Process of Designing AC

8/14/2019 Process of Designing AC

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Air Conditioning

Psychrometrics

Course No: M05-005

Credit: 5 PDH

A. Bhatia


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Continuing Education and Development, Inc.9 Greyridge Farm CourtStony Point, NY 19!

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AIRCONDITIONING PSYCHROMETRICS


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Psychrometrics can be used to predict changes in the environment when the amount of

heat and/or moisture in the air changes. Use of psychrometric analysis is also important to

determine the volume flow rates of air to be pushed into the ducting system and the sizing

of the maor system components.

Approaches to Temperature Control

!emperature control in an air conditioning system is achieved by passing the air through

the cooling or heating coil, which may use any of the following approaches:

1. "ary the temperature of air supplied to the space while #eeping the airflow rate

constant. !his is the basic constant volume, variable temperature approach.

2. "ary the airflow rate while #eeping the temperature constant for air supplied to the

space. !his is the variable volume, constant temperature approach.

3. "ary the airflow rate and change the temperature for air supplied to the space. !his is

the variable volume and temperature approach.

4. "ary both the supply air temperature and flow rate where the airflow rate is varied

down to a minimum value, then energy input to reheat the coil is controlled to vary the

supply air temperature. !his is the variable volume reheat approach.

Approaches to Humidit Control

$umidity control in a conditioned space is done by controlling the amount of water vapor

present in the air in the space. %hen relative humidity at the desired temperature set-point

is too high, dehumidification is re&uired to reduce the amount of water vapor in the air for

humidity control. 'imilarly, when relative humidity at the


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desired temperature set point is too low, humidification is re&uired to increase the amountof water vapor in the air for humidity control.

(ommonly used dehumidification methods include:

1. 'urface dehumidification on cooling coils simultaneous with sensible cooling.

2. )irect dehumidification with desiccant-based dehumidifiers

$umidification is not always re&uired in an $"*( system but, when re&uired, it is provided

by a humidifier. (ommonly used humidification methods include:

1. %ater spray humidifier

2. 'team pan humidifier

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM DESIGN

In designing air conditioning systems, the first challenge is to understand the components

that affect the building heat gain or heat loss - this process is called heating or cooling load

estimation. !he reactive challenge is to +design+ controlled processes to maintain the

desired condition or state-point within the occupied space - these are usually called the

system processes that use psychrometrics.

Estimatin! Coolin! " Heatin! #oad

oad estimates are the summation of heat transfer elements into gains or out of losses

the spaces of a building. ach heat transfer element is called load components, which can

be assembled into one of three basic groups, e0ternal space loads, internal space loads

and system loads. !o properly understand the wor#ings of the various e0ternal, internal

and system load components, the following items need to be gathered from a set of plans,

e0isting building surveys or occupant interviews:

1 1uilding s&uare-footage and volume

2 2rientation of the building sun effects on surfaces

3 3ear round weather data design conditions, heat transfer

4 Use of the spaces within the building offices, conference room, lab, data center


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$ours of operation occupied and unoccupied

1 !hermostat set points main comfort parameter

2 )imensions of walls, roofs, windows and doors

3 (onstruction materials gather densities, e0ternal color and U-factors or describe

material type layer by layer 4-values

4 'tairways and elevators floor-to-floor openings

5 People occupancy and activity, and when they are present

6 ighting intensity and hours used

7 5otor and appliance sizes or #% and times they are used

"entilation needs I*6 and e0haust ma#eup

!he total cooling load is than determined in #% or tons7 by the summation of all of the

calculated heat gains. *long with psychrometrics, load estimating establishes the

foundation upon which $"*( system design and operation occur.

72ne ton is e&uivalent to heat e0traction rate of 89 1tu;s/hr and 8 #% is e&uivalent to


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PSYCHROMETRICS

Psychrometrics is the science of studying the thermodynamic properties of moist air. !he

amount of moisture vapour in the air varies &uite significantly under different conditions.

%hen the air is hot, it can contain a large amount of moisture vapour, sometimes as much

as ?@ by volume. %hen it is cold, its capacity to hold the moisture is reduced. %hen the

temperature of warm air begins to fall, the vapour also cools and, if cooling continues, it

will condense into tiny moisture droplets. In the atmosphere this results in the formation of

clouds and eventually rain.

De$initions o$ Air

!hree basic definitions are used to describe air under various conditions:

1. Atmospheric air - contains nitrogen, o0ygen, carbon dio0ide, water vapor, othergases, and miscellaneous contaminants such as dust, pollen, and smo#e. !his is the

air we breathe and use for ventilation.

2. Dr air - e0ists when all of the contaminants and water vapor have been removedfrom

atmospheric air. 1y volume, dry air contains about AB percent nitrogen, 98 percent

o0ygen, and 8 percent other gases. )ry air is used as the reference in psychrometrics.

3. Moist air - is a mi0ture of dry air and water vapor.

>or practical purposes, moist air and atmospheric air can be considered e&ual under the

range of conditions normally encountered.

Pschrometric Chart

!he Psychrometric (hart provides a graphic relationship of the state or condition of the air

at any particular time. It displays the properties of air: dry bulb temperature vertical lines,

wet bulb temperature lines sloping gently downward to the right, dew point temperature

horizontal lines, and relative humidity the curves on the chart. Civen any two of these

properties, the other two can be determined using the chart. !he chart;s usefulness lies

beyond the mere representation of these elementary properties Dit also describes the air;s

moisture content far right scale, energy content outer diagonal scale on upper left,

specific volume lines sloping sharply downward to the right, and more.


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&ses o$ Pschrometric Chart

!he psychrometric chart conveys an amazing amount of information about air. It provides

an invaluable aid in illustrating and diagnosing environmental problems such as why

heated air can hold more moisture, and conversely, how allowing moist air to cool will

result in condensation. !o predict whether or not moisture condensation will occur on a

given surface you need three pieces of informationE the temperature of the air, the relative

humidity of the air, and the surface temperature. !he psychrometric chart e0plains that by

raising the surface temperature or by lowering the moisture content of the air or employ

some combination of both can avoid surface condensation. * rule of thumb is that, a 8F>

rise in air temperature can decrease relative humidity 9 percent. Use of a psychrometric

chart will show that this is true.

