Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Meeting of the Israel Society of Ecology and Environmental Science...

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Proceedings of the Thirty-EighthMeeting of the Israel Society ofEcology and Environmental Science(ISEES)Pua Bar a & Yohay Carmel ba Ben-Gurion Universityb The TechnionPublished online: 14 Mar 2013.

To cite this article: Pua Bar & Yohay Carmel (2010) Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Meetingof the Israel Society of Ecology and Environmental Science (ISEES), Israel Journal of Ecology &Evolution, 56:2, 217-235, DOI: 10.1560/IJEE.56.2.217

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ISRAEL JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY & EVOLUTION, Vol. 56, 2010, pp. 217–235DOI: 10.1560/IJEE.56.2.217

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING OF THE ISRaEl SOCIETY OF ECOlOGY aND ENVIRONMENTal SCIENCE

(ISEES)

HELD AT BEN-GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEVEG

BE’ER SHEVA 21–22 JUNE 2010

Conference Chair: Prof. Pua Bar, Ben-Gurion UniversitySociety Chair: Prof. Yohay Carmel, The Technion

The 2009 annual meeting included 37 scientific sessions, 17 of which were ecological in nature including ecosystem dynamics, marine ecology, plant community management, biodiversity research and conservation, microbial and molecular ecology, conservation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and restoration of river ecosystems. Other sessions dealt with energy, wastewater, solid wastes, air quality and environmental education.

The general director of KKL, Mrs. Yael Shealtieli, The Mayor of Beer Sheva, Mr. Robi Danilovich, and the President of Ben Gurion University, Prof. Rivka Carmi, congratulated the conference participants.

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218 ABSTRACTS Isr. J. Ecol. Evol.

The occurrence of oxytetracycline in local groundwater beneath a fish pondD. AVISAR, G. LEVIN, and I. GOzLAN. Hydrochemistry Laboratory, Yad Avner Building, De-partment of Geography and the Human Environment, Tel Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel. [email protected]

Aquaculture is one of the main contributors of antibiotic residues to the environment. World wide, millions of tons are released annually to the aquatic environment since it is given to fish both as growth promoter and for therapy. In Israel, most of this industry is located above groundwater aquifers, which can be badly contaminated by leaching pollutants. Thus, the main objective of this study is to examine the potential infiltration of oxytetracycline (OTC) into the nearby groundwa-ter, and to identify the hydrological connection between a fish pond, which acts as a point source of antibiotic pollution, and the local ground water.

The identification and quantification of the antibiotic residues (OTC) were determined using analytical methods including SPE and HPLC-UV-MS/MS.

Field work results showed relatively fast infiltration of oxytetracycline into the ground water well (M/2) which is characterized by a local cone of depression due to intensive pumping. In addition, saturated preferential flow paths which exist beneath the pond, enabled the pollutant (OTC) to rapidly reach groundwater levels, skipping anticipated sorption processes to the local sediments.

These findings demonstrate that the fish pond industry may cause severe damage to local groundwater quality.

Reexamination of phosphorus fertilizing practices in the altered wetland soils of Hula Valley, IsraelI. BARNEA,a M.I. LITAOR,b and M. SHENKER.a aDepartment of Soil and Water Sciences, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jeru-salem, Rehovot 76100, Israel; bMIGAL—Laboratory and Tel-Hai College, Upper Galilee 12210, Israel. [email protected]

Since the drainage of the Hula Lake and Swamps in the 1950s, intensive agriculture has been conducted in the Hula valley (Israel). The land use change, followed by continuous decrease in fertility, had imposed numerous modifications in farming practices which have dramatically altered the soils of the valley. High-potential P release from the soils to waterways is one of the main consequences of these changes. Recent studies have characterized the potential of P release and the connectivity between the soils, the drainage canals, and the Jordan River, while earlier studies showed that the reduction of crop yields relates to P deficiency. Consequently, heavy P application has been commonly practiced in the valley even when soil testing for P availability (Olsen-P) indicates sufficient P levels (p > 10 mg kg–1).

To re-examine this practice, 48 lysimeters (1.5 m3) were filled with peat, marl, and alluvial soils, the most common soils in the Hula Valley. The lysimeter experiment consisted of two fertil-izer types (Superphosphate and ABC Protector—rich P biochar), two application rates, and typical crop rotation of setaria (Setaria italica), pea (Pisum sativum), and tomatoes (Lycopersicon escu-lentum). Two lab quantity-indices (Olsen-P and FeO-P) and two field flux-indices (PRS-Pflux and FeO-Pflux) were compared to assess P bioavailability. By the end of each crop rotation, the yield was evaluated relative to P fertilization rates and P availability measures.

The Olsen-P was superior to the other tested P-availability indices in terms of bioavail-ability–crop yield results. The P fertilization resulted in aslight quality yield advantage in pea (Tendrometer value) and tomatoes (Brix index), but there was no increase in crop production.

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VOL. 56, 2010 ABSTRACTS 219

Phosphorus uptake by plants was not affected by the amount and type of applied P. No significant differences in P flux were found among the treatments in the peat soils, and thus no significant con-tribution to shallow groundwater. On the other hand, flux examination in the marl soils revealed that P fertilizing made a significant contribution to the P found in groundwater. During each crop season (e.g., tomatoes ~ 110 days), P contribution from agricultural marl field to shallow ground-water can be as high as 1000 g P ha–1.

The main conclusions drawn from this study are: (i) intensive P fertilization enriches the Hula altered wetland soils with excessive P, but with no

concurrent gain in crop yield. We strongly recommend reducing use of P fertilizers, particularly in marl soils, because of increased P leakage from this soil to waterways.

(ii) No significant advantage was found for ABC Protector fertilizer over the superphosphate for supporting P uptake and plant growth.

(iii) The marked slow release characteristic of the ABC Protector should be further studied to optimize its use.

(iv) Among the tested availability indices, the Olsen-P was the best index for evaluation of the need of P application in these East Mediterranean altered wetland soils.

Using multi-scale sampling to investigate the herbaceous species–environment relationships in Mediterranean ecosystemL. BLANK,a,b and Y. CARMEL.a aFaculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion—Is-rael Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel; bPresent address: Institute of Evolution and Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel. [email protected]

Studies of species distribution patterns traditionally have been conducted at a single scale, often overlooking species–environment relationships operating at finer or coarser scales. Testing hy-potheses regarding diversity at multiple scales requires a robust sampling design that is nested across scales.

Here, we develop a hierarchically nested sampling design that is balanced across scales, in order to study the role of several environmental factors in determining herbaceous species distri-bution at various scales simultaneously. We focus on the impact of woody vegetation, a relatively unexplored factor, as well as soil and topography. LiDAR imaging enabled precise characteriza-tion of the 3D structure of the woody vegetation, while acoustic spectrophotometry allowed a particularly high resolution mapping of soil CaCO3 and organic matter contents.

We found that woody vegetation was the prominent group of variables at all three scales, ac-counting for more than 60% of the total explained variance. In addition, we found that species richness–environment relationship was scale-dependent.

