PROCESSING OF HIDEFLESH - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/16561/10/10_chapter...
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V.Aiiuradha (1999) Feed Formulation for Fish and Poultry using Hideflesh from Tanneries
PROCESSING OF HIDEFLESH
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the formulated diets for animals include fishmeal as an animal
protein source because of its high nutritive value and palatability. But the
availability of fishmeal has become scarce. Hence animal by-products and
wastes have been tried as alternate source of protein by several workers. Poultry
by-products meal (Steffens, 1994), blood meal (Lee and Bai, 1997 and Asgard and
Austreng, 1986) and fish silage (Jackson et ai, 1984) are some of the non-
conventional animal protein sources often incorporated in animal feed. However,
these products contain inherent materials like urea, nitrates, high percentage of fat
etc. Hence any non-conventional protein source should be subjected to treatments
before incorporating it in animal feed.
A number of methods have been practised to remove these inherent
materials and they include washing, pressure cooking, acid treatments, alkali
treatments, steaming etc. While processing the animal wastes, generally, two or
three methods are combined to help in the removal of the unwanted substances.
The feathers from the poultry industries, which contain a high percentage of
protein, are subjected to steam treatment and chemical treatment before
incorporation in the feed of fish and poultry (Baker et ai, 1981). Waste hairs from
the tannery are incorporated in the feed of fish after removing the keratin by
pressure cooking and acid treatment, thereby converting them into acceptable
protein (Moran and Summers, 1968 and Summers and Leeson, 1978). In the
present study an attempt has been made to use the wastes of tanneries i.e., limed
fleshings, after subjecting them to various processing, as animal protein source in
the feed offish and poultry.
Earlier works reveal that limed fleshingss from the tanneries have been
used as animal protein source in the feeds after washing, steaming and treatment
with organic solvents (Wisman and Engel, 1961; Cowey et al., 1979; Rao et al.,
1994 and Kandasamy and Raj, 1990). In the present study the method used by
Kandasamy and Raj (1991) has been modified for processing the fleshings from
the tanneries.
2.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
With the increasing demand for fishmeal, scientists all over the world are
looking for alternate sources of protein which are cost effective and easily
available. While using non-conventional sources, care should be taken to process
them and, their aminoacid profile should be analysed because the dependability
of protein depends on its aminoacid profile.
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Strorn and Eggurn (1981) prepared fish visceral silage of cod (Gachis
mohiia) and saithe {Pollachius virens) by mincing the viscera and adding a
mixture of formic and propionic acids (1:1 w/v) to a concentration of 1.5 percent
and storing for four days at 30°C. The nutritional value of freshly prepared silage,
the silage stored for four days and the deoiled silage prepared after autolysis and
subsequent storage for 60 days at 15°C showed a protein content of 12.4, 13.3 and
13.9 percent, a fat content of 16.2. 0.1 and 0.2 percent and ash content of 1.3. 1.6
and 1.9 percent respectively. The feeding trial on rat showed the best performance
in deoiled silage stored for 60 days.
Hardy et al. (1984) prepared co-dried fish silage by adding 2 percent
sulphuric acid and 0.75 percent propionic acid (w/v) to a freshly ground whole
pacific whiting and stored in a container at a temperature of 12-15°C for 30 days.
The silage was periodically mixed and , after 30 days, the silage was neutralised
with lime to a pH of 6.2-6.5 and mixed with soybean meal (8.1%) and feather
meal (16.9%). The mixed silage was vacuum dried, ground and incorporated with
other ingredients (50%) in the diet of fish. An analysis of this diet showed 41.1
percent protein, 13.5 percent fat and 9.7 percent ash. The feeding experiment on
trout showed reduction in weight compared to the control, but the proximate
composition of the whole fish was not affected significantly.
Martins and Guzman (1994), used bovine blood cooked with rice meal as a
source of protein in the diet of Colossoma macropormtm (Cuvier). Fresh blood
was mixed with ground broken rice in the proportion of 5:1 and the mixing was
carried out in open steam jacketed kettle at a temperature of 75°C. The resulting
paste was pelleted and dried in forced air oven at 70°C. This meal was
incorporated in the diet of experimental fish replacing fishmeal at 50 percent level
for the duration of two months. The result showed a reduction in the final weight
gain but the proximate composition did not vary significantly from that of the
control fish.
