You should smile now.
Must: You must have a smile now.
Have to: You have to read that immediately.
Tone for Lateral Downward FlowHOW TO INCREASE A STRONG TONE
Company Structure: Pyramid Type
Decisions pass downward via formal channels from managers to staff
Information, suggestionsflows upwardvia formal channels from staff to management
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
I T ’ S N O T W H A T Y O U S A Y .
I T ’ S H O W Y O U S A Y I T .
SHL1013 Professional English Sunday, October 14, 2012
POLITE SPEECH
1 . W H A T ‟ S T H E C O R R E C T T O N E F O R A S U P E R I O R ?2 . W H A T ‟ S T H E C O R R E C T T O N E B E T W E E N E Q U A L S ?3 . W H A T ‟ S T H E C O R R E C T T O N E F O R A S U B O R D I N A T E ?4 . W H A T T O N E I S C O R R E C T F O R A L L ?5 . H O W D O Y O U P R O T E C T Y O U R S E L F ?
I T ’ S H O W Y O U S A Y I T .
SHL1013 Professional English Sunday, October 14, 2012
IT’S NOT WHAT YOU SAY.
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Use a tone that suggests: might, may, could.
might + want to: Do this. = You might do this.Do this. = You might want to do this.
may + want to: Do that. = You may do that.Do that. = You may want to do this.
+ could: Do this. = You could do this.
Tone for Lateral Upward FlowHOW TO SOFTEN A STRONG TONE
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Tentative tone: might, may, could + perhaps.
might + perhaps + want to: Do this. = You might perhaps do this.Do this. = You might perhaps want to do this.
may + perhaps + want to: Do that. = You may perhaps do that.Do that. = You may perhaps want to do this.
could + perhaps: Do this. = You could perhaps do this.
Tone for Lateral Upward FlowHOW TO SOFTEN A STRONG TONE
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Possibility tone: might, may, could + maybe.
might + maybe + want to: Do this. = You might maybe do this.Do this. = You might maybe want to do this.
may + maybe + want to: Do that. = You may maybe do that.Do that. = You may maybe want to do this.
could + perhaps: Do this. = You could maybe do this.
Tone for Lateral Upward FlowHOW TO SOFTEN A STRONG TONE
Company Structure: Pyramid Type
Decisions pass downward via formal channels from managers to staff
Information, suggestionsflows upwardvia formal channels from staff to management
Information, suggestions can flow via informal channels from one level to another same level
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
A tentative (non-deciding) tone: perhaps, maybe, or probably.
perhaps + might: Do this. = Perhaps you might want to do
this.Do this. = Perhaps you might do this.
maybe + can: Do that. = Maybe you can do that.
probably+ could: Do this. = You could probably do this.
Tone for Vertical FlowHOW TO SOFTEN A STRONG TONE
Professional Structure: Matrix Type
Marketing Production Finance
Project A
Project teams created
Includes staff with specialist skills
Project B
Communication Flow in Matrix-type Structures
What tone is best for communication in this type of organized structure?
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
A tone that does not commit: can (be), could (be), should (be), might (be).This is good. This can be good. This could be good. This should be good. This might be good.
Those are ok. = Those should be ok. I like that. = I could like that.That will work. = That might work.
The Neutral ToneYOU DON’T HAVE TO AGREE OR DISAGREE: HOW TO BE NONCOMITTAL (NO COMMITMENT)
Structure: Entrepreneurial Type
Most small businesses have
this structure
One or two people make
decisions
Much reliance on key workers
to support decision-makers
Quick action but pressure on
decision makers
Decision maker
Key worker
Key worker
Key worker
Key worker
Mostly lateral flow of informationSunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
A neutral tone: remove the imperative tone.Do this. = Doing this is essential.Do that. = Doing that is a requirement.You should do this. = Doing this will
make the project successful.You must complete that. = We look
forward to your completion of that task.
Neutral Tone for Lateral FlowHOW TO REMOVE THE IMPERATIVE TONE
Structure: Independent Type
Dr ADr B
Dr CDr D
Support systems to
professionals such as doctors
Not suited to most businesses due to
lack of control
What tone is best for communication In this structure? Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
When it‟s not your own idea or experience, use: appears to (be), seems to (be), it seems that, it appears thatThe sun is shining in Alaska. The sun appears to shine in Alaska. The sun appears to be shining in Alaska. It appears that the sun is shining in Alaska. The sun seems to shine in Alaska. The sun seems to be shining in Alaska. It seems that the sun is shining in Alaska.
