ProceedingsVOLUME 3

Edited by

Michal FilippiPavel Bosák

16th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF SPELEOLOGY

Czech Republic, BrnoJuly 21 –28, 2013

2013

16th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF SPELEOLOGY

ProceedingsVOLUME 3

Edited by

Michal FilippiPavel Bosák

16th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF SPELEOLOGYCzech Republic, BrnoJuly 21 –28, 2013

Cover photos (some photos were adjusted/cropped)Top left – Specific carbonate speleothem decorations in the Ghost Chamber, Sima de la Higuera Cave. Photo by V. Ferrer.For details see the paper by F. Gázquez and J.-M. Calaforra.Top right – A challenging exploration in the Cueva de los Cristales. Mexico. Photo by La Venta Exploring Team andSpeleoresearch & Films. For details see the paper by F. Gázquez et al.Bottom left – An example of a microcrystalline grained halite speleothem, the Octopus formation in the 3N Cave, QeshmIsland, Iran. Photo by NAMAK team. For details see the paper by Filippi et al.Bottom right – Internal skeleton structure of cryogenic gypsum crystals caused by the presence of partitions oriented parallelto the faces. For details see the paper by Kadebskaya and Tchaikovsky.

Produced by the Organizing Committee of the 16th International Congress of Speleology. Published by the Czech Speleological Society and the SPELEO2013 and in the co-operation with the International Union ofSpeleology.Design by M. Filippi and SAVIO, s. r. o.Layout by SAVIO, s. r. o.Printed in the Czech Republic by H.R.G. spol. s r. o.

The contributions were not corrected from language point of view. Contributions express author(s) opinion.

Recommended form of citation for this volume:Filippi M., Bosák P. (Eds), 2013. Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Speleology, July 21–28, Brno. Volume 3,p. 499. Czech Speleological Society. Praha.

VOLUME 3Proceedings

ISBN 978-80-87857-09-0

© 2013 Czech Speleological Society, Praha, Czech Republic.

Individual authors retain their copyrights. All rights reserved.No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopying, recording, or any data storage or retrievalsystem without the express written permission of thecopyright owner. All drawings and maps are used withpermission of the authors. Unauthorized use is strictlyprohibited.

KATALOGIZACE V KNIZE - NÁRODNÍ KNIHOVNA ČR

International Congress of Speleology (16. : Brno, Česko)16th International Congress of Speleology : Czech Republic,

Brno July 21–28,2013 : proceedings. Volume 3 / edited by MichalFilippi, Pavel Bosák. -- [Prague] : Czech Speleological Society andthe SPELEO2013 and in the co-operation with the InternationalUnion of Speleology, 2013 ISBN 978-80-87857-09-0 (brož.)

551.44 * 551.435.8 * 551.435.88-021.252 * 549- speleology- karstology- karst- pseudokarst- mineralogy- proceedings of conferences- speleologie- karsologie- kras- pseudokras- mineralogie- sborníky konferencí

551 - Geology, meteorology [7]551 - Geologie. Meteorologie. Klimatologie [7]

Scientific Committee

ChairmanPavel Bosák (Czech Republic) – Karst and Pseudokarst

Vice-ChairmanMichal Filippi (Czech Republic) – Karst and Pseudokarst

Members Jiří Adamovič (Czech Republic) – PseudokarstPhilippe Audra (France) – SpeleogenesisJean-Pierre Bartholeyns (France) – Management and ProtectionAaron Bird (USA) – ExplorationDidier Cailhol (France) – Speleogenesis Matt Covington (USA) – Modelling in Karst and Caves Robert Eavis (USA) – ExplorationAnette S. Engel (USA) – GeomicrobiologyLukáš Faltejsek (Czech Republic) – Biospeleology Derek Ford (Canada) – Climate and PaleoclimateFranci Gabrovšek (Slovenia) – Modelling Mladen Garašič (Croatia) – Survey, Mapping and Data ProcessingMartin Golec (Czech Republic) – Archeology and PaleontologyChristiane Grebe (Germany) – Management and ProtectionNadja Zupan Hajna (Slovenia) – Extraterrestrial KarstIvan Horáček (Czech Republic) – BiospeleologyStephan Kempe (Germany) – HistoryAleksander A. Klimchouk (Ukraine) – SpeleogenesisJiří Kyselák (Czech Republic) – ExplorationPeter Matthews (Australia) – Survey, Mapping and Data Processing Iona Meleg (France) – Management and ProtectionMario Parise (Italy) – Artificial Underground Bohdan P. Onac (USA) – MineralogyYavor Shopov (Bulgaria) – Climate and Paleoclimate

The names of the Committee members are given along with their home countriesand fields of research they represented as convenors.

Contents

Preface 10

Session: Karst and Caves in Carbonate Rocks, Salt and Gypsum 13–213

KARST HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE HANEY LIMESTONE, SOUTH-CENTRAL KENTUCKYSarah M. Arpin, Christopher G. Groves ..........................................................................................................................................................15

AN INTRODUCTION TO KALAHROUD CAVE, NORTH OF ESFAHAN, IRANShirin Bahadorinia, Sayed Hassen Hejazi, Alireza Nadimi, Derek C. Ford ......................................................................................16

CAVE SYSTEM OF KITA GAĆEŠINA – DRAŽENOVA PUHALJKA. THE LONGEST CAVE IN THE DINARIC KARSTTeo Barišić, Darko Bakšić, Dalibor Paar ........................................................................................................................................................17

CAVES OF EL PEÑON, CORDILLERA ORIENTAL, COLOMBIA Martin Bochud, Roman Hapka, Jean-Marc Jutzet ..........21

RECENT SURVEY AND EXPLORATION IN LECHUGUILLA CAVE, NEW MEXICO, USA Peter Bosted, John Lyles ............27

PLEISTOCENE SEA LEVEL CHANGES AS REVEALED BY FLANK MARGIN CAVES IN TELOGENETIC LIMESTONESIN SICILY AND SARDINIA (ITALY) Ilenia Maria D’Angeli, Jo De Waele, Rosario Ruggieri, Laura Sanna ............................29

SOME SCIENTIFIC FEATURES OF THE PUERTO PRINCESA UNDERGROUND RIVER:ONE OF THE NEW 7 WONDERS OF NATURE (PALAWAN, PHILIPPINES)Antonio De Vivo, Leonardo Piccini, Paolo Forti, Giovanni Badino......................................................................................................35

