Prof. Joseph M Kavulya University Librarian Catholic University of Eastern Africa P.O Box...

Prof. Joseph M Kavulya University Librarian

Catholic University of Eastern AfricaP.O Box 62157-00200

NairobiEmail: [email protected]

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Documenting Academic Sources in Scholarly Papers and Research Reports Using the APA

Referencing Style: An overview

Purpose of the paper Introduction General guidelines for APA referencing style Footnotes and Endnotes Referencing within text Preparing a list of “References” References

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2. OUTLINE OF THE PAPER

To clarify the key elements in the application of APA referencing

To illustrate the application of APA referencing style to various types of academic sources such as Books, Journal articles, Corporate authored material e.g. government reports, Newspaper and magazine article,, Conference papers, Theses and dissertations Electronic resources sources

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1. PURPOSE OF THE PAPER

All good research report involves on information compiled by and analysis done by others.

If students rely in part on the work of others and you do not cite them, then you have failed in their responsibilities as academic writers.

Therefore a research report must cite the work of others (Rourke, Carter, & Boyer, 1996).

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3. INTRODUCTION

In writing the research report, researchers must acknowledge the material which you have borrowed from other sources. This applies to:Direct quotations, Paraphrases, and Summaries you make of other people’s ideas,

conclusions, words, and so on.This means that when you have decided to use a particular

source, you have to make a record of all its (bibliographic) details that you will need to reference it. These details are usually found on the cover and in the first couple of pages of the source.

It is very important that the referencing style selected must be used accurately and consistently applied throughout the research report.

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3. INTRODUCTION

Why must a writer must acknowledge sources?Acknowledging your sources (also known as referencing, citation, or documentation) is critical in that:

It shows that evidence provided is reliable,

It proves to the scholarly community that what is presented in the paper constitutes new knowledge or represents a different viewpoint,

It also gives readers the chance to crosscheck the findings to ensure that one has fully reviewed the related literature and correctly interpreted it.

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3. INTRODUCTION

Failure to acknowledge sources constitutes intellectual dishonesty (plagiarism) on the part of the writer by presenting ideas, opinions, conclusions, facts and words of others as you belong to the writer.

The APA Publications Manual (6th.ed. 2010) provides guidelines for referencing of sources by: Citing within the text , the author(s) and date of

publication of the source you have used in your research. Include the page in case of direct quotations. Creating an alphabetical reference list of the cited

works at the end of the research report entitled ‘References’

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4. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR APA REFERENCING STYLE

This format applies to all types of sources including: Books Contributions (articles) to edited book Journal articles Corporate authored material e.g. government reports Newspaper and magazine article Lecture notes, discussions, interviews Conference papers Theses Internet based sources e.g. Websites, e-journals, e-books, online

newspapers Audio-visual formats such as films, Video, DVD, CD-ROM and diskette

based sources

Documents the sources for the summaries or paraphrases of ideas from other people by citing the year of publication alone or together with author’s name in parenthesis.

Indicate page numbers only in case you makes a direct quotation. Paraphrasing or referering to an idea are not required to provide location reference e.g. page or paragraph).

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Formatting

Preferred font: Timers New Roman with 12-point size

Spacing: Double space between all lines of text, including reference list

Margins: Uniform at least 1in. (2.54 cm ) on all sides

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i. In citing a work by one author APA uses the author-date method; that is the surname of the author and the year of publication which are inserted in the text at appropriate point both for print and electronic sources:

Wafula(2008) compared the academic performance...In a recent study on academic performance (Wafula, 2008)...

In case of a work by a single author, within a paragraph, you need not include the year in sunsequent references to a work so long as the study cannot be confused with other studies cited in the article.

ii. When names of the author(s) of a source are part of the formal structure of the sentence, only the year of publication appears in parenthesis. Join the names of authors with the word “and”. When a work has two authors, always cite both names everytime the reference appears in the text.

According to Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992) the key purpose of sociology is to expose the structure of the social universe and how it is reproduced or transformed. 10

5. CITATIONS WITHIN TEXT

iii.When the author(s) of a source are not part of the formal structure of the sentence, both the authors and years of publication appear in parenthesis. In this case join the names of authors with ampersand (&):

The key purpose of sociology has been viewed as to expose the structure of the social

universe and how it is reproduced or transformed (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992).

iv.If the work has three, four or five authors, cite them all the first time one refers to the work. In subsequent citations one includes only the last name of the first author followed by et al. and the year of publication.

