Problems, Causes, Controland Research Needs · 11.2.4 Free-living protozoa (FLP) 298 11.2.5...
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Problems, Causes, Control and Research Needs Edited by Dirk van der Kooij and Paul W. J. J. van der Wielen © Publishing London • New York
Transcript of Problems, Causes, Controland Research Needs · 11.2.4 Free-living protozoa (FLP) 298 11.2.5...
Problems, Causes, Control and
Research Needs
Edited by
Dirk van der Kooij and
Paul W. J. J. van der Wielen
©PublishingLondon • New York
Contents
Authors and co-authors xvii
Acknowledgements xxv
Foreword xxvii
Chapter 1
General introduction /
D. van der Kooij and P. W. J. J. van der Wielen
1.1 Water-Supply Microbiology 1
1.1.1 Discoveries and impact 1
1.1.2 A century of progress 2
1.2 Regrowth: Problems and Assessment 5
1.2.1 Problems 5
1.2.2 Regrowth assessment 8
1.3 Causes of Regrowth 9
1.3.1 Growth kinetics and growth potential assessment 10
1.3.1.1 Growth kinetics 10
1.3.1.2 Assessment of the microbial-growthpotential of drinking water 13
1.3.2 Temperature 14
1.3.3 Biofilms, sediments and hydraulics 15
1.3.3.1 Biofilms 15
1.3.3.2 Sediments 18
1.3.4 Construction materials 18
1.3.5 Disinfectant residual 19
vi Microbial Growth in Drinking-Water Supplies
1.4 Scope and Aim 19
1.5 References 20
Chapter 2
Measurement of biostability and impacts on water
treatment in the US 33
M. W. LeChevallier
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Measurement of Biodegradable OrganicMatter in Water 34
2.3 Concentrations of AOC and BDOC in US DrinkingWater Supplies 37
2.4 Impact of Water Treatment on BOM 40
2.4.1 Watersheds 40
2.4.2 Disinfection 41
2.4.3 Coagulation and sedimentation 42
2.4.4 Granular media filtration 42
2.4.5 Membrane filtration 42
2.4.6 Bank infiltration 44
2.4.7 Recycling of backwash water 45
2.5 Materials in Contact with Water 45
2.6 Development of a Bioluminescence AOC Method 46
2.6.1 Bioluminescence AOC assay 46
2.6.2 Application of the bioluminescence
AOC assay 48
2.6.3 Development of a salt water bioluminescence
AOC test 50
2.7 Conclusions 51
2.8 References 52
Chapter 3
Removal of organic matter in water treatment
systems-Case studies in Japan 57
Y. Watanabe
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Advanced Water Purification System in Osaka