Earthworm meal powder was prepared by Hilton (1983). Fresh worms
were collected and rinsed in water to remove the mud and then frozen at -20°C.
The freeze dried worms were powdered and used in the feed of trout replacing
fishmeal at various levels. The powdered meal showed 60.4 percent protein, 12
percent fat and 10.5 percent ash.
Cardenete et al (1991) incorporated earthworm meal after removing the
coelomic fluid and adding flavouring compound. This wormmeal was
incorporated in the diet of rainbow trout at the level of 50 percent of the dietary
protein. The experiment showed that the treated wormmeal was better accepted
than the non-treated wormmeal. However the feed consumption and protein
efficiency ratio,showed a reduction when compared to the control.
Dog fish offal was used in the diet of salmon after processing by Asgard
and Austreng (1986). The fish offal was freezed (-20°C) soon after collection and
preserved in a mixture of formic acid and anti-oxidant and then stored. This
processed silage was used in the diet of salmon as the source of protein.
Amphibian meal, another non-conventional source of protein, was
incorporated in the diet of Clarius gariepinus (Burchell) by Fagbendro et al.
(1993). Bull frogs, tadpoles and toads were collected and cooked separately for 30
minutes to coagulate the protein. The cooked meal was drained in a jute bag using
a twin screw press and fried in a kiln for 24h at 65°C. The dried materials were
powdered and used in the diet of experimental fish. The proximal composition of
the frog meal showed 65.28 percent protein, 16.76 percent fat and 17.07 percent
ash.
Niki et al. (1985) used protein recovered from effluent of fish meat in
producing surimi. During the production of surimi, while washing the fishmeat,
35 to 40 percent of edible meat was washed with water. This meat was
recovered by adding NaOH to the effluent and the protein was dissolved at a pH
of 10. The soluble protein was removed by centrifigation. The pH was adjusted to
5 by adding HC1 and heated to 80°C and the coagulated protein was separated. On
analysis, this meal showed 82.8 percent protein,and 2.8 percent fat. The feeding
experiment showed better performance in trout.
Nair and Prabu (1980) analysed the nutritional value of frog waste. Frog
wastes were collected from commercial frog processing industries and then
cooked at 0.7kg/sq.cm for 30 minutes, drained and dried in hot air oven at 90°C.
The chemical analysis of the meal showed the crude protein level of 67 percent.
Bhargava and O'Neil (1975) used poultry droppings of cage reared broilers
after the birds were marketed at 8 weeks of age. The droppings were spread and
dried by exposure to hot air (40°C). After removing the extragenous materials, the
dried excreta was powdered and used as a source of protein in the diet of poultry.
It contained 44 percent protein, 7 percent moisture, 2.9 percent fat and 9.98
percent ash.
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Ahmed et al. (1996) processed layer excreta by heaping it for seven days
and then exposing it to the sun for two hours. Then the droppings were powdered
and incorporated in the diet of broilers. The proximal composition of the heaped
droppings was 22.64 percent protein, 3.89 percent fat and 34.1 percent ash.
Langer and Virk (1986), used the Plenrotus species (edible fungus) to
process poultry droppings. They observed that when droppings were used as
substrate, uric acid and crude fibre were reduced and the percentage of true protein
was increased, as Pleurotus mycelium used uric acid nitrogen for proliferation and
the fungal growth had no influence on the crude protein, ash and metabolizable
energy. The proximal composition of the treated droppings was 13.9 percent of
true protein and 21.8 percent ash. The high content of the ash reduced the
quantity of minerals used in the diet of poultry.
Harmon et al. ("1973) fed oxidation ditch mixed liquor as a nutrient solution
mixed with dry feed for pigs. Oxidation ditch is used in large farms for processing
all livestock wastes. The upper fraction of the residue that settled at the bottom
contains a microbial portion which is high in protein and aminoacid content. This
was used as a source of protein in the diet of pigs. Proximal analysis of residue
showed 25 to 50 percent crude protein, free aminoacids and high mineral contents.