SUBTERRANEAN GLACIAL SPILLWAYS: AN EXAMPLE FROM THE KARST OF SOUTH WALES, U.K.Andrew R. Farrant, Michael J. Simms, Steven R. Noble ..........................................................................................................................42

PROJECT NAMAK: SOME OF THE MOST SPECTACULAR FINDINGS IN THE IRANIAN SALT KARSTMichal Filippi, Jiří Bruthans, Ondřej Jager, Mohammad Zare, Naser Asadí ....................................................................................48

KARST DEVELOPMENT IN THE GLACIATED AND PERMAFROST REGIONS OF THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES,CANADA Derek C. Ford ........................................................................................................................................................................................54

LITTLE LIMESTONE LAKE: A BEAUTIFUL MARL LAKE IN MANITOBA, CANADA Derek Ford ..................................................55

CAVES AND KARST HYDROGEOLOGY OF JERUSALEM, ISRAEL Amos Frumkin ..........................................................................60

CAVES UNDER DUBROVNIK AIRPORT IN CROATIA Mladen Garašić ..............................................................................................66

SOME INFORMATION ABOUT THE DEEPEST CAVES KNOWN IN CROATIAN KARST AREAMladen Garašić, Davor Garašić ........................................................................................................................................................................72

HYPOGENE SPELEOGENESIS AND SPELEOTHEMS OF SIMA DE LA HIGUERA CAVE(MURCIA, SOUTH-EASTERN SPAIN) Fernando Gázquez, José-María Calaforra ..........................................................................78

THE APPLICATION OF GIS METHODS IN MORPHOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF DOLINES ON LIMESTONE ANDDOLOMITE BEDROCK Petra Gostinčar ..........................................................................................................................................................84

ORIGIN OF ATYPICAL CALCITE SPELEOTHEMS FILLING FISSURES IN SANDSTONESMichał Gradziński, Marek Duliński, Helena Hercman, Andrzej Górny, Stanisław Przybyszowski ......................................89

UPLIFT EVIDENCE FROM KARST MORPHOLOGY: PRELIMINARY EVIDENCE FROM BLAMBANGAN PENINSULAKARST, INDONESIA Eko Haryono......................................................................................................................................................................90

VALLEY INCISION IN THE NÍZKE TATRY MTS. (SLOVAKIA) ESTIMATED BASEDON PALEOMAGNETIC AND RADIOMETRIC CAVE SEDIMENT DATINGSJaroslav Kadlec, Pavol Bella, Kristýna Čížková, Darryl E. Granger, Helena Hercman, Peter Holúbek,Martin Chadima, Monika Orvošová, Petr Pruner, Petr Schnabl, Stanislav Šlechta ....................................................................94

MAGNETIC FABRIC AND MINERALOGY OF CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE (EASTERN SIBERIA,RUSSIAN FEDERATION) Jaroslav Kadlec, Helena Herman, Martin Chadima, Lenka Lisá, Hedi Oberhänsli,Alexandr Osintsev ....................................................................................................................................................................................................96

CASE STUDIES OF FLUORESCENT GROUNDWATER TRACING IN RECENT CAVE RESEARCHBenjamin V. Miller, Chris Groves, Jason S. Polk, Robert N. Lerch ......................................................................................................99

THE JAJ PLATEAU (LEBANON): TYPICAL HIGH ALTITUDE MEDITERRANEAN KARSTFadi H. Nader, Hughes Badaoui, Marc Metni, Chadi Chaker, Habib Helou, Johnny Tawk ....................................................105

A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF SPELEOGENESIS IN GREECE Christos Pennos, Stein-Erik Lauritzen ..................................107

2013 ICS Proceedings

COMPLEX EPIKARST HYDROLOGEOLOGY AND CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT IN A SOUTH-CENTRALKENTUCKY KARST LANDSCAPE Jason S. Polk, Sean Vanderhoff, Chris Groves, Benjamin Miller, Carl Bolster ........110

KARST HYDROGEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN CAO BANG PROVINCE (VIETNAM): THE TRA LINH-THANGHEN LAKE AREA Gheorghe M. Ponta, Bogdan P. Onac, Nyguen Xuan Nam ................................................................................116

INCIDENCES OF THE TECTONICS IN THE KARSTIFICATION OF CHALK LIMESTONES IN THE WESTERNPARIS BASIN: EXAMPLE FROM THE PETITES DALES CAVE (SAINT MARTIN AUX BUNEAUX, FRANCE)Joël Rodet, Kun Ma, Jean-Pierre Viard ..........................................................................................................................................................121

CEILING CHANNEL AND INPUT KARST. EXAMPLE OF THE PETITES DALES CAVE, NORMANDY, FRANCEJoël Rodet, Laurent Magne, Jean-Pierre Viard ..........................................................................................................................................126

GULLS, GULL-CAVES AND CAMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN COTSWOLD HILLS, ENGLANDCharles Self, Andrew Farrant............................................................................................................................................................................132

THE ROLE OF FOLD-AND-THRUST STRUCTURE IN THE LARGE SHAFTS AND CHAMBERS DEVELOPMENT:CASE STUDY OF THE POLISH TATRA MTS. Jacek Szczygieł ..............................................................................................................137

HYPOGENIC CAVES OF SICILY (SOUTHERN ITALY) Marco Vattano, Philippe Audra, Fabrizio Benvenuto,Jean-Yves Bigot, Jo De Waele, Ermanno Galli, Giuliana Madonia, Jean-Claude Nobécourt ..................................................144

SEDIMENTS AT THE MÜNNICH PASSAGE IN THE BARADLA CAVE (HUNGARY): MINERALOGICAL ANDPETROLOGICAL STUDY Gábor Vid, István Berényi Üveges, Orsolya Viktorik, Tibor Németh, Zsolt Bendő,Sándor Józsa, Judit Berényi Üveges ..............................................................................................................................................................150

ENDOKARSTS AND CRYPTOKARSTS IN CRETACEOUS COARSE AND HIGHLY POROUS CHALK AT THEBELGIAN-DUTCH BORDER Luc Willems, Joël Rodet..............................................................................................................................154

THE TUPPER GLACIER SINK – RASPBERRY RISING CAVE SYSTEM, GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, CANADA:A REMARKABLE EXAMPLE IN STRIPE KARST Charles Yonge, Nicholaus Vieira, Adam Walker ........................................158