* psychrometric chart also helps in calculating and analyzing the wor# and energy transfer

of various air-conditioning processes. In practical applications, the most common

psychrometric analysis made by $"*( contractors involves measuring the dry and wet

bulb temperatures of air entering and leaving a cooling coil. If these temperatures are

#nown along with the volumetric air flow rate (>5 through the coil, the cooling capacity

of a unit can be verified. Using the dry and wet bulb temperature


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information, two points can be located on a psych chart and the corresponding enthalpyvalues read for them. !he total 1!U$ cooling capacity can then be determined bymultiplying =.? times the (>5 value times the enthalpy difference of the two air statepoints Gi.e. =.? 7 (>5 7 Hh. (ontractors often have to perform this calculation to prove thattheir e&uipment is wor#ing satisfactorily.

READING PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

!o the novice, a psychrometric chart seems a dizzying maze of lines and curves going

every which way, but once a few fundamental things are understood about the psych

chart, it is not really that difficult to understand. If we dissect the components piece by

piece, the usefulness of the chart will be clearer.

Temperature' Dr (ul)

)ry 1ulb !emperature )1! is the temperature that we measure with a standard

thermometer that has no water on its surface. %hen people refer to the temperature of the

air, they are commonly referring to its dry bulb temperature. 'everal temperature scales

commonly are used in measuring the temperature. In the inch-pound I-P system of units,

at standard atmosphere, the >ahrenheit scale has a water freezing point of and a

boiling point of 989F>. In the International 'ystem 'I of units, the (elsius scale has a

water freezing point of F( and a boiling point of 8F(. 2n the Jelvin scale, KJ e&uals

-9A


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Dr )ul) temperature lines sho%n on the Pschrometric Chart

Temperature' *et (ul)

!he wet bulb temperature %1! is a temperature associated with the moisture content of


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the air. %et bulb temperature is ta#en by surrounding the thermometer with a wet wic# and

measuring the reading as the water evaporates. 1ecause of the evaporative cooling effect,

%et bulb temperatures are always lower than dry bulb temperatures and the only time that

they will be the same is at saturation i.e. 8@ relative humidity.

!he wet bulb temperature %1! relates relative humidity to the dry bulb temperature. If

the relative humidity is low and the temperature is high, moisture will evaporate very

&uic#ly so its cooling effect will be more significant than if the relative humidity was already

high, in which case the evaporation rate would be much lower.

%et bulb temperature on psychrometric chart is represented by lines that slant diagonally

from the upper right of the chart along the line of saturation down to the lower left of the

chart. !hese follows lines of constant enthalpy but values are read off at the upper, curved,

saturation temperature boundary. !he unit of measure used for wet bulb temperature isdegrees (elsius F( or degrees >arenheight F>.


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#ines o$ constant %et+)ul) temperature on the Pschrometric Chart

Enthalp

nthalpy is the measure of heat energy in the air due to sensible heat or latent heat.

'ensible heat is the heat energy in the air due to the temperature of the air and the latent

heat is the heat energy in the air due to the moisture of the air. !he sum of the latent


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energy and the sensible energy is called the air enthalpy. nthalpy is e0pressed in 1tu per

pound of dry air 1tu/lb of dry air or #ilooules per #ilogram #M/#g.

nthalpy is useful in air heating and cooling applications. *ir with same amount of energy

may either be dry hot air high sensible heat or cool moist air high latent heat.

!he enthalpy scale is located above the saturation, upper boundary of the chart. ines of

constant enthalpy run diagonally downward from left to right across the chartE follow

almost e0actly the line of constant wet bulb temperature.


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Enthalp lines sho%n on Pschrometric Chart

Relati,e Humidit -RH.

4elative humidity 4$ is a measure of the amount of water air can hold at a certain

temperature. Air temperature (dry-bulb) is important because warmer air can hold more

moisture than cold air.*s a rule of thumb, the ma0imum amount of water that the aircan


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hold doubles for every 9F> increase in temperature.

ines of constant relative humidity are represented by the curved lines running from the

bottom left and sweeping up through to the top right of the chart. !he line for 8 percent

relative humidity, or saturation, is the upper, left boundary of the chart.


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Relati,e humidit lines sho%n on Pschrometric Chart

!he 8 @ 4$ saturation line corresponds to the wet bulb and the dew-point

temperature scale line and the line for zero percent 4$ falls along the dry-bulb

temperature scale line

Note that air holds more water vapor at increasing temperatures. *ir at O percent relative

humidity contains O percent of the water it could possibly hold at that temperature. It


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could pic# up = percent more water to reach saturation. 1ecause 4$ varies significantly

with dry bulb temperature, it is important to state dry bulb temperature and relative

humidity together, such as AF> and ?@ 4$.

4$ should not be confused with absolute humidity which is defined as the actual amount

of moisture in the air and is measured in pounds of moisture per pound of dry air lb/lb of

d.a. 4elative humidity 4$ is a measure of how much moisture is present compared to

how much moisture the air could hold at that temperature. 4$ is e0pressed as a percent.

A)solute Humidit or Humidit Ratio

*bsolute $umidity is the vapor content of air, given in grams or lb of water vapor per lb of

dry air i.e., lb of moisture/lb of d.a. It is also #nown as moisture content or humidity ratio.

*ir at a given temperature can support only a certain amount of moisture and no more.

!his is referred to as the saturation humidity.


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$umidity ratio is represented on the chart by lines that run horizontally and the values areon the right hand side 3-a0is of the chart increasing from bottom to top.


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Humidit Ratio lines sho%n on Pschrometric Chart

De% Point

)ew point temperature indicates the temperature at which water will begin to condense

out of moist air. %hen air is cooled, the relative humidity increases until saturation is

reached and condensation occurs. (ondensation occurs on surfaces which are at or

below the dew point temperature.

)ew point is represented along the 8@ relative humidity line on the psychrometric chart.

)ew point temperature is determined by moving from a state point horizontally to the left

along lines of constant humidity ratio until the upper, curved, saturation temperature

boundary is reached. *t dew point, dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature aree0actly the same.


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De% Point lines sho%n on Pschrometric Chart

!he dew point is closely related to the nighttime low temperature on still nights. %hen the

air temperature drops to the dew point, energy is added bac# to the air as frost or dew

forms and the temperature stabilizes at the dew point temperature. !he dew point

temperature is directly related to the actual &uantity of moisture in the air and does not

change much throughout a day unless a weather front moves through an area and adds or

removes large amounts moisture. 'o the dew point temperature measured during daytime

hours can be used as an estimate of the nighttime low temperature.