The feeding experiment on pigs showed an increase of 2.5 percent in feed
consumption. Martin (1980), substituted this ditch liquor for tap-water for laying
hens. The results showed an increase in egg production.
Rao et al. (1994) used steam treated leather meal in the diet of broilers.
The leather shavings after initial washing, were steamed without pressure for an
hour in an autoclave, dried, powdered and then incorporated in the diet of broilers
at 10 percent level. In another treatment, the leather pieces were washed and
treated with lime solution at pH 9.7 for 24h, washed thoroughly, and then treated
with sulphuric acid at a pH of 2.3 for one hour. The sediment was separated,
washed, dried and powdered. This leather meal was incorporated in the diet of
broilers. The proximate analysis of the meal showed 76 percent protein.
In the present study limed fleshings from the tannery were used in the diet
offish and poultry after processing.
2.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
COLLECTION
Around 2kg of wet hideflesh were collected from the Rathinam Tannery, a
nearby tannery (5km distance), soon after defleshing. The fleshings were packed
in polythene bags and transported by a vehicle immediately to the laboratory in
Gandhigram where they were processed without delay.
PROCESSING
TREATMENT I
Removal of salt and lime
Approximately two kilogram of the above fleshings were immediately
transferred to a plastic trough of 5/ capacity containing 2/ of tap water, and rinsed
thoroughly. Small pieces of (102.3 ± 2.6 g) fleshings were taken and soaked in
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1, 2, 5, 10, and 15/ of water (one piece per soak water) for 3, 6, 12, 18 and 24h
with frequent stirring to remove the lime. Thus there were 25 troughs for each
series. After the due period the fleshings were removed, rinsed in distilled water
and dried in sunlight. Then they were kept in hot air oven at 80° C for 8h and
powdered. Five grams of the above powder was suspended in 20 ml of distilled
water and, after 5 minutes, the electrical conductivity was measured. Four
replicates were maintained. A graph was drawn to find out the optimum period of
soaking required in minimum quantities of water to remove the lime that can be
washed away.
TREATMENT II
Removal of calcium carbonate
In order to remove the insoluble carbonates that were not washed away by
the water, separate pieces of 99.8 ± 3.9g of fleshings were soaked in 1, 2, 5, 10
and 15/ of water for 3, 6, 12, 18 and 24h. After the due period of soaking the
fleshings were removed from the water and drained. Each set of washed fleshing
was suspended in 0. IN HC1 at a rate of lOOg of fleshings in 120ml of said acid (as
120ml was found to be optimum through cursory test). Thus there were five sets
for each time based washing (total 25 troughs). Then the fleshings were removed
from HC1 after 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 and 6.0h from the 25 troughs each individually. The
removed fleshings were washed in tap water, then in distilled water and dried as
it was done in treatment I.
The dried fleshings were powdered and 5g of this powder was suspended
in 20ml of distilled water, and, after 5 minutes, the electrical conductivity was
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measured. A graph was drawn to find out the optimum period of soaking required
in 0. IN HCl for the removal of carbonates.
TREATMENT III
Removal of melting fat
Fresh fleshings were subjected to soaking at the rate of lOOg in 2.2/ of
water for 3h and then in 0.1N HCl for 1.5h as mentioned in treatment II and
washed in tap water. The water was checked with pH paper to confirm the
removal of acid. Then lOOg of fleshings (5 sets) was boiled with water (400ml)
for 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 minutes to remove the melting fat. After the due period
of boiling, the emulsion was transferred to a separating funnel and the fat that
floated on the surface was collected in a pre-weighed petridish and dried in a hot
air oven at 60.C (overnight) and weighed. A graph was drawn to find out the
optimum time required for the removal of fat from the treated fleshings.