According to some sociologists (Baker, Wahlers, Watson & Kibler, 1987) the key characteristic of an open system is that it communicates and exchanges information freely with the environment. (cited for the first time)

----------- According to some legal experts (Baker, et al., 1987), the operations of systems

are determined by the goals and aims of their elements or members. (subsequent citation)

In the reference list, provide the initials and surnames of the first six authors and

shorten the remaining authors to et. al11


v. If a work has six or more authors, each time cite only the last name of the first author followed by “et al.” and the year of publication.

(Njoroge, et al., 2008).

vi. Spell out the names of must corporate authors each time you cite them. In some cases if your abbreviations are easily understood, you may abbreviate the corporate name in subsequent citations.

…(International Federation of Library and Archive Institutions, 0003)… (first theme citation)

------------ … (IFLA, 2003)… (Subsequent citation)

If the corporate name is short or if the abbreviation would not be readily understable, write out each time in occurs

vii. If the work has no author, use the title or the first words of the title. Underline or italicize the title.

According to Who is who in Kenya (2006), the GDP of East African countries… ----------- The GDP of East African countries… (Who is who in Kenya, 2006)…

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viii. If you have borrowed from works by two authors with the same name, include each author’s initials in all citations

J.R Njoroge (2005) and P.G Njoroge (2005) have argued that

ix. If you include two or more sources within the same parenthetical reference, list them alphabetically. Separate the citations with semicolons

Recent writings on social theory (Lyon, 2000; Schneider, 2000)…

Recent views on sociological theory (Mouzelis, 1994; 1995)

x. If you have cited from more then one work with the same date and the same author, add a suffix “a”, “b”, “c” etc to the date in the parenthetical citation as well as in the “Reference “ list

Conflict is endemic in society(Marx, 1968a; 1968b).

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xi. Make effort to cite only sources you have actually read. If you cite something second hand you must make it clear:

Body building has been viewed as a way of asserting self definition (Mansfield and McGinn as cited in Hancock, et al., 2000).

In list of “References” you include only the source you obtained and read second hand information unless you happen to cite them elsewhere in your paper, research report

xii. If a work has no publication date, cite it by the author’s name followed by a comma and “n.d” (to mean ‘no date’):

Contemporary debates on gender (Schneider, n.d)…

xiii. Personal communications (letters, telephone conversations, messages, electronic

communication (e.g. E- mail) and so on are not included on the references list because the reader cannot look up the source or are from non-archived discussion groups or electronic boards as to provide recoverable data. Therefore more complete information is given in the text:

J.R. Wambua (personal communication, June 20, 2006)…

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xiv. In case of short direct quotations (fewer than forty words of prose or three lines or verse) one should incorporate it into the text and enclose the author’ name, year and the specific page in parenthetical citation. Provide full details of the work in our list of ‘References’.

The agency-structure dichotomy has sometimes been used to refer to “…theopposition between interpretive and positivist approaches to reality” (Swartz, 1999, p. 53).

xv. Place direct quotations longer than four lines in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented one inch from the left margin, and maintain double-spacing. Put the parenthetical citation after the closing punctuation mark then provide full details of the work in your reference as follows.

The agency-structure dichotomy has been used in reference to different theoretical and methodological issues, approaches, and theorists: at times the dichotomy means the opposition between interpretive and positivist approaches to social reality; at other times the opposition contrasts between micro and macro levels of analysis; at still other times the opposition between the participant and the outside observer is indicated(Swartz, 1999, p. 53).

Any direct quotation, regardless of length must be accompanied by a reference citation including page number.

Direct quotations must be accurate and therefore must follow the wording, spelling, and interior punctuation of of the original source even if the source is incorrect.

xv. To cite a web (internet) document, use the author-date format. For electronic resurces that do not provide page numbers, use the paragraph number if available preceded by abbreviation para. If neither paragraph or page are visible cite the heading and the paragraph following it directly or the location of the material :

Onyango, 2012, para. 5Onyango, 2012, Conclusion, para. 2

xvi.As in printed works, to cite a web (internet) document, if no author is identified, use the first few words of the title in place of the author. If there is no date is provided, use n.d in place of the date consider the following examples:

A research report has to be presented in clear and simple style (A guide for writing research Reports, n.d.)