Speci$ic Air /olume


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'pecific "olume is the volume that a certain weight of air occupies at a specific set of

conditions. !he specific volume of air is basically the reciprocal of air density. As the

temperature of the air increases, its density will decrease as its molecules vibrate more

and take up more space (as per Boyles law). Thus the specific volume will increase with

increasin temperature.

'ince warm air is less dense than cool air which causes warmed air to rise. !his

phenomenon is #nown as thermal buoyancy. 1y similar reasoning, warmer air has greater

specific volume and is hence lighter than cool air.

!he specific volume of air is also affected by humidity levels and overall atmospheric

pressure. !he more the moisture vapour present in the air, the greater shall be the specific

volume. %ith increased atmospheric pressure, the greater the density of the


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air - so the lower its specific volume. !he unit of measure used for specific volume is cubicfeet/lb of dry air.

'pecific volume is represented on Psychrometric (hart by lines that slant from the lower

right hand corner towards the upper left hand corner at a steeper angle than the lines of

wet bulb temperature and enthalpy.

Speci$ic /olume lines sho%n on Pschrometric Chart


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/apour Pressure

%ater vapour is one of several gaseous constituents of air, the other principal ones being

nitrogen, o0ygen and carbon dio0ide. ach e0erts its own partial pressure on the

surrounding environment in proportion to the amount of gas present, the sum of thepressures ma#ing up the total or barometric pressure of the air. %hen there is a difference

in concentration of one of these gases between two points, there will be a corresponding

difference in partial pressure. !his will cause a flow of that particular gas from the point of

higher concentration to the lower. %hen a partial pressure difference e0ists between two

sides of a material, the gas involved will diffuse through the material until the partial

pressures of that gas are e&ualized.

!he rate of diffusion will be determined by the partial pressure difference, the length of the

flow path, and the permeability to the particular gas involved of the medium through which

flow is ta#ing place.


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%hen water changes state from a li&uid to a gas, as it does when it evaporates into the air,the water molecules in the vapour e0pand. Must as air pressure is directly related to thenumber of gas molecules per cubic meter of space, so vapour pressure results from thenumber of water vapour molecules per cubic meter. !he greater the moisture vapourcontent of air, the greater the vapour pressure. !hus vapour pressure is linearly related toabsolute humidity and is represented on Psychrometric (hart by lines that run horizontally

and the values are on the far right hand side of the chart increasing from bottom to top.!he unit of measure for vapour pressure is inches-w.g. or P*'(*.

/apour Pressure sho%n on Pschrometric Chart

"apour pressure directly affects evaporation rate. If the vapour pressure in the air isalready very high, it is more difficult for water molecules to brea# free from a li&uid surface

and enter the air as vapour. !hat is why there is very little evaporation in humid

environments. !he point at which absolutely no more evaporation will occur because the

air is already saturated is called, interestingly enough, saturation pressure and coincides

with the saturation point.


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MEAS&RING PSYCHROMETRIC /ARIA(#ES

*ll psychrometric properties of air are determined by measuring two psychrometric

variables: for e0ample, if wet- and dry-bulb temperatures are measured, then relative

humidity, vapor pressure and dew point. 5any variables can be measured to determine

the psychrometric state of air, but dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, dew point

temperature, and relative humidity are most commonly measured.


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Measurin! Dr (ul) Temperature

)ry-bulb temperature can be simply measured by a mercury-in-glass thermometer, which

is freely e0posed to the air but is shielded from moisture and radiation heat sources. *

thermometer can be made from any substance whose property changes predictably with

temperature for instance the volume of mercury increaseswith increasing temperature.

1eside mercury-in-glass, other li&uids can also be used in this way. 2ther forms of

volume-based thermometers use the differential e0pansion of metals in the form of a

wound spring.

5ore recently, materials have been found whose electrical resistance change with

temperature. !hese are usually manufactured from the o0ides of transition metals such as

manganese, cobalt, copper or nic#el. !hey are called thermistors and are usually found indata-loggers and as computer-based sensors. !hen the temperature increases, the

resistance of the thermistor decreases. (onversely, if the temperature decreases, the

thermistors resistance increases.

In a weather station, the temperature and relative humidity e&uipment is usually housed in

a white bo0 shelter called "tevenson "creen. It shields the instruments from sunshine and

precipitations and has louvered sides to permit the free movement of air. Ideally the shelter

is placed over grass, mounted at 8 meter above the ground and as far from any buildings

as circumstances permit.

Measurin! *et (ul) Temperature

%et bulb temperature is easily measured with a standard thermometer which has its

sensing bulb encased in a wetted wic# that is subected to rapid air motion across its

surface. 'uch devices, called sling or whirled psychrometers, have a frame that can be

whirled in the air by hand. %hen the sling psychrometer whirls through the air, water from

the wetted sac# evaporates, causing it to cool to the wet-bulb temperature. !he amount of

cooling that occurs depends on the relative humidity. !he lower the humidity, the faster will

be the evaporation, and the more the bulb will cool. $igh humidity will cause less

evaporation, slowing the cooling process.

*n accurate wet-bulb temperature reading depends on 8 sensitivity and accuracy of the

thermometer, 9 maintenance of an ade&uate air speed past the wic#,


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of the thermometer from radiation, = use of distilled or de-ionized water to wet the wic#,and ? use of a cotton wic#.

!he thermometer sensitivity re&uired to determine an accurate humidity varies according

to the temperature range of the air. 5ore sensitivity is needed at low than at high

temperatures. >or e0ample, at 8?F> a 8F> error in wet-bulb temperature reading results

in a 9.O percent error in relative humidity determination, but at that same error results

in a 8.? percent error in relative humidity.

!he rate of evaporation from the wic# is a function of air speed past it. * minimum air

speed of about ? feet per minute is re&uired for accurate readings. *n air speed much

below this will result in an erroneously high wet-bulb reading. %et-bulb devices that do not

provide a guaranteed air flow cannot be relied on to give an accurate reading.

*s with the dry-bulb thermometer, sources of radiant heat such as motors, lights, and so

on can affect the wet-bulb thermometer. !he reading must be ta#en in an area protected

from these sources of radiation or thermometers must be shielded from radiant energy.