TREATMENT IV
Removal of residual fat
The fleshings which were subjected to soaking at the rate of lOOg in 2.2 /
of wash water for 3h, acid treated for 1.5h, boiled for 32.5 minutes as standardised
in treatments I, II and III, were dried in sunlight' and subsequently dried in a hot
air oven at 80°C for 8h and then powdered to get a coarse material. Of this
coarse material lOg was soaked in 120 ml of hexane and isopropanol mixture of
different ratios that is 1:1 (50 percent of hexane), 2:1 (67 percent of hexane), 3:1
(75 percent of hexane), 4:1 (80 percent of hexane), 3:2 (60 percent of hexane), 3:4
(43 percent of hexane) and 4:3 (57 percent of hexane) for an hour. The residual
fat that dissolved in the above solvent mixtures were separately filtered in a pre-
weighed petridishes, dried at room temperature and weighed. A graph was
developed to find out the suitable ratio of the solvents for the removal of the
residual fat.
In the selected solvent mixture , the flesh powder was treated for 60, 90.
120, 150, 180, and 210 minutes in order to standardize the duration of time
required for the removal of the residual fat. (However the data obtained on the
experiment depends on many other parameters)
The hideflesh powder prepared from the fleshings treated with the
standardised procedures of treatments I, II. Ill and IV was analysed for proximate
composition, following AOAC (1980) procedure. Moisture was determined by
oven drying at 105°C for 24 hours; protein (Nx6.25) by micro kjeldahl digestion
and distillation after acid digestion; lipid by extracting the residue with 40-60°C
petroleum ether for 8h in soxhlet; ash by ignition at 600°C in muffle furnace; and
carbohydrate by taking the sum of the values of crude protein, crude lipid, ash and
moisture and subtracting this from 100 (Maynard and Loosli, 1979). Energy
content was measured by Bomb calorimeter. The aminoacid profile was studied
by high pressure liquid chromatography.
2.4 RESULTS
The electrical conductivity of hideflesh powder prepared by subjecting the
fleshings to soaking in various quantities of water (1, 2. 5, 10 and 15/ of water) for
various time intervals (3, 6, 12, 18 and 24h) as indicated in treatment I is given in
figure.4. Soaking of limed fleshings for a longer time reduced the salt retentivity
of the fleshings. Three hours of soaking of lOOg of flesh in 1/ of water, also in
15/ of water gave an electrical conductivity of 1.79 and 1.26 mS/cm respectively.
In 24h of soaking the electrical conductivity in the same quantity of water was
read as 1.20 and 0.98 mS/cm. respectively. However, disintegration of the
fleshings was observed in the case of longer hours of soaking in larger quantities
of water and hence 3h of soaking in 2.2/ was taken as optimum time for soaking
the limed fleshings for the present study.
The electrical conductivity of hideflesh powder prepared from fleshings
subjected to 3, 6, 12, 18 and 24h of soaking in 1 , 2 , 5 , 10 and 15/ of water
and then treated with 0. IN HCI for 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 and 6.Oh as indicated in
Treatment II, is given figures 5 to 9.