CAVE AND KARST PROSPECTION IN RAS AL-KHAIMAH MOUNTAINS, NORTHERN UNITED ARAB EMIRATENadja Zupan Hajna, Asma Al Farraj Al Ketbi, Franci Gabrovšek, Metka Petrič, Tadej Slabe, Martin Knez,Janez Mulec ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................164

INFLUENCE OF THE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATIONS ON KARST DEVELOPMENT IN THE DINARIDES – EXAMPLESFROM VELEBIT MT. (CROATIA) Neven Bočić, Sanja Faivre, Marijan Kovačić, Nada Horvatinčić ......................................170

CONTRIBUTION OF THE KARSTIC ENVIRONMENT ON THE ORIGIN OF THE COLLOPHANITES OF ITATAIAURANIUM-PHOSPHORUS DEPOSIT, BORBOREMA PROVINCE, BRAZIL José Adilson Dias Cavalcanti,Cesar Ulisses Vieira Veríssimo, Maria Dulcinea M.R. Bessa, Clovis Vaz Parente ....................................................................173

NA JAVORCE CAVE – A NEW DISCOVERY IN THE BOHEMIAN KARST (CZECH REPUBLIC):UNIQUE EXAMPLE OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HYDROTHERMAL AND COMMON KARSTIFICATIONJiří Dragoun, Karel Žák, Jiří Vejlupek, Michal Filippi, Jiří Novotný, Petr Dobeš............................................................................179

FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF GYPSUM DENUDATION RATE IN KULOGORSKAYA CAVE SYSTEMNikolay Franz, Sergey Sorokin, Alexandra Alexeeva, Irina Inshina, Olga Novysh, Anton Kazak ........................................185

GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF PARIAN CAVE, ISFAHAN, IRAN Ghassem Ghaderi, Leila Karimi ....................................190

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON CORROSIVE FORMS AND CLASTIC DEPOSITS IN THE ŚNIEŻNA CAVE(THE TATRA MTS., POLAND) Ditta Kicińska ..............................................................................................................................................194

GEOCHEMICAL AND STABLE ISOTOPE CHARACTERIZATION OF DRIP WATER FROM THE POSTOJNA CAVE,SLOVENIA Magda Mandić, Andrej Mihevc, Albrecht Leis, Ines Krajcar Bronić ........................................................................196

THE SKALISTÝ POTOK CAVE IN THE RELATIONSHIP TO THE RELIEF OF THE SOUTH PART OF JASOVSKÁPLATEAU (SLOVAK KARST) AFTER 25 YEARS OF RESEARCH Alena Petrvalská, Zdenko Hochmuth ..............................201

CAN CONDUIT VOLUMES OBTAINED FROM ARTIFICIAL TRACER TESTS BE TRUSTED?Anna Vojtěchová, Jiří Bruthans, Ondřej Jäger, František Krejča ........................................................................................................206

THE TECTONIC CONTROL OF AN UNDERGROUND RIVER NETWORK, AGIA TRIADA CAVE (KARYSTOS, GREECE)Emmanuel Vassilakis, Kyriaki Papadopoulou-Vrynioti ..........................................................................................................................208

Session: Karst and Caves in Other Rocks, Pseudokarst 215–331

CAVE FORMATION INITIATED BY DISSOLUTION OF CARBONATE CEMENT IN QUARTZOSE SANDSTONESJiří Adamovič, Radek Mikuláš, Tomáš Navrátil, Jan Mertlík ................................................................................................................217

2013 ICS Proceedings

ARENITIC CAVES IN VENEZUELAN TEPUIS: WHAT DO THEY SAY ABOUT TEPUIS THEMSELVES?Roman Aubrecht, Tomáš Lánczos, Ján Schlögl, Lukáš Vlček, Branislav Šmída..........................................................................221

INFRARED THERMOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF PSEUDOKARST SITES IN THE FYSCH BELT OF OUTER WESTCARPATHIANS (CZECH REPUBLIC) Ivo Baroň, David Bečkovský, Lumír Míča ..........................................................................227

KAHUENAHA NUI (HAWAII): A CAVE DEVELOPED IN FOUR DIFFERENT LAVA FLOWSIngo Bauer, Stephan Kempe, Peter Bosted ................................................................................................................................................231

GENETIC TYPES OF NON-SOLUTION CAVES Pavel Bella, Ludovít Gaál........................................................................................237

THE KEOKEO LAVA TUBE SYSTEM IN HAWAIIPeter Bosted, Tomislav Gracanin, Veda Hackell, Ann Bosted, Ingo Bauer, Stephan Kempe ..............................................243

ORIGIN OF “ROCK CITIES”, PILLARS AND CLEFT-CONDUITS IN KAOLINITE-BONDED SANDSTONE:NEW INSIGHT FROM STUDY IN SANDSTONE QUARRY WHERE LANDFORMS RECENTLY EVOLVEJiří Bruthans, Jan Soukup, Jana Schweigstillová, Jana Vaculíková, Daniel Smutek, Alan L. Mayo, Lukáš Falteisek ..........247

ORIGINS OF THE KARSTIC SEDIMENT FILLING OF THE NORTHWESTERN PARIS BASIN CAVESS. Chédeville, J. Rodet, B. Laignel, D. Todisco, E. Dupuis, G. Girot, G. Hanin ............................................................................253

SANDSTONE CAVES IN THE SYDNEY BASIN: A REVIEW OF THEIR CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGEJohn R Dunkley........................................................................................................................................................................................................259

KARST EVOLUTION IN SANDSTONE: THE CHAPADA DOS GUIMARÃES SITE, BRAZILRubens Hardt, Joël Rodet, Sergio dos Anjos Ferreira Pinto ..............................................................................................................264

THREE TYPES OF CREVICE-TYPE CAVES IN THE AREA OF CZECH FLYSCH CARPATHIANSJan Lenart, Tomáš Pánek ....................................................................................................................................................................................268

EXHUMATION OF PALAEOKARST BY VADOSE WEATHERING: A TELLING EXAMPLE FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIAR. Armstrong L. Osborne ....................................................................................................................................................................................275

AN INTRODUCTION TO SRI LANKAN GNEISS AND GRANITE CAVESR. Armstrong L. Osborne, Pathmakumara Jayasingha, Wasantha S. Weliange ........................................................................280