Waterworks 57
3.2.1 Reduction of chlorine dosage 57
3.2.2 Bacterial-regrowth control by AOC reduction and
less chlorine dosage 58
Contents vii
3.3 Organic Removals in a Hybrid Membrane Filtration System — 61
3.3.1 PVDF MF membrane filtration coupledwith pre-ozonation 61
3.3.2 PTFE MF membrane filtration coupled with
powdered activated carbon adsorption and
biological/chemical oxidation 65
3.3.3 Biofilm-membrane reactor for advanced drinkingwater treatment 69
3.4 Conclusion 71
3.5 References 71
Chapter 4
Organic matter, pipe materials, disinfectants
and biofilms in distribution systems 73
A. K. Camper4.1 Introduction 73
4.1.1 Organic matter and heterotrophicbacterial growth 74
4.1.2 Disinfectans, NOM and microbial growth 75
4.1.2.1 Primary disinfection 75
4.1.2.2 Secondary disinfection 77
4.1.3 Pipe materials 78
4.2 Interactions of Factors and Biofilm Growth 79
4.2.1 Importance of organic carbon and chlorine on biofilms..
79
4.2.2 Importance of iron-corrosion products 81
4.2.3 Iron, organics and disinfectants 81
4.2.4 Iron, organics, disinfectants and
corrosion control 84
4.2.4.1 Corrosion products and iron oxide coated
beads 84
4.2.4.2 Laboratory and pilot distribution systemstudies 85
4.3 Conclusions and Recommendations 88
4.4 References 90
Chapter 5
Safe distribution without a disinfectant residual 95
G. J. Medema, P. W. M. H. Smeets,E. J. M. Blokker and J. H. M. van Lieverioo
5.1 Introduction 95
viii Microbial Growth in Drinking-Water Supplies
5.1.1 Safe distribution of water: to disinfect or
not to disinfect? 95
5.1.2 The road to distribution without disinfectant
residual in the Netherlands 98
5.1.3 Microbial safety in water legislation in
the Netherlands 100
5.2 Good Engineering Practice 100
5.3 Evidence of Safe Distribution Without
Disinfectant Residual 101
5.3.1 Evidence from waterborne outbreaks 102
5.3.2 Evidence from contamination events 105
5.3.3 Evidence from water quality monitoring 109
5.3.4 Evidence from operational monitoring 113
5.4 Synopsis 116
5.5 Outlook 117
5.5.1 Improved microbiological monitoring 117
5.5.2 Improved monitoring by combining sentinel
sensors with rapid microbiological assays 118
5.5.3 Improved use of operational monitoring 118
5.5.4 Epidemiology to assess safety 119
5.5.5 QMRA to improve science-based management 119
5.6 References 120
V
Chapter 6
Legionella in drinking-water supplies 127
D. van der Kooij6.1 Introduction 127
6.2 Incidence and Causal Organisms 129
6.2.1 Legionnaires' disease in Europe and the US 129
6.2.2 Identity of clinical and environmental isolates 130
6.2.2.1 Clinical isolates 130
6.2.2.2 Environmental isolates 131
6.2.2.3 Monoclonal antibody (MAb) types 133
6.2.2.4 Sequence-based types (STs) 133
6.2.3 Infectious dose 134
6.3 Ecology of L pneumophila 134
6.3.1 Growth substrates and amoebae 135
6.3.2 Temperature effects 136
6.3.2.1 Laboratory systems 137
6.3.2.2 Natural and man-made aquatic environments . 138
6.4 Legionellae in Drinking-Water Supplies 140
Contents ix
6.4.1 Drinking water distribution systems 141
6.4.2 Hospitals, hotels and homes 142
6.4.2.1 Hospitals and hotels 142
6.4.2.2 Homes 143
6.4.3 Critical concentration 146
6.4.4 Disinfectant residual 146
6.4.5 Plumbing materials 149
6.5 Control Measures in Potable-Water Systems 151
6.5.1 Regulations, standards and guidelines 151
6.5.2 Water temperature management 153
6.5.3 Disinfection technologies 153
6.5.4 Limiting accumulation of biofilms and sediments 154
6.6 Discussion and Perspective 155
6.6.1 True incidence of LD 155
6.6.2 Water-supply associated LD 156
6.6.3 Drinking-water quality 158
6.6.4 Temperature and virulence 159
6.6.5 Perspective 159
6.7 References 160
Chapter 7
Opportunistic pathogens in drinking water in
the Netherlands 177
P. W. J. J. van der Wielen, R. Italiaander, B. A. Wullings,L. Heijnen and D. van der Kooij7.1 Introduction 177
7.1.1 Climate change 177
7.1.2 Demographic change 178
7.2 Literature Survey 178
7.2.1 (Reported) cases in the Netherlands 179
7.2.2 Epidemiological link between organisms from
drinking water and patients 181
7.2.3 Occurrence of opportunistic pathogens in
drinking water in the Netherlands 182
7.2.4 Effect of temperature on growth of
opportunistic pathogens 183
7.2.5 Priority for further research 184
7.3 Detection of Opportunistic Pathogens in Drinking Water 185
7.3.1 Fungi and Aspergillus fumigatus 186
7.3.2 Mycobacteria and Mycobacteriumavium complex 188
X Microbial Growth in Drinking-Water Supplies
7.3.3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 189
7.3.4 Stenotrophomonas maltophilia 190
7.4 Opportunistic Pathogens in Unchlorinated
Drinking Water 191
7.4.1 Temperature, ATP and cell numbers 192
7.4.2 Opportunistic pathogens 192
7.5 References 198
Chapter 8
The last meters before the tap: where drinkingwater quality is at risk 207
H.-C. Hemming, B. Bendinger, M. Exner, J. Gebel, T. Kistemann,G. Schaule, U. Szewzyk and J. Wingender