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figure 4 Electrical conductivity (rnS/cm) of hideflesh powder prepared from the fleshings (102.3±2.6g) soaked in various quantities of water
(1, 2, 5, 10 & 151) for different time intervals (3, 6, 12, 18 & 24h)
2.0
4 8 12
Quantity of water (/) 16
3h-y =
6h-y =
12h-y =
18h-y =
24h-y =
1.753425
1.606822
1.473760
1.300830
1.175014
- 0.03567x
- 0.03376x
- 0.2784x
- 0.02103x
- 0.0137x
Figure 5 Electrical conductivity (mS/cm) of hideflesh powder prepared from fleshings
(102.3±2.6g)soaked for 3h in various quantities of soak water and then treated with .IN HCI for
different time intervals (1.5, 3.O., 4.5 & 6h)
• 1.5h-y = 9 3h-y -+ 4.5h-y = t 6h-y =
1.546137 1.421836 1.331807 1.223892
- 0.02062x - 0.01755x - 0.01997x - 0.01695x
4 8 12
Quantity of water (/) 16
Figure 6 Electrical conductivity (mS/cm) of hideflesh powder prepared from fleshings
(102.3±2.6g)soaked for 6h in various quantities of soak water and then treated with .IN HCI for
different time intervals (1.5, 3.0., 4.5 & 6h)
1.6 r
4 8 12
Quantity of water (f) 31
* 1.5h-y = 1.484314 *3h-y = 1.370597 f4.5h-y= .1.269664 *6h-y = 1.181384
- 0.02186x - 0.02039x
- 0.01782.x - 0.01505x
figure 7 Llectncal c o n d u c t i v i t y (mS/cm) of hideflesh powder prepared from fleshings
(102.3±2.6g) soaked fo r I 2 h in various quantities of soak water and then treated with 0. IN HCI
for different time i n t e r v a l s (1.5, 3.O., 4.5 & 6h)
figure 8 Electrical c o n d u c t i v i t y (mS/cm) of hideflesh powder prepared from fleshings
(102.3±2.6g) soaked fo r 1 8 h in various quantities of soak water and then treated with 0.1N HCI
for different time i n t e r v a l s (1.5, 3.O., 4.5 & 6h)
Figure 9 Electrical conductivity (mS/cm) of hideflesh powder prepared from fleshings
(102.3±2.6g) soaked for 24h in various quantities of soak water and then treated with O.lN HCl
different time intervals (1.5, 3.0., 4.5 & 6h)
Figures 5 to 9 show a reduction in electrical conductivity with increased
hours of treatment in 0.1N HC1. The electrical conductivity at different hours of
soaking in water followed by treatment in 0.1N HC1 is calculated from figures 5
to 9 and given in Table 8. From the table it is easy to locate quantity and hours of
soaking in water and hours of treatment in 0.1N HC1 for a required electrical
conductivity.
For example, an electrical conductivity of 1.3 mS/cm could be arrived at by
soaking lOOg fleshings in 13.8/ of water for 3h followed by 1.5h of treatment in
0. IN HC1. The same electrical conductivity could also be arrived at by soaking
fleshings in 9.21 of water for 3h followed by 3h treatment in 0. IN HC1. Depending
upon the availability of water and the time, for the required electrical conductivity
the required quantity of water could be selected from the table.
In the present study 1.5mS/cm was taken as the required electrical
conductivity as many fish feeds show an optimum electrical conductivity of
1.5mS/cm. To get this electrical conductivity the fleshings were soaked in 2.2/ of
water for 3h followed by 1.5h treatment in 0. IN HC1.
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Table 10 Quantities of water required, hours of soaking in water and in 0.1N HCl for the required electrical conductivity (Quantity of flesh 102.3±2.6g).
Though an electrical conductivity of 1.5mS/cm was also observed by soaking
fleshings in 8 and 5.5 / o f water for 3 and 6 hours respectively (figure.4),the
carbonates in the fleshings were not removed as they are insoluble in water and
required a weak acid (0. IN Hcl) to eliminate them.
The percentage quantity of melting fat recovered from the fleshings
(102.3±2.6g) subjected to soaking in 2.2/ of water for 3h and then treated with
120 ml of 0. IN HC1 for 1.5h and washed thoroughly to remove the acid and then
boiled with water for 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 minutes (Treatment III) is given in
figure. 10 The graph shows a positive correlation between the boiling time and
percentage of fat recovered. As observed in figure. 10, the fat melted only upto an
optimum time of 32.5 minutes and the quantity of fat recovered was 6.7 percent.
Further increase of boiling time did not promote the release of melting fat and
hence 30 minutes was taken as the optimum time required for melting the fat from
the fleshings.
Figure 10 Percentage of melting fat recovered from treated fleshings at different
time intervals
Besides the melting fat recovered by boiling, the fleshings also contain
other residual fats that are removable only by organic solvents. In the present
study hexane and isopropanol mixture was used to dissolve this residual fat. The
percentages of residual fat recovered from the fleshings subjected to treatment in
hexane and isopropanol solvent mixture of various combinations i.e., 50 percent
hexane(l: 1), 66.7 percent of hexane (2:1), 75 percent of hexane(3:1), 80 percent of
hexane (4:1), 60 percent of hexane (3:2), 57 percent of hexane(3:4) and 43 percent
of hexane(4:3) are shown in figures 11 and 12. As it is observed, with increase
in the percentage of hexane, the percentage of fat recovered from the hideflesh
powder also increased showing a positive correlation.