ENDO- AND EXO-KARSTIC FEATURES IN BANDED IRON FORMATION AND CANGA, SERRA DA PIEDADE,QUADRILÁTERO FERRÍFERO (BRAZIL)Manuela Corrêa Pereira, Joel Georges Marie Andre Rodet, André Augustos Rodrigues Salgado ....................................286

ENGLACIAL CAVES OF GLACIAR PERITO MORENO AND GLACIAR AMEGHINO, PATAGONIA (ARGENTINA)Leonardo Puccini, Marco Mecchia ................................................................................................................................................................292

SPELEOGENESIS AND SPELEOTHEMS OF THE GUACAMAYA CAVE, AUYAN TEPUI, VENEZUELAFrancesco Sauro, Joyce Lundberg, Jo De Waele, Nicola Tisato. Ermanno Galli ........................................................................298

GOBHOLO CAVE: A LONG GRANITE CAVE IN SWAZILAND (SOUTHERN AFRICA)Manuela Scheuerer, Johannes E. K. Lundberg, Rabbe Sjöberg ........................................................................................................305

SOME SIGNIFICANT CAVES FOUND IN THE NON-KARSTIC ROCKS OF HUNGARYIstván Eszterhás, George Szentes ..................................................................................................................................................................308

TYPES OF NON-KARST CAVES IN POLISH OUTER CARPATHIANS – HISTORICAL REVIEW AND PERSPECTIVESJan Urban, Włodzimierz Margielewski ..........................................................................................................................................................314

CAVES IN SANDSTONE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN ITALIAN APENNINESGianni Campanella, Mario Parise, Angela Rizzi, Mariangela Sammarco, Antonio Trocino ..................................................320

KARST DEVELOPED IN SILICICLASTIC ROCKS AT SERRA DO ESPINHAÇO MERIDIONAL, MINAS GERAIS (BRAZIL)Alessandra Mendes Carvalho Vasconcelos, Fernanda Cristina Rodrigues de Souza, Joel Rodet, CristianeValéria de Oliveira, André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado........................................................................................................................326

Session: Speleogenesis 333–421

LAG AND TRANSFER TIME INFERRED FROM MELTING CYCLES RECORD IN THE COULOMP KARST SPRING(ALPES DE HAUTEPROVENCE, FRANCE) Philippe Audra, Jean-Claude Nobécourt..................................................................335

DISSOLUTION RATES, CARBON DIOXIDE DYNAMICS, AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FEEDBACKS IN OPENCHANNEL CAVE STREAMS Matthew D. Covington, Mitja Prelovšek, Franci Gabrovšek ......................................................340

A METHODOLOGY TO ESTIMATE THE AGE OF CAVES IN NORTHERN LATITUDES, USING TOERFJELLHOLAIN NORWAY AS AN EXAMPLE Trevor Faulkner ........................................................................................................................................342

2013 ICS Proceedings

HOW DO APERTURE SIZES IN LIMESTONE VARY FOR THE ONSETS OF TURBULENT FLOW AND FIRST-ORDERDISSOLUTION KINETICS? Trevor Faulkner ................................................................................................................................................349

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE POTENTIAL FOR HYPOGENE SPELEOGENESIS IN THE CUMBERLAND PLATEAUOF SOUTHEAST KENTUCKY, U.S.A. Lee J. Florea ....................................................................................................................................356

THE ROLE OF BASE LEVEL INCISION AND TRANSIENT RECHARGE IN VERTICAL ORGANISATION OF KARSTNETWORK Franci Gabrovšek, Philipp Häuselmann, Philippe Audra ..............................................................................................362

HYPOGENIC SPELEOGENESIS IN THE CRIMEAN FORE-MOUNTAINS (THE BLACK SEA REGION, SOUTH UKRAINE)AND ITS ROLE IN THE REGIONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY Alexander B. Klimchouk, Gennadiy N. Amelichev,Elizaveta I. Tymokhina, Sergiy V. Tokarev ..................................................................................................................................................364

PARAGENESIS: THE “ROYAL MARK” OF SUBGLACIAL SPELEOGENESIS Stein-Erik Lauritzen ............................................366

GLACIER ICE-CONTACT SPELEOGENESIS Stein-Erik Lauritzen, Rannveig Øvrevik Skoglund ............................................368

GROUNDWATER / SURFACE WATER MIXING IN THE UNDERGROUNDHYDROLOGIC SYSTEM OF THE DEMÄNOVSKÁ DOLINA VALLEY (SLOVAKIA)Peter Malík, Dagmar Haviarová, Jaromír Švasta, Miloš Gregor, Anton Auxt ..............................................................................370

KARST PROCESSES AND CARBON FLUX IN THE FRASASSI CAVES ITALY Marco Menichetti............................................376

MIOCENE - PLIOCENE AGE OF CAVE SNEŽNA JAMA NA RADUHI, SOUTHERN ALPS, SLOVENIAAndrej Mihevc, Ivan Horáček, Petr Pruner, Nadja Zupan Hajna, Stanislav Čermák, Jan Wagner, Pavel Bosák ..........379

SEDIMENTARY STUDY AND U-TH DATATIONS CONTRIBUTION TO THE MORPHODYNAMIC RECONSTITUTIONOF THE JUNCTION CHAMBER (KASSARAT CAVE, NABAY, LEBANON): A GEOMORPHOLOGICAL APPROACH FORPALAEOHYDROLOGICAL RECORDS ANALYSISC. Nehme, J.-J. Delannoy, S. Jaillet, J. Adjizian-Gerard, John Hellstrom, T. Comaty, M. Arzouni, P. Matta......................384

A GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF CAVES IN LOWER AUSTRIA Pauline Oberender, Lukas Plan ........................................390

EFFECTS OF CO2-DEPLETED VADOSE SEEPAGE IN KARST Arthur N. Palmer, Margaret V. Palmer ................................393

DETAILED MORPHOLOGIC ANALYSIS OF PALAEOTRAUN GALLERY USING A TERRESTRIAL LASER SCAN(DACHSTEIN-MAMMUTHÖHLE, UPPER AUSTRIA) Lukas Plan, Andreas Roncat, Gregor Marx ........................................399

INFLUENCE OF THE PLIO-PLEISTOCENE TECTONICS ON THE EVOLUTION OF THE PURGATORIO POLJE(NORTH-WESTERN SICILY) Rosario Ruggieri, Giuseppe Napoli , Pietro Renda ........................................................................402