8.1 Introduction 207
8.1.1 Biofilms in drinking water systems 207
8.1.2 The problem of pathogen detection 208
8.2 Drinking Water Installations in Buildings vs.
Public Networks 209
8.2.1 Surveillance - the twilight zone 210
8.3 The Role of Materials 212
8.3.1 Biofilm formation of new and aged materials 216
8.4 The Result of Quantification of Bacteria in
Drinking Water and Biofilms Depends upon the
Analytical Method 217
8.4.1 L. pneumophila and P. aeruginosaincorporated into drinking water biofilms as a
potential water contamination source 219
8.4.2 The influence of copper ions 222
8.5 Disinfection :> 226
8.6 Population analysis 227
8.7 Conclusions 229
8.8 Summary 230
8.9 References 232
Chapter 9
Invertebrates in drinking water distribution
systems 239
J. H. M. van Lievehoo, W. Hoogenboezem,G. Veenendaal and D. van der Kooij
9.1 Introduction 239
Contents xi
9.1.1 Invertebrates in drinking water 239
9.1.2 Significance 239
9.2 Ecology 241
9.2.1 Hypotheses 241
9.2.2 Feeding, growth and reproduction 242
9.3 Abundance in Distribution Systems 243
9.3.1 Methods, sampling sites and sampling
programme 243
9.3.2 Abundance in drinking water 245
9.3.3 Abundance in water flushed from mains 247
9.3.4 Variability within and between distribution systems — 248
9.4 Correlations with Biofilm, NOM and Sediments 253
9.4.1 Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR) and natural
organic matter (NOM) 253
9.4.2 Correlation with biostability of finished water 254
9.4.3 Correlation with NOM and sediment 255
9.5 Conclusions 257
9.6 References 258
Chapter 10
Emerging issues of biological stability in drinkingwater distribution systems 261
M. Prevost, M. C. Besner, P. Laurent and P.-Servais
10.1 Introduction 261
10.2 Biodiversity of Biofilms 265
10.2.1 Bacterial abundance 265
10.2.2 Bacterial pathogens and faecal indicators in
drinking water biofilms 268
10.3 Effects of Pipe Material and Corrosion Control 271
10.3.1 Comparison of biofilm support potential 272
10.3.2 Lining, coating, gasket and
lubricant materials 273
10.3.3 Corrosion and the addition of
phosphate-based inhibitors 273
10.4 Operation of the Distribution System 275
10.4.1 Water velocity and pipe biofilms 275
10.4.2 Low water movement and/or stagnation in the
distribution system 275
10.4.3 Sediment accumulation and pipe flushing 276
10.5 Conclusion 277
10.6 References 278
xii Microbial Growth in Drinking-Water Supplies
Chapter 11
Regrowth problems and biological stability
assessment in the Netherlands 291
D. van der Kooij and H. R. Veenendaal
11.1 Introduction 291
11.1.1 Water treatment and distribution
systems 291
11.1.2 NOM and bacteria in treated water 294
11.2 Regrowth 295
11.2.1 Compliance with standards 295
11.2.2 Aeromonads and coliforms 296
11.2.3 Legionella 296
11.2.4 Free-living protozoa (FLP) 298
11.2.5 Other (micro)organisms in
drinking water 300
11.3 Assessment of Regrowth Potential 301
11.3.1 Assimilable organic carbon (AOC) 302
11.3.1.1 Method 302
11.3.1.2 AOC-reduction tests 304
11.3.1.3 Effects of water treatment 305
11.3.1.4 Clogging of filter beds, injection wells
and spiral-wound membranes 308
11.3.2 Biofilm formation rate (BFR) 308
11.3.3 Biomass production potential (BPP) of materials in
contact with drinking water 311
11.4 Improved Methods for Assessing the Microbial
Growth Potential of Water 313
11.4.1 Biomass production potential (BPP) of water 313
11.4.2 Continuous biofouling monitor (CBM) 314
11.4.3 Boiler-biofilm monitor (BBM) 315
11.5 Evaluation 317
11.5.1 Regrowth assessment 317
11.5.2 Biostability assessment 318
11.5.3 Defining biostability 321
11.5.3.1 AOC, BDOC and BFR 321
11.5.3.2 Biological-stability classification 322
11.5.3.3 ATP-based biostabilityassessment (ABBA) 324
11.5.4 Regrowth control 325
11.5.4.1 Treatment 325
11.5.4.2 Distribution 326
11.6 Summary and Conclusions \ 326
Contents xiii
11.6.1 Regrowth 326
11.6.2 Biostability assessment 327
11.7 References 327
Chapter 12
Enhancement of microbial growth by materials in
contact with drinking water: problems and
test methods 339
B. Hambsch, J. Ashworth and D. van der Kooij
12.1 Introduction 339
12.2 Microbial Water Quality Problems 340
12.2.1 Microbial growth 340
12.2.2 Problems 341