NB: As noted before these method of citation (author-date) is applied to both printed and electronic sources16


PA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your

document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright.

(a). Content Notes Provide supplemental information to your readers. When providing

Content Notes, be brief and focus on only one subject. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph.

Also point readers to information that is available in more detail elsewhere.

Example1 While the book provides insights on research design and

methodology it does not just deal with the subject of research…

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6. FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES

(b). Copyright Permission Notes

Used if you quote more than 500 words of published material or to avoid violation of “Fair Use” copyright laws.

Important to get the formal permission of the author(s), insert a note as in content note and then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document

If you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some other source, you must provide a special note at the bottom of the item that includes copyright information.

Begin the citation with “Note.”

Example:Note. From A Study of the meaning of obedience to the law in Plato’s “Crito” and “Apology by P. Maruga, Copyright 1999 by Copyright Holder. Reprinted with permission.

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6. FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES

A.General guidelines

The reference list documents sources and provides information necessary to identify and retrieve each source

All citations in the text must appear in the reference list and all references must be cited in the text except personal communication e.g. E-mail .

In other words only sources that have been used in the research and have been cited in the text should be listed.

The list should be titled “References” Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author, or by title if

there is no author Use only the initials(s) of the author’s given name, not full name, with space between

the initials All entries should be double-spaced. The first line of each entry should be at the left margin. Second and subsequent

sentences should be indented three spaces (Hanging indents) Two or more works by same author should be listed chronologically, with the older work

being listed first Two or more works by the same author that are published in the same year are

alphabetized and add a suffix “a”, “b”, “c” etc to the date (1990a, 1990b)19

7. PREPARING A LIST OF “REFERENCES”

A.GENERAL GUIDELINES

Whenever you need to use the word “and” in joining names of authors use the ampersand (&) instead.

Capitalize only the first letter of the title, the subtitle of books and articles in journals,

Capitalize the first letter of each word in titles of journal titles Use abréviations : p. ( for page) & pp. ( for pages) Italicize the title and sub-titles of books Italicize journal titles, volume numbers. Do not Italicize journal issue

numbers Volume numbers of books should be stated in Arabic numerals not roman. When typing most publishers, do not include words like Company,

Publishing and Inc unless it is an academic publisher such as University of Nairobi Press, in which case you write the full name.

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B. FORMATS FOR BOOKS The details required, in order, are:

Name(s) of author(s), editor(s) as (Eds.), or the institution responsible Date of publication in parenthesis. ( ). Title of publication and Subtitle if any (all titles must be italicized). Edition in parenthesis. (if other than first). E.g. (2nd ed.). Page numbers should be preceded by the abbreviation p. for page and pp.

for pages contained within the edition parenthesis ( ). Place of publication (followed by a colon) : Publisher – finish with a period.

Example of book

Author,A.A.(2008).Title of work. Location: Publisher.

Author, A.A., & Author, B.B.(2008).Title of chapter. In A.Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book(pp.xxx-xxx).Location: Publisher.

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i. Citation of work cited in a secondary sourceIf you did read the work cited, list give the secondary source in the “Reference “ list. In the text , name the original work, and give citation for the secondary source. If you went ahead to head the original work , then put it in the “Reference “list e.g. (in-text)

Body building has been viewed as a way of asserting self definition (Mansfield and McGinn as cited in Hancock, et al., 2000).

In reference listHancock, et al.(2000). Masculinities. New York: Wiley.

ii. Format for books with Anonymous author

Writers’ and artists yearbook, 2004. (2004). London: A & C Black.

iii. Format for books with Corporate author

UNDP. (1998). Human development report, 1998. New York: Oxford University Press.

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publications Manual of the American Psychological

Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

iv. Format for books with Single author

Craib, I. (1997). Classical social theory: An introduction to the thought of Marx, Weber,

Durkheim, and Simmel. London: Oxford University Press.22


v. Book with two up to six authors: List all authors. Evans, A.F., Evans, R. A., Kennedy, W. B., Smith, R.P., & Arnold, P.L. (1987).

Pedagogies of the non-poor. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.