SPELEOGENESIS OF A 3D-MAZE CAVE (HERMANNSHÖHLE, LOWER AUSTRIA)Andrea Schober, Lukas Plan, Denis Scholz, Christoph Spötl ............................................................................................................408

EVOLUTION OF CAVE PROVALATA: REMARKABLE EXAMPLE OF HYPOGENIC THERMAL CARBONIC ANDSULFURIC ACID SPELEOGENESIS Marjan Temovski, Philippe Audra ............................................................................................412

FLANK MARGIN CAVES ON A PASSIVE CONTINENTAL MARGIN: NARACOORTE AND OTHER SOUTHERNAUSTRALIAN EXAMPLES Susan White ........................................................................................................................................................418

TRITIUM AND H, O AND C STABLE ISOTOPES AS A TOOL FOR TRACKING OF WATER CIRCULATIONIN THE NIEDŹWIEDZIA CAVE SYSTEM (SUDETES, POLAND) Michał Gąsiorowski, Helena Hercman ............................421

Session: Cave Mineralogy 423–495

HYPOGENE SULFURIC ACID SPELEOGENESIS AND RARE SULFATE MINERALS (FIBROFERRITE, JAROSITESUBGROUP) BAUME GALINIERE CAVE (ALPES-DE-HAUTE-PROVENCE, FRANCE)Philippe Audra, Fernando Gázquez, Fernando Rull, Jean-Yves Bigot, Hubert Camus ............................................................425

RARE SULFATES (MIRABILITE, EUGSTERITE) IN THE DRY MICROCLIMATE OF CHAMOIS CAVE(ALPES-DE-HAUTE-PROVENCE, FRANCE) Philippe Audra, Jean-Claude Nobécourt................................................................432

MINERALOGY AND SPELEOGENESIS OF THE CORONA ‘E SA CRABA QUARTZITE CAVE(SOUTHWEST SARDINIA) Eleonora Baldoni, Jo De Waele, Ermanno Galli, Mauro Messina, Bogdan P. Onac,Laura Sanna, Francesco Sauro, Mauro Villani ..........................................................................................................................................437

GENESIS AND EVOLUTION OF CALCITE BUBBLES IN GYPSUM CAVESMassimo Ercolani, Katia Poletti, Paolo Forti ............................................................................................................................................443

STRONTIANITE FROM SERIZJAN CAVE (IRAN): A NEW OCCURRENCE OF THIS RARE CAVE MINERAL WITHA DISCUSION ON ITS GENESIS José Maria Calaforra, Jo De Waele, Paolo Forti, Ermanno Galli, Masoud Ebadi ......449

SKELETON CRYSTALS OF CRYOGENIC GYPSUM FROM KUNGUR ICE CAVE, URAL MOUNTAINS, RUSSIAOlga Kadebskaya, Ilya Tchaikovsky ..............................................................................................................................................................454

2013 ICS Proceedings

ALLOPHANE MOONMILK FROM A GRANITE-GNEISS CAVE IN NORWAY: A BIOGENIC INTERMEDIATE IN DEEPWEATEHRING? Stein-Erik Lauritzen ..............................................................................................................................................................459

CALCITE SPELEOTHEMS IN PSEUDOKARST TJUV-ANTES GROTTA, NORTHERN SWEDENJohannes E. K. Lundberg, Magnus Ivarsson, Therese Sallstedt, Rabbe Sjöberg, Juan Ramón Vidal Romaní,Love Dalén, Stina Höglund ................................................................................................................................................................................461

DATING DIAGENISED ARAGONITE SPELEOTHEMS Rebeca Martín-García, Ana M. Alonso-Zarza, Silvia Frisia ........465

THE HYPOGENE ORIGIN OF DIANA CAVE (ROMANIA) AND ITS SULFURIC ACID WEATHERING ENVIRONMENTBogdan P. Onac, Cristina M. Pușcaș, Herta S. Effenberger, Ioan Povară, Jonathan G. Wynn ............................................470

THE LIFE CYCLE OF SPELEOTHEMS, WITH POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS FOR RADIOMETRIC DATING Charles Self ........474

SPELEOTHEMS IN CAVITIES DEVELOPED IN MAGMATIC ROCKSJuan Ramón Vidal-Romaní, Jorge Sanjurjo-Sánchez, Marcos Vaqueiro-Rodríguez, Laura González-López,María José López-Galindo ..................................................................................................................................................................................479

EVOLUTION OF GUANO UNDER DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS: A MINERALOGICAL APPROACHAlexandra M. Giurgiu, Bogdan P. Onac, Tudor Tămaş, Joan J. Fornós ............................................................................................483

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE MINERALOGY OF MONTE GUISI CAVE (SW SARDINIA, ITALY)Cristian Moldovan, Monica I. Călugăr, Bogdan P. Onac, Jo de Waele, Angelo Naseddu, Joan J. Fornós ........................486

NEW LOCALITIES OF COARSELY CRYSTALLINE CRYOGENIC CAVE CARBONATES IN SLOVAKIAMonika Orvošová, Lukáš Vlček, Karel Žák ................................................................................................................................................490

Partners, Sponsors 496

Authors Index 498

2013 ICS Proceedings

AN INTRODUCTION TO SRI LANKAN GNEISS AND GRANITE CAVES

R. Armstrong L. Osborne1, Pathmakumara Jayasingha2, Wasantha S. Weliange3

1Education & Social Work, A35, The University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia, armstrong.osborne@sydney.edu.au2Research Laboratory, Central Cultural Fund, 11 Independence Avenue, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka, jpathma@yahoo.com

3 Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka,wasanthaweliange@yahoo.co.uk

Commencing in 2008 with a focus on caves in metamorphic terrains, the project Cave Science Sri Lanka has investigatedforty-eight caves. Thirty-seven caves have been mapped by the Sri Lankan members of the project, twenty-five have beeninvestigated in more detail and samples have been collected from twelve caves for analysis. In addition to rockshelters,boulder caves, tectonic caves and carbonate karst caves developed in marble and dolomite four distinct types of caves,Tunnel Caves, Block Breakdown Caves, Arch Caves and Network Caves have been recognised in Proterozoic gneiss andCambrian granite in Sri Lanka. While previous workers have suggested that these caves have either formed in what wascalled gneiss but was really carbonate rock, or are the spaces left behind in the granitic rock after bodies of carbonate rockwere removed, field evidence suggests that phreatic solution of granitic rock and/or formation and removal of phantomizedgranitic rock play a significant role in speleogenesis.