12.3 Test Methods 343
12.3.1 Need for test methods 343
12.3.2 Available test methods 344
12.4 Standardisation of Test Methods in Europe 345
12.4.1 Research related to the European
Acceptance Scheme 345
12.4.2 Optimisation of the BPP test 347
12.4.3 Three standardized test methods 351
12.4.3.1 Mean dissolved oxygen difference
(MDOD, BS 6920) ..' 351
12.4.3.2 Biomass volume (DVGW-W270) 352
12.4.3.3 Biomass production potential (BPP)based on ATP 353
12.4.4 Comparison of test characteristics 354
12.4.5 Comparison of test results 355
12.4.6 Further developments related to
standardization in Europe 356
12.5 Conclusions 357
12.6 References 358
Chapter 13
Biological filtration for diverse applications:towards the development of a unified
conceptual design approach 363
P. M. Huck, B. K. Siembida-Losch and M. M. Sozahski
13.1 Introduction 363
13.2 Background 365
xiv Microbial Growth in Drinking-Water Supplies
13.2.1 Factors affecting the performance of
biofiltration 365
13.2.2 Review of modelling approaches 368
13.3 Development of a Unifying Parameter - Dimensionless
Contact Time (X*) 374
13.4 Further Development of the X* Parameter 377
13.4.1 Simplification of X* 377
13.4.2 Secondary utilization
(trace contaminant removal) 379
13.4.3 Biofiltration as membrane pre-treatment 380
13.4.3.1 Organic matter and fouling 380
13.4.3.2 Biofouling 381
13.4.3.3 Microbial product material 382
13.4.3.4 Effectiveness of biofiltration as a
membrane pre-treatment 383
13.4.3.5 Net production of biomass 384
13.4.3.6 Net generation of dissolved microbial
product material 387
13.5 Definition of a New Performance Parameter:
the Biofiltration Factor (BF) 388
13.6 Summary 390
13.7 References 393i\
Chapter 14
Optimization of design and operation of
distribution systems to preserve water qualityand maintain customer satisfaction 401
J. H. G. Vreeburg14.1 Introduction 401
14.2 Role of the Residual Disinfectant 402
14.3 Processes in the Network 403
14.3.1 Introduction 403
14.3.2 Cause and nature of discolouration 403
14.3.3 Biological regrowth and sediments 405
14.3.4 Experimental verification of biofilm on
sediments 405
14.3.5 Discussion 408
14.4 Managing Particles in the Distribution Network:
A 3-Stage Approach 408
14.4.1 Introduction 408
14.4.2 First stage: control of input jv 409
Contents xv
14.4.3 Second stage: control of hydraulics 410
14.4.4 Third stage: control of sediment layer
by cleaning 412
14.4.4.1 Introduction 412
14.4.4.2 Minimum velocity 413
14.4.4.3 Flushed volume 415
14.4.4.4 Clear-waterfront 416
14.5 Managing Network Integrity/Total QualityAwareness 417
14.5.1 Introduction 417
14.5.2 Total quality awareness 417
14.6 Discussion 418
14.7 References 419
Chapter 15
Research needs 423
D. van der Kooij and P. W. J. J. van der Wielen
15.1 Introduction 423
15.1.1 Ranking of regrowth problems 424
15.2 Opportunistic Pathogens 425
15.2.1 Identity and priority 425
15.2.2 Detection 425
15.2.3 Surveys 427
15.2.4 Public-health significance 428
15.2.5 Control measures 429
15.3 Other Regrowth Problems 429
15.3.1 Coliforms and aeromonads 429
15.3.2 Organisms involved in taste and odour
problems 430
15.3.3 Invertebrates 431
15.3.4 Technical problems 432
15.3.5 Schematic overview 432
15.4 Assessment of Regrowth 434
15.4.1 Biomass 434
15.4.2 Detection of microorganisms with specificphysiological properties 435
15.5 Microbial-Growth Potential 435
15.5.1 Driving force for regrowth 435
15.5.2 Assessment of the microbial-growthpotential of water 436
15.5.3 Biofilms and sediments 436
xvi Microbial Growth in Drinking-Water Supplies
15.5.4 Enhancement of microbial growth bymaterials in contact with drinking water 437
15.5.5 Guideline values 437
15.5.6 Overview 437
15.6 Effects of Water Treatment on the
Microbial-Growth Potential 439
15.6.1 Developments in drinking water treatment 439
15.6.2 Removal of biodegradable compoundsand biomass 439
15.7 Effect of Distribution on Biomass Accumulation 440
15.7.1 Developments in water distribution 440
15.7.2 Impact of distribution system conditions 440
15.7.2.1 Hydraulics and residence time 440
15.7.2.2 Disinfectant residual 441
15.7.3 Potable-water installations 441
15.8 Costs and Benefits 442
15.9 References 442
Index 445