* buildup of salts from impure water or contaminants in the air affects the rate of water

evaporation from the wic# and results in erroneous data. )istilled or de-ionized water

should be used to moisten the wic# and the wic# should be replaced if there is any sign of

contamination. !he wic# material should not have been treated with chemicals such as

sizing compounds that affect the water evaporation rate.

'pecial care must be ta#en when using a wet-bulb thermometer when the wet-bulb

temperature is near freezing. 5ost humidity tables and calculators are based on a frozen

wic# at wet-bulb temperatures below . *t temperatures below , touch the wic#

with a piece of clean ice or another cold obect to induce freezing, because distilled water

can be cooled below without freezing. !he psychrometric chart or calculator must

use frost-bulb, not wet-bulb temperatures, below to be accurate with this method.

Measurin! Humidit

!he instruments used to measure humidity are called hygrometers. !he simplest form of

hygrometer is called a psychrometer. It consists of two thermometers mounted on


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the same frame that can be whirled in the air by hand. !his is described in detail in the wetbulb temperature measurement above.

!he wet- and dry-bulb temperatures together determine the state point of the air on the

psychrometric chart, allowing all other variables to be determined. In air that has less than

8 per cent relative humidity, the wet bulb will record a lower temperature than the dry

bulb. !his difference in temperature is #nown as wet-bulb depression. * special chart is

used to convert the wet bulb depression to relative humidity.

!he relationship between dry-bulb, wet-bulb and 4$ is tabulated below:

Dr(ul)

*et

(ul) Relati,e

-01.-01. Humidit

-2.

OB OA Q?

OB OO Q

OB O< AO

OB ?B ??

OB =B 8A

$igher the differential between the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature, lower shall be the

relative humidity.A #$%& differential represents the 'elative humidity of .

1 *f the wet bulb temperature is lower than dry bulb the air-vapor mi+ture is un-saturated

2 *f the wet bulb temperature is the same as the dry bulb the air vapor is saturated

2ther humidity measurement devices include an electric sensing element or a mechanical

system.

!he mechanical hygrometer uses a single human hair as a sensing element. !he hair is

attached to a spring and a dial. %hen the relative humidity increases, the cells in the hair

swell and contract, pulling the spring and the dial hand. *t a lower relative humidity, the

hair cells rela0 and it lengthens, releasing the tension on the spring and


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allowing the dial hand to move in the opposite direction. !he response to changes inrelative humidity is slow and is not dependable at very high relative humidity. !hesedevices are acceptable as an indicator of a general range of humidity but are not suitablefor accurate measurements.

* more accurate measurement is achieved with an electronic hygrometer. It measures the

change in the electrical resistance of a thin layer of lithium chloride, or of a semiconductor

device, as the relative humidity changes. 2ther hygrometers sense changes in weight,

volume, or the transparency of various substances that respond to relative humidity.

Measurin! De% Point

!wo types of dew point sensors are commonly used today: a condensation dew point

method and a saturated salt system.

!he condensation dew-point hygrometer is a polished metal mirror that is cooled until

moisture ust begins to condense onto it. !his occurs when the surrounding air reaches its

dew point. !he temperature of the metal is then the same as the dew point temperature.

Jnowing the atmospheric temperature and the dew-point temperature, the relative

humidity can be determined by means of a table.

!he saturated salt system operates at dew points between 8F to 8F> with an error of

less than R 9F>. !he system costs less than the condensation system, is not significantly

affected by contaminating ions, and has a response time of about = minutes. !he

condensation type is very accurate over a wide range of dew point temperatures less than

R 8F> from -8F to 989F>. * condensation dew point hygrometer can be e0pensive.

Measurin! /apour Pressure

5easuring vapour pressure is very difficult without comple0 laboratory instrumentation.

$owever, it can be relatively easily derived from more measurable properties. !he ratio

between the weight of water vapour actually present in the air and the weight it cancontain when saturated at the same temperature is called the relative humidity of the air. It

is usually e0pressed as a percentage. *s the vapour pressures are set by the &uantities of

vapour in the air, the relative humidity is also given by the ratio between the actual vapour

pressure and the saturation vapour pressure at the same


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temperature. !hus, if the temperature and relative humidity are #nown, the actual vapourpressure can be calculated from the product of the relative humidity e0pressed as adecimal and the saturation pressure.

!hese saturation vapour pressures and the corresponding &uantities of water in the air can

be read directly off the psychrometric chart or from tables.

E3ample

*n air-conditioned room at sea level has an indoor design temperature of A?F> and a

relative humidity of ?@. )etermine the humidity ratio, enthalpy, density, dew point, and

thermodynamic wet bulb temperature of the indoor air at design condition.


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Solution

'ince the air-conditioned room is at sea level, a psychrometric chart of standard

atmospheric pressure of 8=.OQApsi should be used to find the re&uired properties.

1. Plot the state point of the room air at design condition on the psychrometric chart.

>irst, find the room temperature A?F> on the horizontal temperature scale. )raw a line

parallel to the A?F> temperature line. !his line meets the relative humidity curve of

?@ at point 8, which denotes the state point of room air refer figure above.


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)raw a horizontal line toward the humidity ratio scale from point 8. !his line meets theordinate and thus determines the room air humidity ratio % S .Q< lb/lb.

2. )raw a line from point 8 parallel to the enthalpy line. !his line determines the enthalpy

of room air on the enthalpy scale, h8S 9B.8 1tu/lb.

3. )raw a line through point rparallel to the moist volume line. !he perpendicular scale of

this line indicates vS 8.

E3ample

* sling psychrometer gives a dry-bulb temperature of ABF> and a wet-bulb temperature of

O?F>. )etermine other moist air properties from this information.

Solution

>ind the intersection of the two #nown properties, dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, on

the psychrometric chart.

!he dry-bulb temperature is located along the bottom horizontal a0is. >ind the line for

ABF>, which runs vertically through the chart.

%et-bulb temperature is located along diagonal dotted lines leading to scale readings at

the upper, curved boundary mar#ed +saturation temperature+.

!he intersection of the vertical ABF> dry-bulb line and the diagonal O?F> wet-bulb line has

now established a +state point+ for the measured air. Now read relative humidity as ?

percent curving line running from left to right up through the chart and dew point

temperature as ?A.BF> follow horizontal line, moving left, toward the curved upper

boundary of saturation temperatures.