1. IntroductionSri Lanka is a continental island located off the southern tipof the Indian subcontinent. Geologically it is a Gondwanafragment with most of the bedrock composed of deformedProterozoic metamorphic rocks (Fig. 1).

Sri Lankan caves occur in Proterozoic gneiss, marble anddolomite, Miocene limestone, tufa mounds, and Cambriangranite. There has been little study of Sri Lankan caves exceptas archaeological sites. A few caves were described bycolonial naturalists, Davey (1821) and visiting Europeans:Peet (1945, 1946), Kukla (1958), Siffre (1975) and Brooks(1995a, 1995b), while Gebauer et al. (1996) and Gebauer(2010) provided a cave inventory based on literature researchincluding 310 entries for caves and “cave-like objects” in SriLanka. Major Sri Lankan contributions have been by Leiter(1948) who described Nitre Cave and Deraniyagala (1965)who pleaded for international assistance in documenting thecaves of Sri Lanka but received no response.

The project Cave Science Sri Lanka, which began in 2008through the efforts of Dr Wasantha Weliange, is a Sri Lanka–Australia collaboration with the aim of establishing cavescience in Sri Lanka by developing local skills in caveexploration and documentation and in scientific research andtraining. The project is based at the Postgraduate Institute forArchaeological Research, Colombo. The initial focus of theproject has been on caves in gneiss and granite as these aresignificant as archaeological, cultural and religious sites. Thisresearch has identified four types of large caves in gneiss;Tunnel Caves, Block Breakdown Caves, Arch Caves andNetwork Caves.

2. Tunnel CavesTunnel caves are a common form of gneiss cave. They aretubes with an elliptical cross-section, which may behorizontal, vertical or sloping depending on the structuralsetting. Principal axes range in size from 1 to 12 m. Tunnelcaves resemble phreatic tubes in karst caves. Large tunnelcaves include Ravana Ella Cave (1 in Fig. 1) and LunugalaLena Nitre Cave (2 in Fig. 1). Some large tunnel caves suchas those at Kukuluwa Kanda Rajamaha Viharaya (3 in Fig. 1)are used as temples, one with a large Buddha reclininglengthwise in the cave.

Small tunnel caves form completely in bedrock, but guidingjoints that are apparent in the cliff face near their entrance are

Figure 1. Sri Lanka: 1 = Ravana Ella Cave; 2 = Lunugala LenaNitre Cave; 3 = Kukuluwa Kanda Rajamaha Viharaya; 4 =Alavala Tunnel Cave; 5 = Batathota Cave & Sthreepura Cave; 6= Kosgala Vavul Cave; 7 = Batadomba Cave; 8 = Fa-Hien Cave;9 = Pelpola Cave; 10 = Oil Lamp Cave, Ravana Cave & TwinCave; 11 = Karannagoda Rajamaha Viharaya.

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often not visible inside the cave. It is unclear if tunnel cavesbegin as true solution tubes or by some other process such asthe removal of phantom rock. Spalling from the cave wall isactive and appears to be the main mechanism for lateralexpansion of these caves.

Alavala Tunnel Cave (4 in Fig. 1) is good example of this typeof cave. It is a tunnel 12.6 m long with an elliptical profile(long axis 1 m; Figs. 2A, B) guided by a westerly dippingjoint. After about 5 m the cave steps up to the east. The cavefloor is composed of bedrock with a hard, blackmanganiferous coating. Small elliptical pockets are developedin the western wall of the cave. The only sediments in the caveare two small piles of sub-rounded bedrock fragments, oneclose to the termination of the lower passage (“i” in Fig. 2A)and the other at the far (northern) end of the cave (“iii” inFig. 2A). There are signs of active spalling in the cave ceiling,but no spall fragments occur on the cave floor. Small remnantdeposits of yellow material that may be phantom rock occuron the eastern wall (“ii” in Fig. 2A) and at the northern end ofthe cave (“iii” in Figs. 2A, 2C).

a series of breakdown chambers formed by failure along pairsof conjugate joints most striking NNW–SSE, but in theGuano Chamber breakdown is guided by NE–SW strikingjoints (Fig. 3A.) This has resulted in the development of “A-type” ceilings (Fig. 3B).

Figure 2. A: Plan and section of Alavala Tunnel Cave. B: Lookingsouth out of Alavala Tunnel Cave note elliptical profile. C:Looking north to end of Alavala Tunnel Cave, note bedrockcobbles and remnant phantom rock (white in B & W image).

Figure 3. A: Plan of Sthreepura Cave, B: An “A” type ceiling onNNW-SSE joint, connecting passage, Sthreepura Cave. C: Largebreakdown blocks Kosgala Vavul Cave.

3. Block Breakdown CavesBlock breakdown caves are among the larger caves so farinvestigated in Sri Lanka. They consist of chambers producedby the structurally guided breakdown of gneiss. They arestrikingly similar to breakdown chambers in limestone caves.Two block breakdown caves have been investigated in theRathnapura district, Sthreepura Cave (5 in Fig. 1) a systemof breakdown chambers and Kosgala Vavul Cave (6 in Fig. 1)a large single-chamber breakdown cave.

Sthreepura Cave is approximately 80 m long and consists of

A remnant half tube is preserved in the ceiling along the axisof the Passage of Bats suggesting that some phreatic-likeprocess proceeded breakdown. A small phreatic tube, theCrescent Tube, extends from the NE corner of the Passageof Bats. Most of the walls, the ceiling and all of the fallenblocks in Sthreepura Cave are composed of gneiss. A smallsection of the wall and floor in the NW side of GuanoChamber is composed of dolomite. Much of the floor of thecave is covered by dry loose sediment composed of organicsilt derived from bat guano and mica flakes derived from thebedrock.

Kosgala Vavul Cave contains breakdown on a much largerscale (Fig. 3C) and like Sthreepura Cave shows remnants ofan old small-scale phreatic network with small phreatic tubesexposed as half tubes in joint faces.

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4. Arch CavesArch caves are large chambers with a triangular-shaped planand cross-section, their shape and volume makes them idealfor use as temples and as habitation sites. Many such asBatathota Cave (5 in Fig. 1) have been converted into templesand some such as Batadomba Cave (7 in Fig. 1) and Fa-HienCave (8 in Fig. 1) are both temples and archaeological sites.