Studies that explicitly address the issue of scale do so by comparing local scale and regional scale. Our results show that conservation efforts of plant communities should take into account scale dependence when analyzing species richness–environment relationship even at much finer resolutions than local vs. regional. In addition, conserving heterogeneity in woody vegetation structure at multiple scales is a key to conserving diverse herbaceous communities.

Various ecological conditions and DNA sequence analysis of amphibian larval in the semi-arid zone of northern IsraelG. DEGANI,a T. GOLDBERG,a,b O. PEARLSON,a,b and E. NEVO.b aSchool of Science and Tech-nology, Tel Hai Academic College, Upper Galilee 12210, Israel; bInstitute of Evolution, Faculty of Sciences and Science Education, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel. [email protected]

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Ecological, biological, and molecular DNA variation of amphibian larvae from 14 different breed-ing sites inhabited in northern Israel, including winter ponds, pits, springs and streams, was inves-tigated. The larval growth period was discovered to vary in different habitats. The mitochondrial molecular DNA variation was analyzed by cytochrome b (cyt b) fragment and D-loop regions (control region). Most breeding sites studied had S. infraimmaculata larvae, although at different periods of the year.

The larvae of Hyla savignyi, Bufo viridis, Rana bedriagae, Pelobates syriacus, and Triturus vittatus inhabited mostly the winter ponds and pits. In most cases, the S. infraimmaculata and T. vittatus larvae were not observed simultaneously at the same breeding sites. In other winter ponds, H. savignyi, P. syriacus, and T. vittatus were seen at the same time during the spring, and along with R. bedriagae in the summer.

Among the various water quality parameters evaluated at the breeding site, namely, tempera-ture, pH, soluble oxygen, electrical conductivity, ammonium (NH4), and invertebrate biomass, the most influential one was the temperature. S. infraimmaculata and B. viridis were detected in ponds with temperatures ranging from 1.5 to 24 ºC, whereas all other larvae were observed at tempera-tures above this range, up to 34 ºC. Based on the results of the investigation, the major factors affecting the habitat selected for breeding are the ecological conditions that allow for survival, growth, and metamorphosis completion of the amphibian larvae.

The molecular DNA variation among S. infraimmaculata and T. vittatus larvae populations, representing diverse breeding sites in Israel, was analyzed by cyt b fragment, control region, DNA polymerase chain reaction (RAPD PCR), and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) methods. Although the molecular polymorphisms in both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA are small, they reflect a sharp ecological separation between DNA variation of seasonal breeding sites and permanent water sources. These are presumably adaptive changes caused by natural selec-tion. Low genetic (cyt b and 12S, and RAPD PCR) variation, was revealed by sequences from specimens of H. savignyi, B. viridis, R. bedriagae, and P. syriacus populations, respectively, at each location, analyzed by Arlequin software. We found that both H. savignyi, and B. viridis are adapted to more unpredictable breeding places than R. bedriagae and P. syriacus.

The effect of rooting by wild boar on the herbaceous plant communityG. DOVRAT,a A. PEREVOLOTSKY,b and G. NE’EMAN.c aDepartment of Evolutionary and En-vironmental Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel; Cur-rent address: Metzer 38820, Israel; bDepartment of Agronomy and Natural Resources, ARO—the Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel. cDepartment of Science Education—Biology, Faculty of Sci-ence and Science Education, University of Haifa—Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel. [email protected]

The wild boar (Sus scrofa lybicus) is the largest natural terrestrial mammal in Israel, but our knowl-edge of its impact on the natural environment is very limited. While foraging, wild boars generate severe soil disturbance (rooting). We studied the effects of wild boar activity on the herbaceous plant community growing in open patches of the Mediterranean woody vegetation in Ramat Hanadiv Park, Mount Carmel, Israel. We examined the effects of different disturbance regimes on the herbaceous vegetation community: summer and spring rooting as well as undisturbed open and fenced plots. Winter and spring rooting each covered 4% of the open area, while in summer it affected only 2%. The results demonstrate that rooting slightly affected the structure, composition, and biomass of the herbaceous community. Summer rooting increased species diversity, but did not affect herbaceous biomass. Winter rooting, following germination, lowered plant biomass, but

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did not affect plant density or species richness. Rooting at different timing, intensity, and extent created patches that differ slightly in soil properties and plant competition. The contrast between the expected large scale disturbance and the limited observed impact can be explained by the long mutual evolutionary history of wild boars and Mediterranean vegetative communities, helping to select plants adapted to soil disturbances and species that prosper in disturbed patches.

Invasion of Ambrosia confertiflora DC. along the Alexander river banks: An attempt to de-velop a biological control method based on the restoration of natural riverbank vegetationJ.-M. DUFOUR-DROR. Environmental Policy Center, Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, 20 Radak St. Jerusalem 92186, Israel; Consultant at the Ministry of Environmental Protection, Open Space Branch, 3 Kanfei Nesharim St. P.O. Box 34033 Jerusalem, Israel. [email protected]

Burr ragweed (Ambrosia confertiflora), an erect perennial herb native to the semi-arid plains of southern USA and Mexico, began to spread in the late 1990s along the Alexander River banks, 38 km north of Tel-Aviv. In 2004 the invasive alien already extended over 480 ha. along the river. The plant forms large stands, up to 2 m in height, with a density varying from 80 to 180 stems m2. Burr ragweed crowds out natural vegetation and displaces all native plants in infested sites, except a few ruderals that emerge during the cold season. Burr ragweed proliferates also into adjacent orchards. All mechanical and chemical control methods attempted so far havde failed to stop the invasion. An intensive chemical treatment could pose a significant threat on the entire riparian eco-system of the Alexander River and would therefore hamper the numerous efforts made in recent years to preserve this ecosystem, which appears to be one of the last natural riparian habitat in the region considered. So far no method of classic biological control, i.e., based on the introduction of an alien agent, is available against Ambrosia confertiflora.

The purpose of the research was to develop a technique of control management based on the restoration of the natural vegetation cover on the Alexander River banks. More generally, the research aimed to find a control method that could easily be applied on a larger scale along most riverbanks infested with burr ragweed.

The control management technique was tested with two native species characteristic of undis-turbed natural habitats along river banks in Israel: Arundo donax L. and Phragmites frutescens H. Scholz. Two distinct 50 m2 experimental plots were selected in a site where the ragweed formed dense stands. The ragweed cover was cut short and the local reed species were planted separately in each plot with similar total density: 3 clusters/10 m2. The planting was performed in July, 2008. The reeds were watered three times during the following month. The vegetation cover in both plots was cut short in April, 2009, in order to enhance reed resprouting and growing. The development of the vegetation cover on both experimental plots was monitored from July, 2008, to July, 2009.

The first results showed that Phragmites frutescens was rapidly crowded out by the burr rag-weed and proved inefficient in preventing the development of the alien invasive. In contrast, 100% of the planted giant reed clusters became established and developed. Forty-five days after the spring short cut, the burr ragweed stem density in the giant reed plot was measured; unexpectedly burr ragweed stem density dropped to zero. Similar measurements were carried out in July 2009 and in January 2010: The burr ragweed stem density remained zero.