!he humidity ratio for air in this e0ample is about .89 lb moisture/ lb dry air move right

horizontally from state point to humidity ratio scale.


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Ans%er

4elative humidity S ?@

)ew Point S ?A.B degrees

*bsolute humidity S .89 lbs water / lb dry air

'pecific volume S 8


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nthalpy S and the wet bulb is ?BF>. Using the chart determine the

following values.

Ans%er

4elative humidity S 9B@

)ew Point S =9 degrees

*bsolute humidity S .?O lbs water / lb dry air

'pecific volume S 8


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!he dry bulb reading is AF> and the wet bulb is ?=F>. Using the chart determine thefollowing values.

Ans%er

4elative humidity S


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5ost processes encountered in air conditioning practice are one of, a combination of or ase&uence of the following:

Coolin! and Heatin!

In $"*( systems, air is typically cooled by passing it over a cooling coil. 5ost cooling coils

are finned-tube heat e0changers in which cool water or refrigerant flows through tubes,

and the tubes have e0ternal fins to increase heat transfer area. If the air is cooled below

the dewpoint temperature, water will condense and must be drained from the bottom of the

cooling coil. * schematic of a cooling coil is shown below.

Sensi)le Coolin!

*ir dew point temperature !dewpointis the temperature when air is 8@ saturated and

water begins to condense out of the air. %hen warm wet air is cooled as it passes over a

cooling coil, the temperature begins to decrease. If the air leaves the coil at a temperature

above its dew point temperature, then no condensation occurs. 2n a psychrometric chart,

the e0iting air is at a lower temperature than the incoming air while the humidity ratio

remains constant since no moisture is condensed from the air. 4educing the temperature

of air without changing the &uantity of water in the air is called sensible cooling, and is

shown schematically below.


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'ince the humidity ratio remains unchanged, and so we use a horizontal line on the

psychrometric chart to represent this process. !his provides no control over the relative

humidity and may produce conditions that are uncomfortable. !he relative humidity

increases with sensible cooling.


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Sensi)le Heatin!

In $"*( systems, air is typically heated by passing it over a heating coil or use of

electrical strip heaters. * schematic of a cooling coil is shown below.

!he process of sensible heating is represented on the psychrometric chart by straight

horizontal lines parallel to the abscissa.


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'ince the humidity ratio remains unchanged, and so we use a horizontal line on the

psychrometric chart to represent this process. $eating will result in lower relative humidity.

!ypical sensible cooling or heating processes include space heating loads, sensible

cooling loads, heating coils, space heating devices, fans that move the air, sensible


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cooling coils and radiant cooling or heating devices.

O)ser,a)le $eatures o$ a sensi)le heatin! process

1 !he dry bulb temperature increases

2 the relative humidity decreases

3 the enthalpy increases

4 the wet bulb temperature increases

5 the specific volume increases

6 the humidity ratio, vapor pressure and dew point remains constant

O)ser,a)le $eatures o$ a sensi)le coolin! process

1 the dry bulb temperature decreases

2 the relative humidity increases

3 the enthalpy decreases


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the wet bulb temperature decreases

1 the specific volume decreases

2 the humidity ratio, vapor pressure and dew point remains constant

$eating and cooling dochange the relative humidity. !his is because the saturation point

changes with dry bulb temperature. *s relative humidity e&uals the absolute humidity

divided by the saturation point, if the temperature and the saturation points change but the

absolute humidity remains the same, then the relative humidity must change.

Go,ernin! E4uation $or Sensi)le Heatin! and Coolin!

1! 6sS 5a7h9- h8 and

2! &sS ma7h9- h8

%here:

1 6sS sensible heat added, 1tu

2 5aS 5ass of dry air, lb GS volume of air/specific volume of moist air in ft

(ool the air from QF> W Q@ 4$ to ?F> D Now there are .B lbs moisture per lb of dry

air and 8@ 4$. .98 lbs of moisture per lb of dry air 8=9 grains of moisture have

condensed out D the air is now dehumidified.

!he air is dehumidified, but cold ?F> and is at 8@ 4$E however it only has ?< grains

of moisture.

%arm 1ac# Up to AF> sensible heating, the 4$ raises to V?@


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Summar

%e had hot humid air

D chilled it to condense the moisture out state point 9

D warmed it bac# up to reach our target humidity state point Q@ .9Q lbs of moisture per lb d.a

?F> 8@ .B lbs of moisture per lb d.a


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AF>?@ .B lbs of moisture per lb d.a

E3ample

)etermine the total, sensible and latent cooling re&uired cooling 9, cfm of air from a

temperature of Q > and a relative humidity of O@ to a temperature of ?? > and 8@

relative humidity.

Solution

>rom Psychrometric (hart, cooling 9,cfm from Q>, X S O@ to ??> and X S8@:


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Mass)alance'


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Ener! )alance'

Appro3imate Method


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Heatin! and Dehumidi$ication -Chemical Dehdration.

$eating and )ehumidification, also referred to as Ychemical dehydrationZ is seeing

increasing use in modern air-conditioning particularly in industrial environment. %hen air is

brought into contact with a desiccant or sorption material the water vapor molecules will be

adsorbed and the air will become +drier+. *s this occurs, the heat of condensation will

enter the air stream, thereby increasing its temperature. !he process is essentially

adiabatic or isenthalpic.

)ehumidification by solid desiccants is represented on the psychrometric chart by a

process of increasing dry-bulb temperature and a decreasing humidity ratio.

)ehumidification by li&uid desiccants is also represented by a similar line, but when


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internal cooling is used in the apparatus, the process air line can go from warm and moistto cool and dry on the chart.

!he mechanism of desiccant dehumidification in this case is either absorption when

physical or chemical changes occur or adsorption when there are no physical or

chemical changes.

2bservable characteristics of a heating and dehumidification process are:

1. dry bulb temperature increases

2. humidity ratio decreases

3. dew point temperature decreases

4. vapor pressure decreases

5. relative humidity decreases

6. enthalpy remains essentially constant

7. wet bulb temperature remains essentially constant

!ypical heating and dehumidification processes are desiccant heat wheels which can be

configured for controlled dehumidification usually dew point control or for latent heat

recovery in ventilation air streams in warm humid climates.

E,aporati,e Coolin!

vaporative cooling is an adiabatic process, that is, there is no net heat loss or gain. %hen

hot air stream is made to pass through wet spray, the sensible heat of air vaporizes the

water and the air;s dry bulb temperature will fall. !he sensible heat used to vaporize the

water enters the air as latent heat in added vaporE thus no heat is added or removed. %et-

bulb temperature remains constant.