Figure 4. A: Plan and sections of Fa-Hien Cave. B: Looking outthrough main arch of Fa-Hien Cave, note shape of arch,excavation in foreground. C: Western side of excavation showingrelict foliation dipping north.

Figure 5. A: Wall pocket, Batathota Cave. B: Ceiling half-tube,Batathota Cave. C: End pocket, Batadomba Cave; lighter rock isgneiss and darker rock is dolomite. D: Ceiling pocket, BatadombaCave; lighter rock is gneiss, darker rock is dolomite.

Fa-Hien Cave is the largest arch cave so far investigated. Itsarch chamber is approximately 30 m wide and 14 m high atthe entrance and extends 50 m into the rock mass (Fig. 4A).Like other arch caves, Fa-Hien Cave has an arch-like crosssection (Fig. 4B).

While the floor of the arch chamber appears to be made ofsediment, the exposure in the 6.3 m-deep archaeologicalexcavation shows relict foliation dipping to the north(Fig. 4C). This indicates that the cave floor is not made offallen matter from the ceiling, as apparently assumed by thearchaeologists, but of intensively weathered (? phantomized)bedrock. The base of the excavation reveals a network ofsmall tubes developed in the weathered rock. This has yet tobe explored.

Sheet spalling/exfoliation is continuing from the cave wallsand masses of spall rubble have been removed from the cavefloor and packed around the side of the cave.

The walls and ceilings of arch caves can be quite complexwith cupola-like features, wall pockets and ceiling half-tubesdeveloped in Batathota (Figs. 5A, 5B) and Batadomba Cave.The pockets in Batadomba Cave are quite instructiveconcerning the relationship between speleogens and bedrock.The pocket at the end of Batadomba Cave (Fig. 5C) cutsacross both gneiss and dolomite bedrock with minimal effecton its morphology. A similar situation can be seen in Figure5D where the morphological features below “D” in the imagecontinue with minimal disruption across irregular lithologicalboundaries.

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The origin of these caves remains unclear, while spalling isthe main process currently acting to expand the caves, thelack of spall material in the archaeological dig in Fa-HienCave suggests that this is probably not the main processinvolved in cave development over time.

5. Network CavesOur research so far has focussed on large cavities near thesurface and serious attempts at digging in caves have yet tobe undertaken, partly because such activities may beinterpreted by archaeologists as illegal digs and also becauseit may lead us to be identified as treasure hunters.

The presence of relict half tubes in block breakdown cavesand arch caves and of tubes in the base of the excavation inFa-Hien Cave, suggests that complex network caves mayexist further into the rock mass.

One complex cave with potential for extension by digging isPelpola Cave (9 in Fig. 1). The entrance to Pelpola Cave is asmall collapse doline, much like that seen in limestone karst.At the base of the entrance rubble pile there is a triangular-shaped entrance chamber (Fig. 6A). A passage in bedrockfrom which mud has been artificially excavated extendsdownwards from the SE corner of the entrance chamber(1 in Fig. 6A). Figure 6B shows the view looking SE downthe passage from “1” in Figure 6A. A profile of the passageis visible in the background showing a triangular upper partand inward-sloping walls in the lower part. After about 10 man artificial side passage extends to the NE and leads intoTreasure Hunters Chamber (2 in Fig. 6A). This chamber hasa relatively horizontal bedrock ceiling and a sediment floor,level at the NE end of the chamber that then slopes steeplyto the SW. Figure 6C is taken looking east from “2” in Figure6A. The ceiling above the cavers’ heads is composed ofsiliceous gneiss. The edge of a zone of very large crystals isseen in the upper right corner of the image. The cavers aresitting on a rock shelf composed of dolomite covered by awhite mineral paste. There is a large amount of a loosemixture of clay and gravel on the floor of Treasure HuntersChamber that appears to have been moved from furtherinside the cave and piled up artificially along the southernedge of the chamber near “3” in Figure 6A. While it was notpossible to enter without digging there appears to be a voidto the south of “3” and there are indications that theclay/gravel mixture may be retained by timber supports (Fig.6D). The passage from the Entrance Chamber continues as atrench along the SW wall of Treasure Hunters Chamber andends in a sediment plug (Fig. 6E). It seems likely that gemminers excavated Pelpola Cave, targeting the clay/gravelmixture as a possible source of gemstones. The clay/gravelmixture appears to be a weathering or alteration productderived from the gneiss bedrock, excavated from furtherinside the cave.

6. SpeleogenesisWhile little has been written about Sri Lankan gneiss caves,two explanations for the origin of the caves have emerged inthe literature.

The first explanation arises from the idea that if there arecaves then they must be in limestone. This idea has beenreinforced by Gebauer (2010) locating all caves not inMiocene limestone in “calcareous granulite” or“metamorphosed, crystalline and dolomitic limestone/marble” and by other workers placing caves on dolomiteoutcrops on low-resolution geological maps.

Figure 6. A: Plan of Pelpola Cave. B: View looking SE downpassage from “1”. C: Looking east from “2”. D: Looking south at“3”. E: Termination of passage at “4”.

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Another reason for this idea is that gneiss caves frequentlyintersect small bodies of marble. This has led to confusion asto what the principal bedrock is. The occurrence of carbonaterock in some gneiss caves lead Davey (1821) to consider thatif the gneiss contained caves, then it was so carbonate richthat it should be considered marble. Our observations so farhave shown that while many gneiss caves morphologicallyresemble caves in carbonate rock, most gneiss caves areprincipally developed in siliceous metamorphic rocks.

The second idea was proposed by Leiter (1948), whoconsidered gneiss caves to be the spaces left behind in thegneiss following the removal of masses of carbonate rock bysolution. Since both irregular masses and whole folia ofcarbonate rock are exposed in many, but not all gneiss caves,this is not an unreasonable suggestion.

We have found a small cave that probably did form this way,Oil Lamp Cave (10 in Fig. 1). Oil Lamp Cave is a small joint-guided passage with a triangular profile and walls composedof gneiss (Fig. 7A). After a few metres the cave comes to asudden end in a flat surface of solid rock (Fig. 7B). This rockis not siliceous gneiss, but dolomite, with rustingferromagnesian minerals. The shape of the boundary betweenthe gneiss and the dolomite, indicated by the torch in Figure7B, matches the profile of the adjacent wall, suggesting thatthe cave has formed by removal of the carbonate rock fromthe enclosing gneiss.