The first results of this research showed that the native giant reed can displace the alien invasive ragweed and prevent its establishment on previously infested riverbanks. The control management technique tested is actually a biological control method based on the use of native plant species. The advantages of the control method developed are fourfold: The technique is

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cheap, easy to apply, free of chemical compounds, and significantly improves the restoration of local riparian ecosystem. Replicates have been carried out in July 2009 and experimental plots are still under observation. This research was supported by the “Environment” branch of the Nature & Parks Authority.

Hierarchical diversity partitioning: A method revisited with application to Mediterranean grasslandC. GOLODETS,a J. KIGEL,a and M. STERNBERG.b aInstitute of Plant Science and Genetics in Agriculture, Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel; bDepartment of Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, George S. Wise School of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 97800, Israel. [email protected]

Diversity partitioning is a useful tool for analyzing diversity in hierarchical experimental systems. This approach facilitates examination of the contributions of a-diversity and of b-diversity at each level in the hierarchy. The method is based on the terms a-, b- and g-diversity, as defined by Whittaker, where b-diversity represents the difference in diversity between two consecutive levels in the hierarchy. The relationship between a-diversity and b-diversity may be additive, where g-diversity is the sum of a-diversity and b -diversity, or multiplicative, where g-diversity is the product of a and b. We used the latest application of this method, based on Hill’s q-diver-sity statistics, which define “diversity numbers” (reciprocal of mean proportional abundance), representing the effective number of (equally-proportionate) species present in a sample. An increase in q places greater emphasis on common species. We adopted this approach to analyze short- and long-term effects of cattle grazing on species diversity in a Mediterranean grassland, by partitioning diversity at q = 0 (species richness), q = 1 (true Shannon diversity, not entropy), and q = 2 (reciprocal Simpson diversity). The experimental treatments included cattle grazing at high intensity (1.1 cows ha–1yr–1) and moderate intensity (0.55 cows ha–1yr–1), and long-term protection from grazing (30–40 years). Data from three consecutive years (2003–2005) were analyzed in order to monitor short-term changes in diversity during secondary succession in exclosures which had been constructed in the grazed plots. The hierarchy comprised four levels of increasing area: samples (quadrats) within exclosures within plots within treatments. For all orders of q, a-diver-sity was lower than expected from the null model within quadrats, while b-diversity was higher than expected at all levels of the hierarchy. In 2003 and 2004, diversity at higher orders (q = 1,2) was higher in recently-grazed vegetation compared to that of long-term protected plots, due to the dominance of Hordeum bulbosum in the long-term protected plots. In the third year after cessation of grazing (2005) there was no difference between treatments for higher-order diversity (q = 1,2) due to the rapid recovery of H. bulbosum within the short-term exclosures. We can conclude that the low a -diversity is due to competition between species which reduces species richness at the local scale. In contrast, the high b-diversity in the study sites emphasizes the naturally high spatial heterogeneity in the vegetation at the scale of meters to hundreds of meters, as well as the impor-tance of grazing as a management tool for maintaining diversity in Mediterranean grasslands at the landscape level. Higher orders of diversity (q = 1,2), which are based on the proportions of the spe-cies within the vegetation, more competently expressed the effects of grazing on the vegetation, and allowed us to determine grazing effects at the treatment level, based on quadrat-level data.

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Controlling fishery in Lake Kinneret is better than banned itM. GOPHEN. MIGAL—Laboratory and Tel-Hai College, Upper Galilee 12210, Israel. [email protected]

A prominent decline of the Galilee St. Peter’s fish (Sarotherodon galilaeus, musht abiad, amnun haGalil, tilapia cichlid) population in Lake Kinneret was recorded during 2007–2008. Suggested reasons for this, beside stocking reduction, predation by birds, and overfishing, are mostly ecological changes: Decline of Peridinium and increase of nano-phytoplankton (chlorophyta, cyanophyta, diatoms) biomass. The nutritional value of nano-phytoplankton in tilapia’s diet is lower than that of Peridinium. Tilapia contributes significantly to the income of Kinneret fisher-men income, in addition to improving Lake Kinneret water quality. Nevertheless the most com-mon fishes in the lake are the zooplanktivorous “Kinneret sardines” (Mirogrex terraesanctae terraesanctae, lavnun). As part ofa subsidized biomanipulation policy (1994–2001), about 5000 tons of sardines were removed from the lake. These conditions, together with natural cycling of population size, reinforced the tilapia’s decline. Presently, the most available food resource for the Kinneret fishes includes nano-phytoplankton and detritial particles, but the most important is zooplankton. Therefore, tilapia and sardines are competing for zooplankton resources but sar-dines, as natural zoolplanktivores, are probably more efficient. Consequently, sardines removal might be advantageous to the tilapia’s feeding. Banning fishery in the lake now might eliminate zooplankton biomass from the tilapia and channeled it to sardines. A fishery management program has been submitted aimed at long-term sustainability of the Kinneret fish community in order to improveme both fisherman income and water quality. The program includes: enforcement of fishing net size and mesh-size legislations, renewal of commercial sardine fishing, enhancement of tilapia stocking by number (several millions a year) and fingerling size (>5g/ind.), aggressive removal of cormorants (fish-predatory birds) from the Kinneret surroundings, banning of fishing during tilapia reproduction season (May–July) in the Kinneret shallows (<300 m from the shore-line), and initiating intensive research on fish biology (feeding habits) and population dynamics (acoustic surveys accompanied by fish sample analysis).

Long-term monitoring of Ramat Hanadiv herbaceous community—conclusions and man-agement implicationsL. HADAR,a E.D. UNGAR,b D. JOBSE,c and A. PEREVOLOTSKY.b aRamat Hanadiv Nature Park, P.O. Box 325, Zikhron Ya’akov 30900, Israel; bDepartment of Natural Resources, Volcani Center, ARO, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel; cWageningen University Droevendaalsesteeg 3a P.O. Box 47 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands. [email protected]

Ramat Hanadiv is a 500-hectare park in southern Mt. Carmel, Israel, in which the dominant veg-etation formation is Mediterranean garrigue of heterogeneous density and structure. Water regime, soil formation, and land use history account for much of the heterogeneity in vegetation density and developmental stage. The inter-shrub patches are populated by a diverse community of herba-ceous vegetation, extremely rich in species—an average of 12 species per 0.25 m2 quadrate—and diverse in life-forms. Although Ramat Hanadiv covers only 0.016% of Israel’s area, it conserves 628 species constituting 26.3% of Israel’s flora. Of these, 42 are defined as rare according to lo-cal criteria (4.85% of Israel’s rare species), 35 are endemic, and 6 qualify as IUCN “red” species. Since 2003, Ramat Hanadiv’s flora has been monitored routinely as part of an LTER monitoring program in order to define the management that best conserves the local vegetation richness. Monitoring is conducted every second year in 10 fixed plots of different vegetation types and graz-ing regimes—dry riverbed, fuel break zone, pine grove, cypress grove, and a typical garrigue.