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!he evaporative cooling process is commonly employed to reduce the dry bulb

temperature of the air without refrigeration. It is a constant wet bulb process of reducing

dry bulb temperature. !he hardware used to achieve this process usually consists of the

basic components of the adiabatic saturation chamber plus some type of device to amplify

the interface surface area between the water reservoir and the air, such as wetted wic#,

matting, plates, spray, etc.

E3ample

vaporative cooling uses heat contained in the air to evaporate water. *ir temperature

dry-bulb drops while water content humidity rises to the saturation point. vaporation is


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vaporative coolin process with hot dry air from points to and with hot humid air from

points & to /. 0otice reater evaporative coolin capacity with dry air.

O)ser,a)le $eatures o$ the e,aporati,e coolin! process are'

1. (onstant wet bulb temperature

2. )ecreasing dry bulb temperature

3. Increasing humidity ratio

4. Increasing dew point temperature


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5. Increasing vapor pressure

6. ssentially constant enthalpy

7. )ecreasing specific volume

. !here is no loss or gain of heat within the system because the amount of sensible heat

removed e&uals latent heat added to the water.

* typical evaporative cooling process is the direct conditioning of air for human comfort

conditions in hot-dry climates and other applications where sensible cooling effects are

desired and increasing humidity ratios can be tolerated.

!his method adds moisture to the air stream while cooling it, and so would be useful in dry

and arid regions where the warm air has a low humidity. !he result of evaporative cooling

is air that is cooler and more humid, and a surrounding that is dryer. >or this reason, the

process of evaporative cooling is sometimes referred to as drying.


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Adia)atic Processes

!he term *diabatic simply means without energy loss or gain. !his refers mainly to the

processes of evaporative cooling and desiccant dehumidification.

vaporative cooling occurs when warm air passes near water. ven at temperatures well

below its boiling point, water molecules on the surface will absorb sufficient energy from

the passing air to change phase into a gas and become moisture vapour. *s the moisture

vapour then becomes part of the air, the energy is transferred from sensible heat into

latent heat of vaporization. !hus the temperature of the air falls, but the absolute humidity

rises, meaning that the overall energy content or enthalpy remains the same.

)esiccant dehumidification occurs when the air comes into contact with a substance such

as (ondi;s (rystals or silica gel. 'uch substances simply absorb moisture directly from the

air. In the process, the latent heat of vaporization is released bac# into the air, raising its

temperature and reducing the absolute humidity. 2nce again, the net overall enthalpy

remains the same.

Mi3in! Process -Stead 1lo%.

%hen two streams of air with different properties and flow rates are mi0ed, the properties

of the resulting mi0ture enthalpy, dry bulb temperature and saturation ratio can be

determined by simple proportional mass and energy balances.


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In most cases, heat loss from the system is

negligible and the system can be modeled at

adiabatic. 2n a psychrometric chart, the

condition of the e0iting air stream must be on

the line connecting the incoming air streams.

!he distance along that line is determined by

the ratio of the mass flow rates of the

incoming streams.


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0amples of steady flow mi0ing process include the outdoor air - return air mi0ing

chamber of an air handling unitE warm stream - cold stream mi0ing in dual stream systems

double duct or multi-zoneE and supply air - recirculated air mi0ing in fan powered

terminals.


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$ot and $umid e.g. 5iami where both dry bulb temperature and humidity ratio is alwayshigh. $ere the air-conditioning system is typically composed of a cooling coil with asurface temperature below the dew point temperature. !hat way, the system can achievecooling and dehumidification.

1. $ot and )ry e.g. Phoeni0 where dry bulb temperature is high but the humidity ratio is

low. $ere the evaporative coolers will be most advantageous.

2. (old and )ry e.g., 5inneapolis, the environment is typically very dry. In this case, the

air-conditioning system usually is composed of a heating coil and a humidifying device,

with the former being located upstream of the latter. !he humidifying device may be a

spray washer composed of a spray chamber in which a number of spray nozzles and

risers are installed. 'pray washers are typically used in industrial applications where

the device performs the dual function of air humidification and cleaning.

3. (old and $umid e.g. 'eattle, the outdoor air is cool but humid. $ere, there may not

be a need to humidify the air and the air-conditioning system typically is composed of a

heating coil only. $owever, because the humidity ratio at low temperatures is low even

though the relative humidity may be high, some humidification may be re&uired when

the dew point is low during the winter.

In addition to these four e0treme climatic conditions, the air-conditioning system may need

to operate in the fall and spring. !his mi0ed-mode operation usually re&uires switching

between heating and cooling based on the value of the outdoor temperature. $owever,because of the potential energy waste associated with this mode of operation, the system

usually is set to operate only if the outdoor temperature goes outside of a pre-specified

wide band to minimize the fre&uency of cycling between the heating and cooling modes.

!o provide the reader with an idea of the psychrometric analyses that need to be

performed on an air-conditioning system, the cooling and dehumidification process is

described in more detail below. !he cool, humid mode of operation is identical to the cold,

dry mode e0cept in the absence of the humidifying device.

S&MMER MODE AIR CONDITIONING PROCESS

* basic air-conditioning schematic for summer mode is shown below:


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$ere, return air from the conditioned space 9 mi0es with re&uired amount of outdoor air

8 at point


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return air is e0hausted to balance the outdoor air inta#e and infiltration.

!he psychrometric process is illustrated below for summercycle.


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3ou may notice that the off-coil condition is represented by node ? away from *)P point =.

!his is because the cooling coil is not 8@ efficient and some of the air going through a

cooling coil does not come into contact with the tubes or fins of the cooling coil and is

therefore not cooled to the *)P temperature.

!his may be loo#ed upon as an inefficiency of the coil and is usually given as the cooling

coil contact factor.

(pass 1actor

In most cooling applications, the air leaving the cooling coil is not entirely saturated since

some air does not come in contact with the cooling coil. !he fraction of air that misses the

coil is called the bypass factor, 1>. !he bypass factor can be determined from the

temperature of water supplied to the cooling coil and from the states of incoming and

e0iting air. !he process is shown on the psychrometric chart below.