While removal of underling folia of carbonate rock is aplausible explanation for the development of blockbreakdown caves and might explain the initial formation ofarch caves, there is too much evidence in Sri Lankan gneisscaves of solution-like speleogens on siliceous gneiss for thismechanism to be universally viable.

Evidence for another mechanism arose on our very first fieldvisit to Kukuluwa Kanda Rajamaha Viharaya (3 in Fig. 1) in2009. The feature seen in Figure 8A was encountered up hillfrom the tunnel caves used as temples. This is a structurally-guided, cave shaped depression in the face of a small cliff-like outcrop of gneiss marked by a sign in Singhalese. Thecave shape is filled with yellow material. On close inspectionthe filling appeared not to be sediment but altered/weatheredgneiss, the yellow colour resulting from secondaryferruginous cement. The outcrop suggests that naturalweathering/erosion has preferentially removed about 1 m ofthe yellow material. If this were to continue, the result wouldbe a cave with an elliptical profile much like Alavala TunnelCave, making this a nascent phantom rock cave. When askedabout the sign (right foreground Fig. 8A) the resident monkexplained that this was the site of a future meditation hall, heintended to construct by digging out the yellow material tomake a new cave. On a return visit in 2012 no progress hadbeen made with the excavation, probably due to the strengthof the ferruginous cement.

Further evidence for phantom rock processes in gneiss caveformation is found at Karannagoda Rajamaha Viharaya(11 in Fig. 1) where, in addition to tunnel caves and sectionsthrough phantom rock filled tubes, an extensive overhangcave is developed by the partial removal of a horizontal body(folium) of phantomized rock. This cave is approximately21 m wide by 17 m deep with a ceiling height ranging from2.1–0.8 m (Fig. 8B).

The ceiling slopes to the northeast with the foliation in thebedrock, suggesting that a segment of a whole phantomizedfolium has ben removed to form the cave. Pillars of phantomrock remain in the cave, separated by curved gaps thatresemble the profiles of phreatic tubes suggesting that beforemass removal of the phantomized rock there may have beena network of tubes, similar to that in the excavation atFa-Hien Cave.

The remnant phantom rock in Alavala Tunnel Cave, the deepzone of “weathered” rock in Fa-Hien Cave, the clay/gravelmixture in Pelpola Cave and the observations at KukuluwaKanda Rajamaha Viharaya and Karannagoda RajamahaViharaya all suggest that formation of phantom rock,followed by its natural, and in places artificial removal islikely to be a major agent for speleogenesis of gneiss cavesin Sri Lanka.

Since Vergari and Quinif (1997) have shown that manyphreatic-like solutional forms can result from phantom rockprocesses, it is possible that the range of phreatic-like cavities

Figure 7. A: Looking into Oil Lamp Cave. B: Bedrock terminationof Oil Lamp Cave. Speckled rock is dolomite; white rock belowand to the right of black torch is siliceous gneiss. Torch is 95 mmlong.

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and speleogens found in Sri Lankan gneiss caves are not theproduct of direct solution of the silicate rock but of itsphantomization.

7. On-going ResearchIn addition to cave morphology and speleogenesis we havealso investigated cave sediments and surface karst-likefeatures on gneiss and granite. Minerals and speleothems arebeing investigated in collaboration with Ross Pogson and

David Colchester of the Australian Museum, Sydney. Aninitial paper (Osborne et al., in prep.) has been submitted toActa Carsologica. Current research is focussed on a 200 m-long network cave, largely developed in phantom rock.

AcknowledgmentsWe would like to acknowledge the support of professorsNimal de Silva, Jagath Weerasinghe, PrishanthaGunuawardana, Gamini Adikari and Raj Somadewa. SriLankan colleagues; A.S. Dandeniya, Prageeth Algiriya,Dinesh Devinuwara, Duminda Alahakoon and Ms NayomiSayanara Prasannajith assisted with cave exploration andmapping. We are grateful for the assistance of the clergy andadministration of several Buddhist temples and monasteries.Armstrong Osborne would like to thank Dr Weliange, MrsAruni Premathilake, Ayoma and Paya for accommodationand assistance in Sri Lanka. Penney Osborne assisted withproofreading.

ReferencesBrooks SJ, 1995a. Caving in Sri Lanka. Orpheus Caving Club

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Brooks SJ, 1995b. Ms 20, Quoted in Gebauer, HD, 2010. Resourceson the Speleology of Sri Lanka, http://www.speleologie.de/forschung/lk/general/resources/bhb_2010_lk.pdf, 36.

Davey J, 1821. An account of the interior of Ceylon and of itsinhabitants with travels in that island. Longman, Hurst, Rees,Orme & Brown, London.

Deraniyagala PEP, 1965. Some present-day problems of caveresearch in Ceylon. Studies in Speleology, 1(2–3), 143–147.

Gebauer HD, 2010. Resources on the Speleology of Sri Lanka.http://www.speleologie.de/forschung/lk/general/resources/bhb_2010_lk.pdf

Gebauer HD, Mansfield RE, Chabert C & Kusch K, 1996.Speleological Bibliography of South Asia including theHimalayan regions. Armchair Adventure Press, Kathmandu.

Kukla J, 1958. Jeskyne na Ceylone. Ceskoslovensky Kras, 11,165–169.

Leiter N, 1948. Geographical study of the Nitre Cave district.Bulletin of the Ceylon Geographical Society, 3(3–4), 61–72.

Osborne RAL, WeliangeWS, Jayasingha P, Dandeniya AS, AlgiriyaAKPP & Pogson RE, In Prep. Caves and karst-like features inProterozoic gneiss and Cambrian granite, southern and centralSri Lanka: an introduction. Submitted to Acta Carsologica.

Peet GA, 1945. Nitre Cave, Ceylon: An innovatory national park.British Caver, 13, 69–71.

Peet GA, 1946. The Nitre Cave expedition. British Caver, 14,90–95.

Siffre M, 1975. Dans les abîmes de la terre. Flammarion, Paris.

Vergari A & Quinif Y, 1997. Les paléokarst du Hainaut (Belgique).Geodinamica Acta, 10, 175–187.

Figure 8. A: Nascent phantom rock cave and meditation hall,Kukuluwa Kanda Rajamaha Viharaya. B: Looking into cave infolium at Karannagoda Rajamaha Viharaya. C: Remnant pillarsof phantom rock in cave in folium at Karannagoda RajamahaViharaya.

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