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Data analysis was done at three levels—community, functional groups, and species — paying special attention to species instability and the spatial and temporal dynamics of plant community composition.

The herbaceous community showed high temporal dynamics in species composition, whereas species richness and diversity did not change significantly between years and habitats, even when extreme management tools (clearing, grazing) were applied. These results suggest that although the system is highly resilient in terms of diversity, a fixed composition is not an operative man-agement target. Conservation of most of the species is possible only at the scale of the whole park, over long time, and granted that spatial heterogeneity is preserved. Our analysis raised for us question marks regarding the extent to which overall species diversity can serve as a practical management goal, and the meaning of conservation in the context of a constantly changing spe-cies composition.

Ex-situ conservation of rare and endangered species in IsraelR. HADAS,S. GOLAN,D. SCHAFFERMAN,T. PAz-AVIRAM,and A. SINGER. Israel Plant Gene Bank, Institute for Plant Sciences, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel. [email protected]

The Israel Plant Gene Bank (IGB) and the Israel Nature and Parks Authority (NPA) have joined together in order to help save the rare plant species of Israel. Destruction of habitats and uncon-trolled use of natural resources and landscape by human activity, as well as invasive alien species, impact severely upon the natural populations of plants and animals. As part of conservation activi-ties, The Red Data Book: Endangered Plants of Israel was recently published listing 414 species that face extinction. Based on this list, IGB had prepared a collection program of “red” endangered species. The collection scheme was created according to the distribution range of each species, the degree of rarity, the endemism level, and the “red number” as determined in the Red Data Book.

To date, 320 accessions of endangered species, which represents 157 genera, have been depos-ited in the bank. These include two species that were considered to have been extinct (not observed in Israel since the 1960s), 23 species on the verge of extinction, and 132 endangered species, under varying degrees of threat. Seeds from extremely rare species were collected from a few existing individual mother plants, and amounts were not adequate for ex-situ, long term banking. To enlarge their quantity, seed lots were created by germinating and growing representative plants in the IGB experimental field in Bet Dagan. During the reproduction process we determined the optimal conditions for germination and cultivation, as well as seed treatments prior to banking. The potential of seed production in the garden experiment was compared to fitness success in their natural habitats, in order to estimate the efficiency of the multiplication success.

This project is a milestone in conservation strategies in Israel, and will be implemented for the rehabilitation of sites and populations and aim to serve as “safe vault of species” for the genera-tions to come.

Rehabilitation and recovery of agricultural hill areasY. JESMOR,a A. JESMOR,a A. MOR MUSSERY,a E. SOLOWAY,b,c and A. KITRON.a aJudea Center for Research and Development, Carmel 90404, Israel; bArava Institute for Environmental Studies, Kibbutz Ketura, D.N. Hevel Eilot 88840, Israel; cIrbid ,University Jordan. [email protected], [email protected]

Erosion occurs when raindrops or run-off waters are allowed to stream across unprotected land. As the water drops build in volume they loose their kinetic energy, until they reach a point where they

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cannot infiltrate (soak) into the soil. Gravity and slope angles cause the water to move to lower grade. Subsequently, the flow path of the water forms well-defined channels. These channels carry out the lighter components of the soil. From the headwall (top) of the channel, the water falls into a plunge pool at the lower base. The water erodes the base and sides of the pool, undercutting the headwall and creating a gully. This process may repeat itself at various points down the slope, causing slumping and destabilizing the side walls.

The most cost-effective methods in controlling and rehabilitating these areas is by utilizing hand tools and natural material to stop the erosion and disturbance of the soil, and to form catch-ment area. The goals are: to spread the flow of water, reduce its speed and power, and retain soil sediment suspended in the water. In a gully on a slope, small dams should be built. In order to do so, local brush and organic material should be crushed at the base of the headwall and packed with small stones. Additionally, the side walls of the plunge pool should be regraded into a gentle slope, reducing the power of the water. As a simple rule of thumb, the graded slope should be no more than 10–15 degrees, flatter is even better. Packing the center of the gully with brush and rock should reduce the gully depth by over 50%. The filling of the gully will spread the water flow. If possible, trees or brush such as jojoba should be planted in the flattened gully to hold the soil.

Wherever possible the rock barrier should be extended laterally, away from the gully, to dis-burse the water. These erosion controls should be incorporated into contour terraces. The only tools required are a wide blade pick, shovel, and either an axe or sledge hammer to crush brush and pound stones into the barrier. The barrier needs to be wider at the base and high enough to encourage the water to slow and flow away from the gully. A small gas-powered self-propelled rotor tiller is useful in shaping the side slopes. It is better to have more gullies in order to save time and labor.

Further up the slope it is recommended to plant ground cover plants such as ice plant (Mesembryanthemun crystallinum). Additionally, all old rock walls should be repaired and incor-porated into the contour planting scheme. It is recommended to utilize plants adapted to the soil conditions of the area.

The relationships between mammal species composition and environmental variables at varying spatial scales in the contiguous USAR. KENT and Y. CARMEL. Depratment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion—Is-rael Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Haifa, Israel. [email protected]

The relationships between species and their environment, and the role of various environmental factors (such as climatic, topographic, historical, and anthropogenic variables) in determining species distribution and composition are a central issue in ecology. Being scale-dependent both spatially and temporally, these relationships are often elusive, and have been seldom quantified at multiple scales simultaneously. The goal of this study was to quantify the effects of various environmental determinants on mammal species composition in the contiguous USA, varying both the grain and extent components of spatial scale. We compiled data on the occurrence of all terrestrial mammal species (excluding bats) from Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), and a corresponding set of 15 environmental variables from Worldclim and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United nations (FAO). We sampled the study area at four different spatial scales (grain ranged from 100 km2 to 10,000 km2, and extent ranged from 90,000 km2 to ~10,000,000 km2). Each scale consisted of 900 grid cells (30 ´ 30), except for the largest scale, which spanned the entire study area and consisted of 1,200 cells. We quantified the relationships between mammal species and environmental parameters using CCA analyses. Our results show that climate was the predominant factor affecting species composition at all scales. Its effect in-

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creased with spatial scale. The second most important factor was land use/land cover, which was almost as strong as that of climate at the smallest scale, and decreased with scale. Topography and primary productivity were less important, and decreased with scale. The amount of variance explained by topography increased at the largest scale. We assume that if our analysis included smaller scales, the importance of topography would be larger. This study provides the first quanti-tative evidence to the high importance of climate and land cover/land use parameters in affecting mammal species composition at large spatial scales. Both these variable groups are related to hu-man activity, either directly or indirectly. These results are alerting in light of increasing rates of climate and land cover/land use changes.