The Safe ToneHOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF
What‟s the difference?• Use appear when...• Use seem when...
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
When it‟s not your own idea or experience, add would or might before appear.
The sun is shining in Alaska. The sun appears to shine in Alaska.
The sun might appear to shine in Alaska.
The sun would appear to shine in Alaska.
The sun appears to be shining in Alaska.
The sun might appear to be shining in Alaska.
The sun would appear to be shining in Alaska.
The Very Tentative Tone: AppearHOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF
• Use appear when...• Use seem when...
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
When it‟s not your own idea or experience, add would or might before seem.
The sun is shining in Alaska. The sun seems to shine in Alaska.
The sun might seem to shine in Alaska.
The sun would seem to shine in Alaska.
The sun seems to be shining in Alaska.
The sun might seem to be shining in Alaska.
The sun would seem to be shining in Alaska.
The Very Tentative Tone: SeemHOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF
• Use appear when...• Use seem when...
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Use appears to (be), seems to (be), it seems that, it appears that Books are useless. Books appear to be useless. Books seem to be useless. It seems that books are useless.
They like your idea. They seem to like your idea. It seems that they like your idea.
We are the best. We seem to be the best. It seems that we are the best.
When it’s not your own idea or experience
TRY IT: PRACTICE
What‟s the difference?• Use appear when...• Use seem when...
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
When it‟s not your own idea or experience, Add can before a verb. The sun is shining in Alaska. = The sun can shine in Alaska. The sun shines in Alaska. = The sun can shine in Alaska. They like your idea. = They can like your idea.
When it‟s not your own idea or experience, change the verb to be. Instead of (is, are) use can be, could be. The sun is shining in Alaska. = The sun can be shining in
Alaska. The sun is shining in Alaska. = The sun could be shining in
Alaska. We are the best. = We can be the best. Books are useless. = Books can be useless.
The Very Safe ToneHOW TO REALLY PROTECT YOURSELF
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
IMPERATIVE: We must win. We shouldwin. We have to win.
DEFINITE: We are the best. We will win.
POSSIBLE: We can be the best. We can shine.
PROBABLE: We could be the best. We couldshine.
TENTATIVE: We might be the best. We might shine.
Once again: The TonesHOW TO REALLY PROTECT YOURSELF
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
IMPERATIVE: We must win now. We should win immediately. We have to win right now.
POSSIBLE: We can probably be the best. We can perhaps win.
PROBABLE: We could perhaps be the best. We could probably win.
TENTATIVE: We might perhaps be the best. It seems that we are the best. We seem to be the best. It would seem that we are the best. We might probably win.
Once again: The Heightened TonesHOW TO REALLY PROTECT YOURSELF
TYPES OF NETWORKS
GATEKEEPERS
CENTRALIZED NETWORKS
DECENTRALIZED NETWORKS
COMMUNICATION FLOW
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
1 . HOW CA N GA TEKEEPER S HELP YOU ?2 . H O W CA N GA TEKEEPER S HIN DER YOU ?
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Four basic structures of communication networks describe how communication flows to employees, groups, or teams in an organization:
wheel network
chain network
circle network and
all-channel network.
Types of Networks
Communication Networks
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Chain Wheel All Channels
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Gatekeepers control or influence the flow of communication in an organization.
They can help or hinder communication flow.
Gatekeepers
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Gatekeepers include:
Secretaries and assistants
Section or department heads
Database or communication manager
Any influential or respected person in a community
Gatekeepers
Central Persons: Gatekeepers
September /2012Formal and Informal Channels of Communication
Y S T R U C T U R E
W H E E L S T R U C T U R E
C H A I N S T R U C T U R E
• O N E C E N T R A L P E R S O N
• U N E Q U A L A C C E S S T O I N F O R M A T I O N
• C E N T R A L P E R S O N I S A T T H E “ C R O S S R O A D S ” O F T H E I N F O R M A T I O N F L O W
Centralized Networks
Y Structure
Some members can communication only with one central person.