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!he air that does not come in contact with the cooling coil is the Ybypass factorZ 1> of a

cooling coil may be found fromE

E3ample

*ir enters a coil at QF>, XS O@, while the coil is at ??F> and the 1> S .9. %hat is the

leaving air temperatureT

Solution

2r

*INTER MODE HEATING PROCESS

!he schematic diagram below shows a typical plant system for %interheating.


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!he psychrometric diagram below shows a typical %intercycle.


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4 !he mass flow rate of supply air is m S "s 7 [


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Room Sensi)le Heat 1actor -RSH1.

!he room sensible heat factor 4'$> represents the psychrometric process of the supply

air within the conditioned space. 4oom 'ensible $eat >actor is the ratio of room sensible

and room latent heat.


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4'$> S room sensible heat factor

4'$ S room sensible heat

4$ S room latent heat

4!$ S room total heat

!he supply air to a conditioned space must have the capacity to offset simultaneously both

the room sensible and room latent heat loads. !he process is plotted on the standard

psychrometric chart as below.


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!he slope of the 4'$> line illustrates the ratio of sensible to latent loads within the space.

4'$ is proected on the enthalpy lines to estimate the Hhs sensible load and 4$ is

proected on the enthalpy lines to estimate the Hhl latent load. 4oom total load 4!$ is

the enthalpy difference between the room design condition and the supply air condition.

!hus, if ade&uate air is supplied to offset these room loads, the room re&uirements will be

satisfied, provided both the dry- and wet-bulb temperatures of the supply air fall on this

line.

The fiure above also shows a third point, defined as the apparatus dew point (A4). The

A4 represents an effective coil surface condition and the apparatus dew point


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C'$> ine is plotted between mi0ture conditions to supply air leaving condition from

apparatus. !he slope of the C'$> line represents the ratio of sensible and latent heat that

the apparatus must handle. C'$ is proected on the enthalpy lines to estimate the Hhs

grand sensible load and 4$ is proected on the enthalpy lines to estimate the Hhl grand

latent load. Crand total load C!$ is the enthalpy difference between the mi0ed air


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condition and the supply air condition.

0otes

1. The '"1& line in &iure -# is the line slopin between room condition and the supply

air temperature whereas the /"1& line in &iure 5 3 is the line slopin between themi+ture condition and the supply air temperature.

2. The Apparatus dew point (A4) is the coil surface dew point temperature re6uired to

accomplish a coolin7dehumidifyin process.

Air 7uantit

!he air &uantity re&uired offsetting simultaneously the room sensible and latent loads and

the air &uantity re&uired through the apparatus to handle the total sensible and latent loads

may be calculated, using the conditions on their respective 4'$> and C'$> lines. >or a

particular application, when both the 4'$> and C'$> ratio lines are plotted on the

psychrometric chart, the intersection of the two lines represents the


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condition of the supply air to the space. It is also the condition of the air leaving theapparatus. !he figure below illustrates what actually happens when these supplementaryloads are considered in plotting the 4'$> and C'$> lines.

RSH1 and GSH1 #ine Plotted %ith Supplementar #oad #ine


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Point 8 is the condition of air leaving the apparatus and point 9 is the condition of

supply air to the space. ine 8 - 9 represents the temperature rise of the air stream

resulting from fan horsepower and heat gain into duct. Point 5 0 H! / O

4'$ S 8.B 0 (>5 0 ! 5 S 4'$ / G8.B 0 !


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!he air &uantity re&uired through the air conditioning apparatus, to satisfy the total airconditioning load including the supplementary loads may be calculated from the followinge&uation:

C'$ S 8.B 0 (>5 0 ! =D ! 8

(>5 S C'$ / G8.B 0 ! =D ! 8

&or all practical purposes, the re6uired air 6uantity supplied to the space is e6ual to the air

6uantity re6uired throuh the apparatus, nelectin leakae losses.

In well designed, tight systems the difference in supply air temperature and the condition

of the air leaving the apparatus !9 D !8 is usually no more than a few degrees. !he

difference in temperature between the room and the air supply to the room determines the

amount of air re&uired to satisfy the room sensible and latent loads. *s this temperature

difference increases supplying colder air, since the room conditions are fi0ed, the

re&uired air &uantity to the space decreases. !his temperature difference can increase up

to a limit where the 4'$> line crosses the saturation line on the psychrometric chartE if it is

assumed that the available conditioning e&uipment is able to ta#e the air to 8@

saturation.

!he value of ! =is determined by hit and trial. %hen the supply, return, and outdoor air

temperatures are #nown e&uation below can be used to calculate outside air percentage

or the mi0ed air temperature.

!his e&uation assumes that perfect mi0ing occursE the temperature or moisture content of

the mi0ed air stream will be the same regardless of where they are measured in the air

stream. !his approach wor#s best when there are significant differences between the

outdoor air temperature and the return temperature.

2nce the re&uired air flow rate (>5 is #nown, the room specific humidity differential Hw

in lb of water vapor per lb of dry air can be estimated as:


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%here


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H w S 'pecific humidity differential in lbw/lba

4$ S 4oom latent heat, 1tu/hr

(>5 S calculated air flow rate

[ S air density .A? lb/ft

hw S latent heat of vaporization 8?Q 1tu/lb, at OK>

O S min/hr

E3ample

(onsider an interior core room of a building has a sensible load of 89 1tu/hE a latent

load of dry bulb and ?@ 4$ and the design supply air temperature is ?BF>.

)etermine the air flow re&uirements.

!he design airflow rate (>5 will be:

(>5 S 4'$ / G8.B 0 ! 4oomD ! 'upply *ir

*ir flow rate (>5 S 89, / G8.B 0 AB - ?B

*ir flow rate (>5 S ???? (>5

!he point defined by these two differential values can be plotted on a psychrometric chart.

!he validity of the point must be verified, based on the cooling capabilities of the coil, andthe *$U arrangements.

Pschrometric Representation $or Dra%+throu!h AH& Arran!ement

%e have learnt that when both the 4'$> and C'$> ratio lines are plotted on the

psychrometric chart, the intersection of the two lines represents the condition of the supply

air to the space. It is also the condition of the air leaving the apparatus. $owever this

neglects fan and duct heat gain, duct lea#age losses, etc. In actual practice, these heat

gains are ta#en into account in estimating the cooling load. !herefore, the temperature of

the air leaving the apparatus is not necessarily e&ual to the temperature of the air supplied

to the space. >or a draw-through arrangement, that is with the supply fan past the cooling

coil- !he supply air temperature will be greater than the +coil leaving+ temperature,

because of the heat added by the fan wor#.