In case of a work with more than six, provide the initials and surnames of the first six authors and shorten the remaining authors to et. al

Mogaka, A.F., et. al (1987). County governments. Nairobi: Eastern Publishing.

vii. Later or revised edition

Barker, L. L., Wahlers, K. J. Watson, K. W., Kibler, R.J. (1987). Groups in process:

an introduction to small group communication (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J:

Prentice – Hall.

viii. Article or chapter without an author in a book

Solving the Y2K problem. (1997). In D. Bowd (Ed.), Technology today and tomorrow (p.27). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

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ix. Works in more than one volume Cushing, D. (Ed). (2000). A Middle English chronicle of the first crusade: The Caxton Eracles. Vol.1. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.

x Papers from conference proceedings with editor Masawe, M. (2004). ICT access initiatives for rural areas in Tanzania: An Overview of rural community tele-centres in Tanzania. In P. Birungi, and M. Musoke (Eds.). Towards a Knowledge Society for African Development: Papers Presented at the 15th. Standing Conference of Eastern, Central and Southern African Librarians (SCESCAL XVI), 5th- 9th. July, 2004 Kampala, Uganda( pp 387- 417). Kampala: Uganda Library Association.

xi. Papers from conference proceedings without an editor

Mchombu, K.J (2000). Research on measuring the impact of information on rural development. In Information 2000: a vision for SCESCAL region: Paper presented at the

14th Standing Conference of Eastern, Central and Southern African Librarians, 10th-15th

April 2000, Windhoek, Namibia. Windhoek: Namibian Information Workers Association.

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xii. Translated works

Freud, S. (1970). An outline of psychoanalysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York: Norton.

xiii. Edited book Author, A. (Ed.). (year). Title. Place of publication: Publisher.

May, T & Williams, M. (Eds.). (1998). Knowing the social world. Buckingham: Open University Press.xiv. Essay or chapter in a collection or edited book

Norris, C. (1995). Culture, criticism and communal values: On ethics of enquiry. In B. Adam, & S. Allan, (Eds.), Theorizing culture: An Interdisciplinary critique after postmodernism (pp. 5- 40). London:

UCL Press.xv. Encyclopeadia article

Syokimao, H.C (2011). Migration. In The Finesse encyclopedia of demography

(Vol. 4, pp. 345-348). Nairobi: Finesse .

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C. FORMAT FOR PRINT JOURNAL ARTICLES

The details required, in order, are:1. Article author/s2. Date of publication in parenthesis. ( ).3. Article title.4. Periodical Title and volume number (italicized) ,5. Issue (or part) number for journals without continuous pagination, which goes in brackets followed by a comma e.g. ( ),6. Page number(s) - finish the element with a full stop (period)

Example of periodical publication: (Periodical (items published on a regular basis e.g.journals, magazines, scholarly letters,etc)

Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author C.C (2008). Title of the article.Title of the Periodical, Vol. X, pp.XXX-XXX.

i. Article from print journals using continuous pagination

Juznic, P. & Badovinac, B. (2005). Towards library and information science education in European Union. New Library World, 106, 173- 186. --------

Joint, N. & Law, D. (2000). The electronic library: A review. Library Review, 49, 428-435. 26


ii. Article from print journals paginated by issue

Ocholla, D. (1995). Professional development, manpower education and training in information sciences in Kenya.

Library Management, 16(8), 11-26.----------

Kavulya, J. M. (2004). Adoption of electronic journals in scholarly communication in African Universities: A review of critical issues. Eastern Africa Journal of Humanities and Sciences, 4 (1) 32-47.

iii. Weekly magazine or Newspaper with authorGalappatti, A. (2005, July). Reflections on post-tsunami psychosocial work.

Forced Migration Review, pp. 32- 33.

Muthaka, B. & Gathura, G. (2006, June 23). Rising Aids cases linked to violence. Daily Nation, pp.11-12

In case of magazines in volumes give the volume number

iv. Anonymous author in newspaper or magazine

US lags behind in women’s politics. (2006, June 30). Daily Nation, p. 19.

-----------Crime in South Africa: Progress. (2006, October 11th-17th). The Economist,

p. 50. 27


D. FORMAT FOR DISSERTATIONSi. Published dissertations or theses

McVeigh, M. J. (1971). The interaction of the conception of God of the African traditional religion and Christianity in the thought of Edwin W. Smith. PhD Thesis. Boston University Graduate School. Ann Arbor: UMI.

ii. Unpublished thesisMaruga, P. (1999). A Study of the meaning of obedience to the law in

Plato’s “Crito” and “Apology.” Unpublished master’s thesis, Catholic University of Eastern Africa, Kenya.