Figure 11 Percentage of residual fat recovered from treated fleshings in fixed
percentages of isopropanol and change in percentage of hexane solvent mixture
(1:1, 1:2, l:3 and 1:4)
Figure 12 Percentage of residual fat recovered from treated fleshings in different
combinations of hexane and isopropanol (both hexane and isoproponal share
changing)
The recovery of fat was 4.19 percent in 80 percent of hexane (4:1) and 4.20
percent in 75 percent of hexane (3:1). The results indicate that the hexane soluble
fats i.e., hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids are more in the fleshings.
Figure 12 shows that the percentage of fat recovered was higher in a
mixture of hexane and isopropanol at a combination of 60 and 40 percent (3:2)
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than in other combinations. Hence 60:40 percent of hexane and isopropanol was
taken as optimum dosage to dissolve the residual fat.
The time required for the treatment of hideflesh powder in the solvent
mixture of hexane and isopropanol (3:2) to remove maximum quantity of fat is
shown in figure 13. It has been observed that, at 60 minutes, the percentage
removal of fat was low (5.22 percent) and at both 180 and 210 minutes the
removal of fat was high (5.76 percent) and, that, further increase of time did not
improve the rate of recovery of fat. However this depends on other parameters
like the size of the particles.
The graph shows that the optimum time of treatment required is 200
minutes and hence that was taken as the optimum time required for treatment of
the flesh powder in 3:2 hexane and isopropanol solvent mixture for the removal of
redisual fat.
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The proximate composition of hideflesh powder prepared from fleshings
(102.3±2.6mg) soaked in 2.2/ water for 3h followed by treatment with 120 ml of
0.1N HC1 for 1.5h and then washed and boiled for 32.2 minutes to eliminate the
melting fat, treated with hexane and isopropanol solvent mixture (3:2) for 200
minutes, dried at room temperature, powdered, sieved through 420 micron sieve is
given in figure. 14. The figure shows that the percentage of protein is high (80.02
percent) in the processed hide flesh powder and the energy value is 4230.6 cal/g.
Figure 13 The time required for the recovery of residual fat from 3:2
combinations of hexane and isopropanol
Figure 14 Proximate composition of processed hideflesh powder
Protein 80.2%
Carbohydrate 5.4%
The aminoacid profile of the processed hideflesh powder is given in Table
9. The hideflesh powder contained both essential and non-essential aminoacids.
However the percentage of sulphur aminoacids are comparatively less.
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2.5 DISCUSSION
There is a possibility of recovering a considerable quantum of animal
protein from hidefleshings (solid waste) which are otherwise wasted in the
tanneries while processing animal skins for preparing leather. Usually it is
abandoned in the backyard to decompose or used as fertilizer or as raw material
by the gelatin industry. However, proper utilisation of the fleshings could lead to
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the production of large quantities of useful animal protein for animal feed. In the
present study, an attempt has been made to recover edible protein from the
fleshings and to use it as an animal protein source in the place of fishmeal in the
diet of fish and poultry.
Generally the hides/skins which are skinned in the slaughter houses are
immediately preserved in common salt. In the tanneries the salted hides/skins are
subjected to treatment with lime for 15 or more days to loosen the hairs. After
removing the hairs the hides/skins are defleshed. Hence the fleshsings have to be
subjected to deliming process before recovering the protein.
When non-conventional protein sources are used as ingredients in the feed
of reared animals they have to be processed to remove the undesirable factors
present in them and also to improve the quality of the protein. Methods followed
by scientists for the removal of undesirable factors depend upon the nature of the
raw material to be processed. When hair meal was prepared for poultry (Moran
and Summers, 1968) the hair was washed and cooked with and without pressure
and then treated with acid in order to change the undigestible keratin into
digestible form, before incorporation in the feed. In the present study the hideflesh
were subjected to washing with water followed by acid treatment to eliminate the
unwanted and undesirable substances and then boiled followed by solvent
treatment to improve the quality of protein so that the rate of protein-conversion
could be improved in the experimental organisms'.