Gatekeeper
Wheel Network
Information flows from one central member of the group to the rest of the members.
Other group members need not communicate with each other to perform well. Example: a group of independent makeup
consultants who report to one regional mentor. The independent makeup consultants do not need to interact with one another in order to perform.
Wheel networks do not exist in teams; teams involve intense interaction between all members of a group.
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Wheel Structure
Each member can communication only with one central person.
Chain Network
In a chain network, members communicate with each other in a pre-planned sequence.
An example of a chain network is an assembly-line group.
In an assembly line, employees only communicate with those whose work precedes or follows their own.
Like wheel networks, chain networks do not exist in teams.
From: http://www.ehow.com/about_5449867_structure-communication-organization.htmlSunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Chain Structure
Each member can communicate only with two others. Some members can communicate with a central person.
Gatekeeper
I N F O R M A T I O N C A N F L O W F R E E L Y
N O C E N T R A L P E R S O N
A L L M E M B E R S P L A Y A N E Q U A L R O L E I N T H E T R A N S M I T T A L O F I N F O R M A T I O N
Decentralized Networks
Circle Structure
Each member can communicate only with two others.
No gatekeeper
Circle Network
In a circle network, members communicate if they share something in common, such as experiences, beliefs, areas of expertise, background or office location.
For example, the people who you may informally socialize with in your office area may be a part of your circle network.
Circle networks are not described as teamwork.
From: http://www.ehow.com/about_5449867_structure-communication-organization.htmlSunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Common Communication Structure
Each member can communicate with anyone.
No gatekeeper
All-Channel Network
An all-channel network is found in teams, which is characterized by high levels of intense communication.
Each team member communicates with every other team member.
Information flows in all directions.
For efficiency, software can be often used to maintain effective communication in teams.
From: http://www.ehow.com/about_5449867_structure-communication-organization.htmlSunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
Network Performance
September /2012Formal and Informal Channels of CommunicationBehavior in Organizations, p.306
Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English
http://www.ehow.com/about_5449867_structure-communication-organization.html http://openacademy.mindef.gov.sg/OpenAcademy/Central/HTML%20Folder/KM/bcp/tools_SocialNetWork.htm#To
p http://www.izix.com/pro/lightweight/video.php http://www.utexas.edu/courses/speclass/courses/350/notes/struc350.html http://www.affordableemployeehandbook.com/SampleEmployeeHandbook.cfm http://www.revisionguru.co.uk/business/communication3.htm http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072400722/student_view0/chapter1/chapter_overview.html Kesten, Ulrike (1998): Informale Organisation und Mitarbeiter-Lebenszyklus. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-
Verlag. Kraut, Robert E., Fish, Robert S., Root, Robert W., Chalfonte, Barbara L. (1990): Informal Communication in
Organizations: Form, Function and Technology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Mishra, Jitendra (1990): Managing the Grapevine. Public Personnel Management, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer 1990. Whittaker, Steve; Frohlich, David; Daly-Jones, Owen (1994): Informal Workplace Communication: What is it like and
how might we support it? Human Factors in Computing Systems, Boston, Massachusets, USA. Ball, Philip (2012): E-mail reveals real leaders. Network analysis maps companies„ informal structure. Nature News
Service/Macmillan Magazines Ltd, 20 March 2012. http://www.nature.com/nsu/030317/030317-5.html Beger, Rudolf, Gärtner, Hans-Dieter, Mathes, Rainer (1989):Unternehmenskommunikation. Wiesbaden:Gabler,
Frankfurt(Main):Frankfurter Allgemeine. Böhle, Fritz, Bolte, Annegret (2002): Die Entdeckung des Informellen. München: ISF. Buchanan, David; Huczynski, Andrzej (2000): Organizational Behaviour. An introductory text. London : Prentice Hall. Crampton, Suzanne M.; Hodge, John W.; Mishra, Jitendra M. (1998): The Informal Communication Network: Factors
Influencing Grapevine Activity. Public Personnel Management, Vol. 27, No. 4, Winter 1998. Greenberg, Gerald; Baron, Robert A. (1997): Behavior in Organizations. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Adapted from