E. Reference works

i. Entire reference work

Baker, M. J. (1995). Companion encyclopedia of marketing. London: Routledge.

-----------Sadie, S. (Ed.). (2007). The new dictionary of music and musicians (6th ed.,

Vols. 1- 20). London: Macmillan.

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ii. Article in a reference work which is edited

Gummesson, E. (1995). Marketing of services. In M. J. Baker, (Ed.), Companion encyclopedia of marketing (pp. 819- 830). London: Routledge

iii. Article in a reference work which is widely known by title (e.g. Encyclopedia)

Bergman, P.G (1993). Relativity. In The New encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol.26,pp.501-508).Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

E. GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTSRepublic of Kenya. (1996). Sessional paper No 2 of 1996 on industrial

transformation to the year 2020. Nairobi: Government Press.

F.ELECTRONIC SOURCESi. E-book retrieved from database

NB: Change from 5th edition: Publisher and city are not necessary in e-books unless publisher identity is not clear from author, URL, database name or other reference information)

Kariuki, P. (2008). Global organizations (10th ed.). Retrieved from Finesse E-books database.

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ii. Entire e-book not from a database but with URL linkKariuki, P. (2008). Global organizations. Retrieved from http://www.Finesse.com/Accessproduct.aspx?Product

ID=3476768

iii. Electronic Book Chapter

Norris, C. (1995). Culture, criticism and communal values: On ethics of enquiry. In B. Adam, & S. Allan, (Eds.), Theorizing culture: An interdisciplinary critique after postmodernism (pp. 5- 40). Retrieved from Finesse E- books database.

iv. Online Magazine article Mwakio, F. (2012). Our universities can be more innovative. Higher

Education Chronicle. Retrieved from http://www.chronicle.com

v. Online newspaper articleMuthaka, B. & Gathura, G. (2006, June 23). Rising Aids cases linked to

violence. Daily Nation. Retrieved from http//www. Nationmedia.com

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vi. Thesis from an electronic database

Awgichew, K. (2005). Comparative performance of Horro and Menz sheep of Ethiopia under grazing and intensive feeding conditions (Ph. D Thesis). Retrieved from

http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/dissertationen/Awgichew-kasssahun-2000-12- 20/19/html

vii. Article without DOI retrieved from electronic databaseKavulya, J. M. (2006). Trends in funding university libraries in Kenya: A survey.

The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 19 (1), pp. 22- 30. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0888-045X .html.

vi.Journal retrieved online but not necessarily from an e-database (No DOI provided)

Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C (2008).Title of Article. Title of Journal, Vol. X,pp.XXX-XXX. Retrieved from URL link

Kavulya, J. M. (2006). Trends in funding university libraries in Kenya: A survey. The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 19 (1),

pp. 22- 30. Retrieved from

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0888-045X .html.31


vii. viii. Stand-alone Web document (with author and date)

Example: Online document

Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C (2008).Title of work. Retrieved from URL link.

Garfield, E. (2006). Citation indexing, its theory and application in science and technology. Retrieved from http://www. Garfield.library.upnn.edu/ci/title.pdf.

ix. Stand-alone Web document (no author or date) Glossary of literary theory: Index of primary entries (n.d). Retrieved June 30, 2006, from

http://www.library..ca/utel/glossary/headerindex/html.

F. PERSONAL COMMUNICATION/E MAIL AND DISCUSSION LISTS WITH NO WEB ARCHIVE.These are not included in references as you cannot be traced by the reader. 32


American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

American Psychological Association. (2007). APA style guide to Electronic References. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Burton, L. (2006). An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology (2nd ed.). Milton: Wiley

Cope, R. (Ed). (2006). The written assignment: A guide to the writing and presentation of assignments (New rev. ed.). Brisbane: Wiley.

Kavulya, J.M. (2007). How to write research and term papers guidelines for selecting topics, conducting research, writing and referencing sources Joseph M. Kavulya Imprint. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation

Lewis, D. (Ed). (2002). The written assignment: A guide to the writing and presentation of assignments. Brisbane: Wiley.

Perrin, R. (2007). Pocket guide to APA style (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

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7. REFERENCES

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