In order to standardize the procedure for the deliming process, the
quantity of water needed and also the time required for deliming were
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standardized by soaking the fleshings in various quantities of water (1, 2, 5, 10
and 151) for various time intervals (3, 6, 12 18 and 24h) and the electrical
conductivity (a measure of salt content) of hideflesh powder was read to find out
whether the deliming process was complete. The results showed that there is a
decrease in the electrical conductivity in the treated hideflesh powder which
indicates that soaking in water reduces the salt retentivity of the fleshings.
Using water to dissolve salts is a common practice, for water is a good
solvent, and also it is inexpensive when compared to many chemical treatments.
Wisman and Engel (1961), Waldroup et air (1970), Cowey el al, (1979),
Kandasamy and Raj (1990) and Rao el al. (1994) while processing hideflesh.
used ranning water to remove the salt initially. When large quantities of limed
fleshings are to be processed, it requires huge quantities of fresh water and hence,
in order to minimize the usage of water, the fleshings were soaked in water and
frequently stirred.
The results showed that in 3h soaking (102.3+2.6g) in 2.2/ of water helps
in the removal of considerable quantity of salts from the fleshings. However,
longer hours of soaking in the same quantity of water did not show marked change
in the electrical conductivity which indicates that optimum level has already been
reached.
Besides soluble salts, the fleshings also contain salts like calcium cabonates
and sulphides which are insoluble in water but soluble in weak acids. Hence the
fleshings were treated with 0.IN HC1 which react with carbonates and change
them into soluble chlorides. Treatment of fleshings in 0.1N Hcl for 1.5h caused
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loss of some percentage of minerals, but it did not affect the nutritional quality of —
the fleshings. Kadirvel and Thanu (1985), while preparing hairmeal for the
poultry, subjected the water-washed hair to alkali (NaOH) treatment at the pH of
10.5, neutralized it with 1 N HC1 (to a pH of 7.5) and then incorporated it in the
feed and found that this treatment does not produce any leg weakness in the
chicks.
For deliming the hideflesh Rao et al. (1994), used ammonium chloride and
Wisman and Engel (1961) used hydrochloric acid and phosphoric acid.
Removal of lipids increases the percentage availability of protein. The
percentage of fat present in the fleshings depends upon many factors like age of
the animal, sex, health condition etc. In the present study the fleshings were
collected only from hides and not from skins.
The fleshings contain high percentage of fat, which has to be reduced to an
acceptable level. High fat content in the feed is generally not preferred by both
fish and poultry. Such feeds increase the abdominal fats (Summers et al., 1992).
Steaming is the method followed by many scientists to reduce the fat
content. As boiling with water for a short period does not alter the protein quality
but changes the undigestible protein into digestible form besides removing the fat.
in the present study the fleshings were boiled with water for 30 minutes.
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Hossain (1988), when used scarp fish as a source of fishmeal in the feed
for the fish culture, steamed the scarp fish for 40 minutes and pressed it by presser
to remove the oil and water as much as possible. Kandasamy and Raj (1990) also
used boiling method to reduce the fat content in the fleshings. In the present study
also the same method was followed.
Besides steaming, heating was also practised to remove fat. Wisman and
Engel (1961) used drum drying method to reduce the fat content in the fleshings.
Fish silage was heated to 30°C to facilitate the removal of fat (Johnson and
Skrede, 1981 and Strom and Eggum, 1981). Thermal and hydrothermal heating
were used by Abel et al. (1984) in soybeans to improve the oil extractability of
soybean.