Patch connectivity and its implications for migration speedA. KERSHENBAUM,a and L. BLAUSTEIN.a aDepartment of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology and the Institute of Evolution, Haifa University, Haifa 31905, Israel. [email protected]

Realistic measures of patch connectivity are difficult to derive. Connectivity is not merely a geo-metric concept, but is closely linked to the behavior and ecology of the animal species in question. Dispersal ability is affected differently for different species by different geometric configurations. For instance, central place foragers may be influenced primarily by the mean distance between ref-uges, whereas species that cannot suspend foraging during dispersal may find minimum distance between patch boundaries more limiting. We aim to demonstrate the importance of choosing the correct fragmentation measure by simulating the dispersal of species with different responses to different types of habitat fragmentation. In the first case, we consider a species that moves on two time scales; fast within a habitat patch, and slowly between patches. We show that connectivity measures that reflect the assumption of different time scales, lead to very different predictions of dispersal speed. Secondly, we show that a metric of locally connected patches—such as those re-quired by a central place forager that must break long dispersal journeys at a suitable refuge—give substantially different results than a metric based on global patch connection—more suitable for a free-ranging species. Realistic metrics for the modelling of species dispersal require careful consideration of the ecological factors affecting individual movement. Inappropriate choice of fragmentation metric could have broad consequences for the prediction of invasive species spread, and for the conservation of endangered metapopulations.

Intraguild predation (IGP) dynamics in Lake KinneretV. MAKLER,a Y. CARMEL,a M.R. HIPSEY,b T. zOHARY,c and G. GAL.c aFaculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Technion City, Haifa 32000, Israel; bSchool of Earth and Environment, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia; cY. Allon Kinneret Limnological Laboratory, IOLR, P.O. Box 447, Migdal 14950, Israel. [email protected]

Lake Kinnert is an example of aquatic ecosystem in which intraguild-predation (IGP) plays a key role. Predatory invertebrates (cyclopoid copepods) and the zooplanktivore fish lavnun (Acanthobrama terraesanctae) both prey on herbivorous zooplankton, while the lavnun also preys on the predatory zooplankton. A trophic triangle is created in which the lavnun competes with the predatory zooplankton for the same resource but also prey on the cyclopoid copepods. Thus, the ךavnun affects herbivorous zooplankton both directly and indirectly.

The Lake Kinneret version of the mechanistic model DYCD-FISH was employed to simulate the IGP dynamics in the lake and to compare the differences between predation pressure excreted

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by the fish and by the predatory zooplankton on the herbivorous zooplankton. Furthermore, we examined the impact of extreme conditions in which the fish population is significantly larger than normal conditionsת such as observed in years following the rapid raise in lake level. The simula-tions were configured to run for 7 years (1997–2003) with metrological, inflows, and withdrawals data measured in the lake, and biological and chemical initialization conditions. The model cal-culates physical state variables such as salinity, density, and temperature, and a series of chemical and biological state variables (such as heterotrophic bacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fish).

The results indicate that in Lake Kinneret, the predation of the predatory zooplankton on herbivorous zooplankton varies widely with season, exerting predation pressure at the time of its annual peak that is 10–20 times higher than fish predation pressure. The extreme fish population scenarios in which there were 8 times more fish, in comparison to a base level of 100 million fish, indicated that the system switches to a top-down, fish-controlled system. Fish predation on the predatory and herbivorous zooplankton reduces their average biomass significantly. However, the seasonal decrease in the biomass of predatory-zooplankton reduces the net predation on herbivo-rous zooplankton and allows for the increase in herbivorous zooplankton biomass during these periods to levels similar to those observed during the base level simulations.

The results are in agreement with other publications indicating that the predatory zooplankton have a considerable impact on herbivorous zooplankton, more important even than the impact of fish, except under abnormal conditions. The research results have implications on management of the fisheries in Lake Kinneret.

Loss and restoration of ecosystem function in overgrazed semiarid shrublandA. MUSSERY,a S. LEU,a,b and B. BOEKEN.b aJudea Center for Research and Development, Carmel 90404, Israel; bThe French Associates Institute of Dryland Agriculture and Biotechnology, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Sde Boker 84990, Israel. [email protected]

We analyzed landscape structure, productivity, and biodiversity in semi-arid shrubland north of Hura in the Eastern Negev, an area that receives on average about 230 mm of annual precipita-tion. A private family farm (100 ha) where grazing intensity has been strictly controlled for the last 15 years is one of the few conserved ecosystems in the region. Adjacent properties are heavily degraded due to intense livestock grazing, soil tillage, or afforestation by contour trenching.

In order to determine the extent of degradation and to design possible restoration strategies, we compared landscape structure, soil properties, and biological productivity between 2008 and 2010 (with 170, 160, and 230 mm of rainfall respectively) on two south-facing slopes, one featur-ing conserved and the other degraded overgrazed shrubland. The landscape of the conserved site is highly heterogeneous, with many large distinct persistent patches formed by shrubs or animal activity such as ant or termite nests, which occupy about 35% of the area, compared with a patch cover of only 5% in the degraded site.

Soil water infiltration rate, soil nutrient content, and annual plant productivity were higher in persistent patches than in open intershrub areas, and significantly reduced in the degraded open landscape. Plant litter cover was higher under shrubs than in the open patches of conserved and degraded shrubland. Soil organic matter was similar in patches in conserved and degraded shru-bland, but was significantly lower in the open matrix of degraded shrubland than in matrix soil of conserved shrubland. Furthermore, germination rates of annuals were significantly higher in conserved shrubland. The degraded plot produced 0.2–0.6 tons of annual herbaceous biomass per

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ha (dry matter) in spring 2008, whereas the conserved site yielded 1–1.6 tons per ha in the open and 2–4 tons per ha under the canopy of savanna trees.

The ecosystem changes inflicted by degradation due to livestock grazing coincided with a dramatic shift in plant community composition and a drastic decrease in abundance and diversity of invertebrates and small mammals that apparently require continuous availability of plant litter and persistent vegetation patches. This is manifested by one order of magnitude lower number of ant nests, snails, rodent burrows, and isopod activity, and the absence of larger animals activity such as porcupine digs in the degraded plots.

Thus the reduction in landscape structure and ecosystem function in overgrazed shrubland represents a complete collapse of biological activity, resulting in accelerating water runoff and soil erosion, and loss of nutrients, productivity, and biodiversity. Halting this desertification process and restoration of ecosystem function requires establishment of new landscape patches. Drought-adapted trees such as Acacia, planted in the area 18 years ago, have successfully restored land-scape heterogeneity and promoted rapid recovery of soil fertility, productivity, and biodiversity.

Factors affecting the distribution of the Asiatic wild ass in the Negev Desert, IsraelO. NEzER,a Y. CARMEL,a and S. BAR-DAVID.b aFaculty of Civil and Environmental Engineer-ing, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel; bMitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Institute for Dryland Environmental Research, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Midreshet Sede-Boqer 84990, Israel. [email protected]

Identifying and understanding the factors that control species distribution is critical to the creation of conservation and management strategies for both individual species and their habitats. This understanding is particulary important for managing endangered reintroduced species, which expands their geographical range of distribution as part of their return to their “old” habitat.

The Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) is defined as an endangered species. Historically, this species was widely distributed in western Asia and the Mediterranean, but it has become locally extinct in the majority of its historic range as a result of hunting and habitat loss. Between the years 1982 and 1993, the Israel Nature and Parks Authority initiated a reintroduction project with the aim of returning the wild ass to the Negev desert. Today, the wild ass population is disbursed throughout the Negev and is estimated at c. 150 individuals, but specific information on their distribution and habitat preferences remains sparse. The goal of this research was to locate the preferred habitats of the wild ass and to identify the factors affecting its distribution within the Negev. The study is based on the presence of scats within the research area as a measure of wild ass activity.

A comprehensive scat survey was conducted at 122 sites throughout the Negev. At each site, 3 transects of 500 m were performed. Scat piles were counted and mapped along each transect. The spatial distribution of scat density data (piles per transect) was analyzed using multivariate regres-sion using the following descriptive parameters: distance to water sources, climate factors (e.g., average temperature and humidity), topographic factors (slope and orientation), woody vegetation cover and anthropogenic influence (distance from roads, settlements, and military bases). These spatial variables were processed and edited using multi-layer GIS analysis.

The resulting map of the spatial distribution of scat indicates the presence of activity centers of the wild ass at three primary sites: the Ramon crater, the Borot Lotz reserve, and the Paran wadi. Among the tested parameters, woody vegetation was found to be the best predictor of spatial distribution, followed by topographic height, distance from perennial water sources, and average

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precipitation. The combination of these factors accounted for >50% of the variance in the spatial distribution of E. hemionus scats. These findings contribute to our understanding of E. hemionus habitat preferences and may serve as groundwork for the prediction of future range expansion of this species. This study has also located critical habitat sites that must be preserved to ensure the long-term persistence of this species in the region.

Measuring the spatial complexity of urban sprawl using different methodologies: Implications for the state of the artD. ORENSTEIN,a and A. FRENKEL.a,b aThe Philip and Ethel Klutznik Center for Urban and Regional Studies, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel; bThe Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, [email protected]

Land-use planners and policy makers depend on accurate and dependable base-line estimates of the spatial extent and configuration of land uses. The accuracy of these estimates is crucial if their plans and policies are to be relevant and effective. Yet, in the field of research about urban sprawl it is apparent that choice of how urban spatial characteristics are measured has significant implica-tions for how we quantify and ultimately define sprawl. Since sprawl is a complex phenomenon, the way we choose to measure it affects results and implications for growth management policies that are developed to direct urban spatial development in a sustainable fashion. We therefore ask the question, “How do methodological choices affect outcomes when estimating the amount and configuration of built space over time?”

We present three GIS-based methodologies for quantify amount and configuration of built space. Although each is a relatively simple methodology, our preliminary investigations yielded different results for each methodology regarding the amount of built space and its spatial configu-ration (e.g., patchiness and spatial connectivity between built patches). The differences may be significant enough that the end-user of such data would reach different conclusions regarding past trends and future planning and policy needs.

Our case study for empirically testing the methodologies was a 350 km2 region in central Israel that includes both urban and rural communities, agricultural land, and other open spaces. The first methodology uses high-resolution ortho-photos for digitizing polygons on user-defined clusters of built space. The second methodology uses 1:50,000 survey maps (which are created using aerial photos) to delineate each individual building with a single data point. The data points are then used to create a structure density raster grid using a pre-determined search radius. A minimum density is used as a cutoff to divide between open and built space. The third methodology relies on the same data-point file for structures as the second methodology, but an algorithm is employed to automati-cally assign structures to a given patch of built space (Density-based spatial clustering of applica-tions with noise—DBSCAN). We chose two time periods to employ the methodologies in order to quantify changes of built space over time. Our preliminary results showed large differences in estimates provided by each of the three methods. For example, estimates of total built space varied by up to 20% between methodologies, and the widely used “sprawl index” differed by a factor of two between the methods. When used over two time periods, the differences were further magni-fied. One of the most significant implications of our preliminary results is recognition of the need to unify methodologies for measuring sprawl in diverse research and between study sites. Such unification will contribute to resolving scholarly and practical debate about sprawl and the success of policies implemented to address it.

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Environmental literacy in Israeli schools: Student knowledge, attitude, and behaviorE. PELED and T. TAL. Department of Education in Technology and Science, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel. [email protected]

Environmental literacy (EL) has been declared as the paramount objective of environmental education (EE) and is define as “the capacity to perceive and interpret the relative health of envi-ronmental systems and take appropriate action to maintain, restore or improve the health of those systems” (Disinger and Roth, 2003).

According to various studies, the relationship between environmental knowledge, positive en-vironmental attitude, and environment-friendly behavior, all considered as the main components of EL, is not unequivocal. However, in some cases a significant correlation was found between participating in EE programs and the appearance of one or more components of EL (Bradley et al., 1999; Rickinson, 2001).

EE in Israel is not yet part of the core curriculum. However, a growing number of schools un-derstand the importance in forming environmentally literate citizens and integrate EE programs1 in their system. In 2008, the Ministry of Environmental Protectin (MoEP) in Israel initiated the development of an instrument for the indication of EL of students in elementary and high schools in Israel.

The main aim of our study, which utilizes this initiative, was to develop a valid and reliable indicator for EL, and thereby to indicate the EL of school students in Israel.

We started by reviewing previous studies in which different forms of EL estimation were used. A close examination of the instruments used in previous EL surveys in Israel showed lack of compatibility with relevant local environmental knowledge and no validation according to official national standards. During the development of our instrument, a very large effort was dedicated to ensuring high reliability and validity. A pilot questionnaire was administrated to 5–6th graders and 11–12th graders from diverse schools, and analyzed. As a result some items were deleted or changed. In the main study, we sampled 1500 students from three grade levels: 6th (end of el-ementary school), 9th (end of junior high school), and 11th graders (12th graders were exempted due to matriculation exams).

Data analysis shows that the environmental knowledge of Israeli school students is insufficient and inconsistent. A Bonferonny post-hoc ANOVA test shows significant positive correlation be-tween the grade level and students’ environmental knowledge, and a negative correlation between environmental attitude and behavior. In looking more closely at specific items, we found that Israeli students of today have a better knowledge of items falling under the definition “action-related knowledge”, which refers to knowledge about behavioral options (Frick et al., 2004), than about local environmental issues typical to Israel and systematic environmental knowledge. Most students expressed more positive attitude in relation to declarative statements than to obligatory statements. Further, students achieved a high score on behaviors such as the reducing waste of resources, and a low score on behaviors such as participation in environmental projects.

Our findings imply that students are exposed to action-related knowledge rather than to other types of environmental knowledge. The high scores of action-related knowledge imply a high level of awareness of the consequences of different behavior patterns (Frick at al., 2004). The low scores in local environmental knowledge issues and the students’ choice of distractors, implies to a central role of mass communication as a source of students’ knowledge. Based on these findings,

1 The term “environmental educational program” represents all structured activities in environ-mental education, given at a determined period of time in schools, but not part of the curricular program as required by the Israeli Ministry of Education.

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we propose to review the different EE programs and identify the different types of knowledge that are mphasized in the programss, together with the encouragement of positive attitude and motiva-tion to act, needed to promote a pro-environmental citizenship.