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>or this e0ample if a ?hp motor is re&uired, the temperature rise will be:

%here


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P is the power rating in hp and 9?=? is 1tu/hp

H! S 9.8K>

!hus the actual coil leaving condition shall be ?B D 9.8 S ??.QK> )1 which should be

plotted on the chart.

>or a blow-throuh arrangement, the fan wor# causes an increase in the mi0ed-air

temperature before the air goes through the cooling coil, and the process is as in figure

below. >or this case, it is necessary to increase the supply of air H! to 99K> to get a valid

Ycoil leaving+ condition. !his will reduce the air &uantity to ?? cfm and will re&uire more

care in the air distribution system to avoid cold air spillage and drafts. !he Hw will be

greater due to the reduction in cfm. $umidity control is not always re&uired, but some

upper limit will be inherent in any refrigeration-type cooling process-chilled water, brine, or

direct e0pansion.


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Pschrometric representation $or )lo%+throu!h AH&

'ummarizing, draw-through units typically re&uire 8@ more supply air than blow-through

systems for the same temperature off the cooling coil. !his will increase duct size and fan

operating cost. !he fan heat will ensure the supply air is not fully saturated, avoiding

moisture issues.

1low-through units add the fan heat usually e&uivalent to 9- before the cooling coil.

!he leaving air temperature from the cooling coil then becomes the supply air

temperature. !his provides the ma0imum temperature rise between the cooling air and the

space design temperature or the least amount of supply air will be re&uired. 'ince the air

is often fully saturated and moisture may be an issue, blow-through should not be used

with final filters downstream of the coils.


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COO#ING COI# CAPACITY

* cooling coil serving one or more conditioned spaces is sized to meet the highest sum of

the instantaneous space loads for all the spaces served by the coil, plus any e0ternal

loads such as fan heat gain, duct heat gain, duct air lea#age, and outdoor air ventilation

loads sensible and latent. *t design condition, a cooling coil provides design air flow at

design off-coil air temperature and humidity, which are determined to meet each zone;s

temperature and humidity re&uirements. >or dehumidification applications, the cooling coil

should have ade&uate latent cooling capacity as well as sensible cooling capacity.

>ind below a simple cooling system:


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!he nodes description is as follows:

1. !he outside air conditions are located at point YoZ in figure above.

2. !he coil leaving conditions are located at point 8.

3. !he supply air conditions are located at point 9 note with the arrangement depicted,

supply fan motor heat is added to the air stream

4. !he inside air conditions are located at point


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6. !he mi0ture conditions are located at point ? note proportion of return air and outdoor

air are mi0ed

Plotting these nodes on the psychrometric chart:


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6 coilS m87 h?- h9 or

mpirically

6 coilS =.? 0 (>5 0 h?-h9

%here:

1 m8is the mass flow rate at point 8

2 h?is the enthalpy at point ?

3 h9is the enthalpy at point 9

Coil #oad Calculation E3ample

)etermine the minimum cooling coil load and re&uired chilled water flow for a systemserving an office space with a sensible cooling load of


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conditions are B?F> )1/Ao> %1. !he minimum ventilation air is 9?@ of the total supplyair which is delivered at ??F>. !he fan selected is a A@ efficient +draw-through+arrangement, and delivers air at =. inches total pressure. No manufacturer;s coil data isavailable. *ssume 8F> chilled water temperature rise through the coil.

4'$ S 8.B 0 (>5 0 H!

(>5 S 4'$ / 8.B 0 H!

(>5 S 5 S 8=9?

'$4 S


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Plot 2utdoor (onditions of B?F>/ AF> %1E ocate 5i0ed *ir (ondition 9?@ 2* and*ccount for >an H! consider 9 degree rise.

*ssuming the perfect mi0ing occurs, the mi0ed air conditions can be found by e&uation:

!5i0ed *irS @ 2utside *ir G! 2utside *irD! 4eturn *ir \ ! 4eturn *ir


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!5i0ed *irS .9? GB? D A? \ A?

!5i0ed *irS AA.?F >

)etermine enthalpy for coil entering and leaving conditions

6 coil S =.? 0 (>5 0 Hh

6 coil S =.? 0 8=9? 0 9Q.B - 9.?

6 coil S ?B,O


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Determine Chilled *ater 1lo%

6 total S m7 (p 7 H!

>or water at [ S O9.


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CP5 S 6 coil / ? 0 H! S ?B,?Q / ? 0 8F>

CP5 S 88.A

Room Speci$ic Humidit Di$$erential -8%.

%here

8


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Mass 9 /olume Relation

bs/hr std. air S (>5 7 lbs/ft< 7 O min/hr


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(>5 7 .A? 7 O

1" (>5 7 =.?

Sensi)le Heat

'$, 1tu/hr std. air S lbs/hr 7 sp. heat 7 H!

1" (>5 7 =.? 7.9= 7 H!

2" (>5 7 8.B 7 H!

Air 1lo% Rate

(>5 S '$ / G8.B 7 room temperature - supplied air temperature

#atent Heat

$, 1tu/hr std. air S lbs/hr 7 hg -hf grains of moisture diff. /A, grains/lb

1" (>5 7 =.? 7 8,?= grains diff. /A,

2" (>5 7 .OB 7 grains diff.

%here hg -hf S 8,?= 1tu/lb represents the heat of vaporization at AF>. "ariation in

value for different conditions will be small.

Chilled *ater 1lo% Rate

bs/hr water S CP5 7 lbs/gal 7 min/hr

1" CP5 7 B.


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$P air S G(>5 7 HP / GO,


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analysis enables the $"*( designer to compute the load imposed on the conditioninge&uipment grand load.

!he analysis is inherently capable of distinguishing between the sensible and latent load

&uantities of outside and conditioned space room air, thus providing an insightful picture

of how to handle the e0isting moisture.

Psychrometric analysis also enables the designer to account for other smaller loads that

may be imposed on the system such as ducts and fans in e&uipment sizing. 1y identifying

the different state points of the air as it passes through the duct system and over the

supply and return fans, the volume flow rates of air computed by the analysis become

necessarily inclusive of the effects of the ducts and fans in e&uipment sizing.

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Process of Designing AC

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