Besides the melting fat the fleshings also contain other residual fats which
can be removed only by solvent treatment. Using organic solvent to extract the fat
from oil cakes is commercially practised. The lipids in the fleshings have both
hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids and carboxyl group. Generally the hydrocarbon
chains of fatty acids are recovered by hexane and isopropanol which is a high
polar lipids. Raldin (1981) recommended hexane and isopropanol to extract lipids
from the animal tissues. In order to recover the polar and non-polar lipids from
the hideflesh, in the present study, hexane and isopropanol mixture was used and it
was observed that 3:2 ratio of hexane and isopropanol mixture was most suitable
for the removl of fat and the time required was 200 minutes.
Use of organic solvents to extract the fat was practised by many scientists.
Rao et al. (1994) used acetone to recover the fat from the fleshings. Kandasamy
46
and Raj (1990) used hexane and isopropanol in the ratio 3:2 to recover the fat.
Chloroform was used to remove the fat from the fleshings by Cowey et al. (1979).
Hossain (1988) used petroleum ether to defatten the scrap fish meal and later the
solvent was removed by drying. Folch et al. (1957) used chloroform and
methanol to recover the fat. Asgard and Austreng (1985), while processing dog
fish offal as a feed for salmonids, used trichlorethylene to extract fat after careful
mixing with sodium sulphate.
Carpenter et al. (1952) reported destruction of riboflavin and pantothenic
acid in acid or alkali treated meal. Kadirvel and Thanu (1985) also reported a
reduction in the absorption of vitamins and minerals in the intestine when alkali
treated hairmeal which was neutralized with acid was fed to broilers. However, in
the present study, while formulating the feed, minerals and vitamins were added in
sufficient quantity. No deficiency diseases were observed in the experimental
animals.
The proximate composition of the processed hideflesh powder is shown in
figure 14. The crude protein content of the hideflesh powder was 80.02 ±2.17
percent. Wisman and Engel (1961) observed 68.3 percent of protein in dram dried
fleshings and 67.8 percent of protein in acetone treated fleshings. Cowey et al.
(1979) observed 55 percent of protein in the hideflesh. This variation in protein
content may be due to the processing technology followed or it may be due to
variation in the age and health condition of the slaughtered animal and also due to
other practices involved in the processing of raw hides/skins like the condition in
which the hides were transported, the quantity and strength of the calcium used
and the number of days taken for liming etc.
47
The aminoacid profile of the hideflesh powder is given in Table 11. It
shows that the hideflesh powder contains a high percentage of histidine (10.61)
and a low percentage of methionine (0.41). Besides the ten essential aminoacids
the fleshings also contain a few non-essential aminoacids like glutamate, serine
aspartate etc. Except for the sulphur containing aminoacids the quantity of the
rest of the essential aminoacids are not much different from that of the fishmeal.
Wisman and Engel (1961), Cowey et al. (1979) and Kandasamy and Raj (1990)
also observed a lesser percentage of sulphur containing aminoacids in the
hideflesh powder.
Deficiency of certain aminoacids in the non-conventional protein sources is
not an uncommon feature. In feathermeal Baker et al. (1981) observed 86.8
percent of crude protein but when it was analysed for aminoacids, the profile
showed 0.45 percent methionine, 0.45 percent lysine and 6.36 percent total
sulphur containing aminoacids. Haemoglobin powder (Lee and Bai, 1997) when
analysed for aminoacids showed 6.3 percent histidine and 1.7 percent methionine.
The processed pig hair, another non-conventional source of protein (Summers and
Leeson, 1978) contained 80 percent crude protein and its aminoacid profile
showed 0.77 percent histidine and 0.48 percent tryptophan. Meat and bone meal
used in the diet of fish (Kikuchi et al., 1997) showed 52 percent of protein and the
aminoacid content showed deficient in methionine and lysine. It all reveals that
high percentage of protein does not guarantee the presence of all essential
aminoacids and in right quantity and however the deficiency can always be
overcome by incorporating certain ingredients which are rich in such aminoacids
and thus making the compounded feed a whole meal for the cultured organisms.
48
Hence in the present study the hideflesh powder which was prepared by
subjecting the fleshings to the standardized procedure was incorporated as an
animal protein source in the place of fishmeal along with otlier ingredients of
animal and vegetable origin and prepared in the form of compounded feed for fish
culture and poultry farming.
49
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