Endangered plants in Israel: Local and global perspectivesG. POLLAK,a A. SHMIDA,b N. LEVIN,c and O. FRAGMAN-SAPIR.d aKibbutzim College of Education, Technology and Arts, Tel Aviv 62507, Israel; bCenter for Rationality and Department of Ecology, Systematics and Evolution, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat-Ram, Jeru-salem 91904, Israel; c Department of Geography, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem 91905, Israel; dJerusalem Botanical Gardens, Giv’at Ram, Jerusalem 91904, Israel. [email protected]

The updated list of endangered plants in Israel (“Red Plants”) includes 414 plant species. A plant species defined as “red” is ranked according to six criteria that determine the degree of threat: rarity, habitat vulnerability, attractiveness for human use, endemism, peripherality of geographic distribution, and disjunctiveness. The criteria of endemism and peripherality in particular are analyzed in order to examine the relationships between the local and the global threats and their implications for conservation.

Many of the plants endemic to Israel and adjacent countries are not under threat, and only a small portion of the endangered plants of Israel are regionally endemic. On the other hand, the majority of the endangered plants of Israel are distributed worldwide and many of them grow in Israel at the extreme periphery of their global distribution. Most of them are Mediterranean and European plants for which Israel lies at the southern or eastern edges of their distribution. Others are desert and sub-tropical African plants, for which Israel is located at the northern edge of their global distribution. The overlap between European and Israeli red plants is slight, and Israel shares only a few red plants in common with other countries.

The red plants that are locally and regionally endemic are concentrated in vulnerable habitats of sandy soils on the coastal plain and in secondary habitats of grumosols such as edges of tradition-ally managed agriculture areas. On the other hand, aquatic habitats that were mostly transformed or degraded, comprise mainly endangered plants that are distributed worldwide—cosmopolitan or peripheral in Israel.

Although the majority of the endangered plants of Israel are not endemic and are not listed in global or regional red data lists, conservation efforts should be pursued for two reasons. First, these plant species are part of the diversity of exclusive natural local communities and ecosystems. Second, these peripheral populations are probably a reservoir of unique genetic and adaptive char-acteristics. High conservation priority should be given to the remnants of hamra (sandy loam) and kurkar (calcareous sandstone) habitats on the coastal plain and to secondary grumosols, because of the presence of a high proportion of endangered plants that are endemic.

The structure of Tabor oak park-forest pre-fire and fire severity: How would they determine post-fire regeneration and recovery?O. REISMAN-BERMAN,a H. zALMEN,b and K. DIDI.c aBlaustein Institutes for Desert Re-search, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel; bThe Newe Ya’ar Regional Research Center, ARO, P.O. Box 1021, Ramat Yishay 30095, Israel; cThe Israel Nature and Parks Authority, 3 Am Ve’Olamo Street, Jerusalem 95463, Israel. [email protected]

Park-forest (savannah) dominated by Quercus ithaburensis (Tabor oak) in Israel, is a multifunc-tional ecosystem, benefiting cattle-grazing, silvi-agriculture, conservation, and tourism needs.

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The ecosystem is wildfire-prone, with high frequencies of fire eruptions that cause severe damage to its multi-functionality. Our research is aimed at studying the combined effects of fire severity, tree developmental stage prior to fire eruption, including their interaction on the recovery, and the regeneration of trees. In Israel, 800 Q. ithaburensis trees at two sites (Beit-Keshet and Hasollelim) have been monitored since wildfire eruption in 2006 (the Second Lebanon War). Recovery mea-surements include detailed observations on resprouting and phenology. Preliminary results dem-onstrate that resprouting from root crown increases with tree developmental stage, measured by trunk diameter; however, in the high diameter class (>40 cm), there is a decrease in the ability to regenerate by resprouting. Although it is common that the ability to resprout increases with fire se-verity, it was found that fire severity can only partially explain the ability to resprout (~40%). Tree mortality is null at moderate fire severities, and the damage to trees that are above 30 cm diameter is moderate or minor at any fire intensity. Thus, prescribed fires of low intensity can serve as an excellent tool in this system to reduce fuel load of the herbaceous species. An interesting result demonstrates that the ability to resprout from root crown increases with the increase in the number of trunks per individual tree. It is thus recommended to design the tree with multiple trunks that accompany the main trunk, to ensure forest regeneration following wildfires.

Dynamic ecology of the larval habitat in oviposition habitat selection theoryA. SADEH,a L. BLAUSTEIN,a and M. MANGEL.b aDepartment of Evolutionary and Environ-mental Biology, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel 31905, Israel; bDepartment of Applied Math-ematics and Statistics, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.

Oviposition/larviposition habitat selection behavior is influenced by strong selection pressures, and is important for the life histories and distributions of many organisms with complex life cycles. Theory on this behavior that is based solely on the parent preference–offspring perfor-mance hypothesis has failed to meet much empirical evidence. A considerable improvement of theory was achieved by accounting for tradeoffs between current and future reproductive success, but considering larval habitats as having fixed payoffs remains the rule. We hypothesize that the dynamics of larval habitat ecology may cause significant alterations in the values of various characteristics of such habitats for maternal fitness and select for more complex reproductive behaviors than those predicted thus far.

We bring evidence to this notion in a fire salamander (Salamandra infraimmaculata) larvi-position habitat selection experiment, in which we show that maternal choice of pool structural complexity depends on the expected future trophic function of the offspring, as determined by the order of arrival to the breeding site. We also use models combining differential equations and stochastic dynamic programming to develop a framework for integrating the ecological dynamics of larval habitats in oviposition habitat selection theory, while focusing on the dynamics of inter-cohort interactions within larval populations.

Drift by fire salamander larvae in intermittent streams during floods: Influence of discharge rate and predation riskO. SEGEV and L. BLAUSTEIN. Community Ecology Lab, Institute of Evolution, Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel. [email protected]

Floods, mostly considered a mortality source for aquatic organisms in intermittent streams, can potentially connect isolated pools and thus provide otherwise spatially restricted organisms with the option to stay or leave depending on environmental cues. Fire salamander (Salamandra in-

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fraimmaculata) larvae, commonly larviposited into pools along mostly dry riverbeds, are often exposed to flooding. We conducted a field survey to determine if, during a discharge event, a frac-tion of the larval population successfully colonizes down-stream pools. We also conducted indoor artificial flow experiments to determine if larvae alter drift in response to different discharge rates and perceived risk of predation. In the field survey, we sampled 8 adjacent small rock pools largely in a linear array along an intermittent stream following discharge events. Using digital photos to identify individuals based on specific tail-fin markings, we identified a total 132 individuals. Of these, 54% remained in the same pool, 14% disappeared from all pools, and 1.5% were recaptured in a lower elevation pool following a discharge event. In the laboratory, anesthetized larvae (pas-sive drifters) drifted faster than conscious larvae at low discharge but not at high discharge rates, suggesting that conscious larvae actively resisted hydraulic stress. Drift of small larvae in the presence of a caged, larger cannibalistic conspecific was faster, indicating that the larvae perceived and attempted to avoid the predator. Larval drift can serve as a dispersal pathway for amphibians and may be of particular importance on local scales when the terrestrial habitat is fragmented and movement of terrestrial stages is highly restricted. Our findings also confirm that larval drift is behaviorally controlled and potentially mediated by predation risk.

Administrative versus criminal environmental enforcement strategies: A retroactive assess-mentA. TAL,ª Y. AHARON ROTMAN,b and H. YUHAS PELED.c ªMitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Sde Boker 84993, Israel; bDepartment of Geography and Environmental Development, Ben Gurion Uni-versity of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel; cPorter School of Environment Studies, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel. [email protected]

Environmental enforcement in Israel has relied on two frameworks—administrative and criminal processes—ever since the establishment of Israel’s Ministry of Environmental Protection in 1988. The administrative enforcement program is based on reported violations, warning letters, hear-ings, etc., while the criminal one uses external attorneys to submit indictments to court. These two systems are typically considered complementary, but there is a real need to examine each of them separately in order to conclude when and under what conditions each should be pursued. In this study, criminal and administrative enforcement systems were assessed and compared. A sample of 160 cases was examined from four out of six existing regions, addressing violations of air, water, and hazardous materials laws. The sample was limited to files conducted during the years 2000–2005, a period selected in order for the polluter to have enough time to abate the impact on the environment, or for the ministry to finish processing the violation. An equal number of cases involving criminal and administrative enforcement were compared. Violation assessment relied on the characterization of the conditions on site; research teams were accompanied by a member of the ministry’s “Green Police”.

Typically, administrative enforcement frameworks are thought to produce results more quickly because they do not require court involvement. On the other hand, the criminal process is associ-ated with a fear of sanctions and the associated stigma among potential violators. In addition, the criminal system produces deterrence effects which can influence “potential polluters” who would then choose to avoid such violation or prevent it in advance. So far, environmental enforcement in Israel was assessed only by “outputs”, i.e., estimating the size of resources invested into the en-forcement process. This was achieved using indicators such as the number of lawsuits and warning letters submitted against environmental violations, the number of fines, their average values, etc.

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Clearly, this kind of assessment cannot offer a valid indication of successful enforcement because it does not refer to the outcome, the actual result on the site where the violation was committed. This research attempts to fill this gap. Many differences were found when comparing criminal ver-sus administrative systems. Data analysis was performing by standard statistical testing in order to understand the findings. Significant differences were found with regards to the duration of the enforcement process as well as in the outcomes that were found at the criminal and administrative violation sites. According to these results, conclusions have been made for revisions that should be made in Israel’s enforcement process.

Models of plant seed dispersal by wind in heterogeneous landscapesA. TRAKHTENBROT,a G. KATUL,b and R. NATHAN.a aMovement Ecology Lab, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Giv’at-Ram 91904, Jerusalem, Israel; bNicholas School of the Environ-ment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0328, USA. [email protected]

Seed dispersal, and especially long-distance dispersal (LDD), is a key process in plant population dynamics, colonization of new areas, and gene flow. Its importance is amplified by anthropogenic habitat fragmentation, invasions of exotic species, and climate change. Quantifying the dispersal process requires understanding the movement mechanisms of both the dispersal vector and the seeds, and the ability to model these mechanisms. For dispersal by wind, mechanistic models that incorporate a detailed description of the wind flow were recently developed, yet most of them assume homogenous environment. Specifically, no models previously incorporated sharp transi-tions in vegetation stature and density or non-flat terrain. The main aim of this study was to make progress towards filling this gap.

We based the development on an existing model (the Coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian closure model—CELC) of dispersal in homogenous environments, which was modified for heteroge-neous environments by updating the Eulerian module, which computes statistics of the wind field. These statistics are then fed into the Lagrangian module, which computes stochastic seed movement trajectories. We parameterized the vegetation and the wind factors using measurements taken on a hill with garigue and pine forest vegetation at Mt. Pithulim.

For the scenario of sharp short-to-tall vegetation transition, the main feature of the modeled wind field is an exponential decay of the mean horizontal wind velocity on entering the tall veg-etation, and a consequent upward mean vertical velocity component. We found that the modeled LDD distances were longer than those for the corresponding homogeneous vegetation scenario for seed release both up- and downwind of the transition. The median dispersal distances were only increased for release downwind of the edge, and it decreased exponentially to values typical of the tall vegetation. The overall effect zone was for release from plants located up to tens of meters up- and downwind of the edge.

To modify the model for hilly terrain, we made use of an existing analytical model of the wind flow over gentle forested hills. The main attribute of the wind field is acceleration of the topogra-phy-following mean wind component uphill and its deceleration downhill to the point of direction reversal. We found that for seeds released uphill, the median dispersal distances were longer than for the flat terrain scenario, while for release downhill the median distances were similar to those of the flat scenario. The dispersal direction fitted the local wind direction; hence, seeds released on the lee side of the hill were dispersed mainly towards the hill crest, opposing the regional wind.

The models developed can be used as a tool for management of fragmented habitats.

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Do tadpoles respond to historical death? The effects of desiccation cues on the fire salaman-der’s larval developmentN. TRUSKANOV,a L. BLAUSTEIN,b and A. SADEH.b aDepratment of Biology, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel; bDepartment of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology and the Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel. [email protected]

Environmental cues may potentially inform on the quality of an ephemeral habitat and its expected duration. Such information has implications for the developmental program of larvae inhabiting this habitat, including their growth rates and larval periods. Temporary pools in Israel frequently experience a long period of dry weather, following the first winter rains, during which pools may desiccate, killing all under-developed larvae in them. Cues that inform on a high probability of early desiccation may encourage larvae to hasten their development and reach metamorphosis earlier. Such cues may appear at the beginning of the season, such as the presence of previously desiccated conspecifics that may indicate the pool’s low water-holding ability. Other cues may ap-pear throughout the season, such as fluctuations in water level that may indicate actual drying of the pool. We hypothesized that the historical death of conspecifics by desiccation will be perceived chemically as an early cue for a short hydroperiod and will induce accelerated development in Salamandra infraimmaculata. Additionally, we hypothesized that to the extent that developmental plasticity is not ontogenetically limited, the larvae will adjust their response to the early chemi-cal cue in case of a discrepancy with later water level conditions. In a laboratory experiment, we combined two levels of water level regime (constant/reducing) with two levels of chemical cue for historical desiccation (presence/absence of dried conspecifics). In agreement with our predic-tions, the larvae responded to the early chemical cue by a high growth rate during their first days of life. This effect persisted to the age of 58 days, at which point they started showing a response to the changes in water levels. Eventually, the larvae fully compensated for their initial responses when such compensation was required, as time to and size at metamorphosis were only affected by the water-level regimes. The ability of larvae to adjust their rates of development according to cues perceived from their habitat has important implications for their survival. The ability to perceive the historical death of conspecifics and to respond by altering development is an aspect of phenotypic plasticity that has not been studied before, and may contribute to our understanding of larval development and the factors that affect it.

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Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Meeting of the Israel Society of Ecology and Environmental Science...

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Transcript of Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Meeting of the Israel Society of Ecology and Environmental Science...